Maternal Depression and Youth Internalizing and Externalizing Symptomatology: Severity and Chronicity of Past Maternal Depression and Current Maternal Depressive Symptoms

Relationship between parents' anxiety, stress, depression and their children's health-related quality of life and psychological well-being during the COVID-19 outbreak in Iran

BACKGROUND

In late 2019, a new respiratory illness was detected in Wuhan, China and was later designated as COVID-19 by the WHO. Despite international efforts to impose restrictions and quarantine measures, the virus spreads rapidly across the globe. The pandemic has significantly impacted the mental health of both children and parents. This study investigates the relationship between parents' anxiety, stress and depression, and Children's Health-Related Quality of Life (CHQol) and externalised behavioural disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study that included 396 parents who have children between the ages of 6 and 18 years old. Sampling was done by designing an online questionnaire that was distributed on social media (WhatsApp and Telegram and native social media, such as Eitaa, Soroush and E-Gap). Inclusion criteria were all citizens living in rural and urban areas of Rafsanjan, citizens living in Rafsanjan city for 1 year and having children aged 6-18 years old. We used a demographic information questionnaire, Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-21, CHQol and Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment to collect data.

RESULTS

We found a positive significant correlation between anxiety (r=0.334), stress (r=0.354), depression (r=0.324) and externalised behavioural disorder (p<0.001). Depression and anxiety predicted 22% of the variance of the CHQol (p<0.001) while age, stress, use of masks and gloves to prevent infection, and anxiety predicted 19% of the variance of externalised behavioural disorder (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Parents experienced high levels of symptoms of anxiety, stress and depression during the COVID-19 outbreak, which can be associated with behavioural disorders in their children and negatively impact their health. Therefore, it is crucial to pay more attention to the mental state of parents and its complications for children.

Contextual factors of child behavioral health across developmental stages

This study examines the relative influence of environmental contexts (family, school, neighborhood) on child behavioral health at ages 3, 5, 9, and 15 years. Path analysis was conducted on a sample of 4,898 urban children from a longitudinal dataset called the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Child physical abuse, emotional abuse, maternal depression, substance use, neighborhood social cohesion, neighborhood poverty, school connectedness, and peer bullying had concurrent relationships with child behavior problems at one or more developmental stages. Early childhood abuse (age 3) and school age environmental contexts (age 9) had lasting effects on later behavior problems. Findings underscore the importance of both multilevel contextual factors and developmental timing in determining behavioral health outcomes in children.

Developmental trajectories of internalizing distress among ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth: Associations with early child psychological adjustment

A substantial body of work has established that mothers' internalizing distress can negatively affect children's socioemotional development. Yet few studies have examined how distinct patterns of mothers' distress over time differentially impact child behaviors across early childhood. To address this gap, the current study explored developmental trajectories of mothers' internalizing distress and examined the associations of these patterns with child adjustment outcomes. Mexican immigrant, Dominican immigrant, and African American mothers (N = 272) were annually assessed for internalizing distress over the first 6 years following childbirth. Children's psychological adjustment (internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors) was measured at the last yearly assessment in first grade. A growth mixture model revealed two distinct classes of distress where mothers were classified as having low stable distress (82.4%) or moderate distress that began as stable then declined when their children were 64 months old (17.6%). Children of mothers in the moderate, late decline class showed greater internalizing, externalizing, and hyperactivity behaviors in the first grade compared to children of mothers in the low stable class. Findings highlight the necessity of supporting the mental health of ethnic minoritized mothers following childbirth and further expand our knowledge of family psychopathology to promote healthy psychological adjustment in children.

Characteristics of maternal depression and children's functioning: A meta-analytic review

Maternal depression is associated with cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems in offspring, but the substantial heterogeneity of depression precludes a full understanding of these associations. Variation in course of depression, characterized by severity or chronicity, may be related differentially to children's development. The current meta-analytic review examined the relations of these characteristics of maternal depression to children's developmental outcomes. Twenty-nine studies were identified and reviewed; the majority (93%) of studies reported a negative association between some aspect of maternal depression and children's adjustment. Separate meta-analyses revealed significant effect sizes for severity (Fisher's z = -.243) and chronicity (adjusted Fisher's z = -.337) of maternal depression and children's cognitive or behavioral functioning. Findings are synthesized across features of maternal depression; methodological limitations within the empirical literature are discussed; and recommendations for future research are suggested. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Pathways to Adolescent Emotional and Behavioral Problems: An Examination of Maternal Depression and Harsh Parenting

BACKGROUND

Maternal depression is linked with a range of child and adolescent outcomes. Prior research suggests adverse consequences for child and youth development, but less is known about the role of adverse parenting in the pathways from maternal depression to adolescent emotional and behavioral problems.

OBJECTIVE

The present study leveraged a large, longitudinal survey of families across the U.S. to investigate whether harsh parenting mediated the links between maternal depression and adolescent delinquency and depression.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data came from a national longitudinal survey of families with children born in large U.S. cities 1998-2000 in which mothers had at least partial custody of children (N = 2,719).

METHODS

Structural equation modeling with latent variables estimated a measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis and a structural model testing direct and indirect pathways.

RESULTS

Maternal depression was directly associated with both physical and psychological aggression in parenting (β = 0.08, p < 0.001 and β = 0.12, p < 0.001, respectively), and psychological aggression related directly with adolescent delinquency (β = 0.24, p < 0.01). Furthermore, maternal depression was indirectly associated with adolescent delinquency via psychological aggression in parenting (β = 0.03, p < 0.05). Physical aggression in parenting did not mediate links between maternal depression and either adolescent outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings provide insights into the parent-level drivers of adolescent emotional and behavioral outcomes. Screening for maternal depression and providing parenting support to vulnerable families offers promise for preventing adverse parenting and supporting healthy adolescent development.

Does Stress Mediate the Relation between Caregivers' Victimization and Child Behavioral Outcomes? A Prospective Examination

Children with internalizing and externalizing difficulties are at risk for long-term negative effects in adulthood and are impacted by several caregiver factors. Findings of the present study are consistent with previous studies that found direct associations between caregiver victimization history (e.g., physical and sexual abuse) and child behavior problems. Examination of potential mechanisms revealed that caregiver everyday stress related to relationships/responsibilities (RR) served as a mediator between caregiver victimization history and increased children's internalizing symptoms. Though there may be other pathways that contribute to this relation, there does seem to be clinical and policy utility of this knowledge, particularly for at-risk families that are faced with high levels of everyday RR stress. Attenuation of this impact may be accomplished through connection to community resources such as access to family counseling to mitigate relational stress and policy addressing disparities.

The stable component of maternal depressive symptoms predicts offspring emotional and behavioral symptoms: a 9-years longitudinal study

Background

Maternal sub-threshold and non-clinical depression and its possible outcomes on offspring internalizing/externalizing symptoms has received growing attention in recent years because of its significant worldwide prevalence.

Methods

Through a Latent State-Trait Analysis approach (LST), this longitudinal study aimed to identify a stable component of non-clinical maternal depression across a temporal interval of 6 years (measured through the Symptom Check-List-90/R) and to determine the effect of this component on children’s emotional and behavioral functioning (measured through the Child Behaviour Check-List) at age 12 years.

Results

LST analysis showed that maternal depressive symptoms tended to remain stable within individuals across 6 years of observation strongly contributing to children’s internalizing/externalizing and dysregulation symptoms.

Conclusions

The current longitudinal analysis of maternal and child data revealed that a stable component of maternal depressive symptoms reliably predicted a wide range of child emotional and behavioral symptoms at 12 years of age.

Behavioral problems and their relationship to maternal depression, marital relationships, social skills and parenting

Behavioral problems have been associated with multiple variables; however, studies simultaneously investigating parenting practices, marital relationships in bi-parental families, maternal depression, and child behavior remain a gap in the literature. The objective was to verify associations between positive and negative parenting practices, marital relationships, social skills, and behavioral problems among children from bi-parental families with and those without maternal depression; to identify the predictive effect of positive and negative parenting practices, marital relationships, children’s social skills, and maternal depression, for internalizing, externalizing behavior problems and internalizing and externalizing comorbidities. A case-control study with a cross-sectional design was adopted to ensure the groups were homogeneous in regard to the children’s, mothers’, and families’ sociodemographic characteristics. A total of 35 mothers currently with depression and 35 without depression indicators participated in the study, while the children were 25 preschoolers and 23 school-aged children. The mothers responded to instruments addressing depression, child behavior, parenting practices, and marital relationships. The results reveal maternal depression associated with marital relationships, positive parenting, and context variables. Maternal depression and marital relationship were found to influence externalizing problems; maternal depression, child-rearing practices, marital relationships, and the children’s behavioral repertoires influence internalizing and externalizing comorbidities; and none of the independent variables influenced the occurrence of internalizing problems.

Children's self-blame appraisals about their mothers' depressive symptoms and risk for internalizing symptoms

Maternal depressive symptoms are a robust predictor of children's risk for internalizing symptoms, yet not all children are negatively affected by exposure to their mothers' symptoms. The present study tested children's self-blame appraisals as a moderator of the association between maternal depressive symptoms and children's internalizing symptoms, controlling for children's negative attributional style. We hypothesized that the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and children's internalizing symptoms would be stronger for children who blamed themselves more for their mothers' symptoms. Participants were 129 mother-child dyads (M child age = 13.63, SD = 2.2; 52.7% female; 38.8% White, 31% African American, 22.5% Latinx/Hispanic) recruited from the community. Results indicated that maternal depressive symptoms were associated with higher levels of children's internalizing symptoms for children who reported higher, but not lower, levels of self-blame appraisals. Results were consistent using mothers' or children's reports of their own and each other's symptoms. The findings highlight the importance of assessing children's appraisals about their mothers' depressive symptoms, and suggest that preventive interventions should target children who endorse higher levels of self-blame appraisals. Furthermore, children's self-blame appraisals about mothers' depressive symptoms should be considered as a target of treatment for child internalizing disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Intergenerational Transmission of Depression

The study of depression in mothers in relation to transmission of risk for the development of psychopathology in their children relies on solid foundations in the understanding of psychopathology, of development, and of developmental psychopathology per se. This article begins with a description of the scope of the problem, including a summary of knowledge of how mothers’ depression is associated with outcomes in children and of moderators of those associations. The sense of scope then informs a theoretical and empirical perspective on knowledge of mechanisms in those associations, with a focus on what has been learned in the past 20 years. Throughout the article, and in conclusions at the end, are suggestions for next steps in research and practice.

Perceived Paternal Involvement, Relationship Satisfaction, Mothers' Mental Health and Parenting Stress: A Multi-Sample Path Analysis

Research has demonstrated the short- and long-term impacts of maternal mental health and well-being on children's emotional and behavioral outcomes. It is thus important to better understand the antecedents of maternal depression and stress. The aim of this study was to determine whether the contribution of perceived paternal involvement to account for mothers' depression and parental stress was mediated by relationship factors such as parenting alliance and dyadic adjustment. A second aim was to determine whether these relationships hold equally true in mothers of infants and young toddlers (0-24 months) and mothers of older children (25 months and older). Cross-sectional data were collected from 447 mothers. Mothers reported on their perceptions of paternal involvement with childcare responsibilities, dyadic adjustment, parenting alliance, parenting stress, and depression. Multi-sample path modeling analyses were conducted. Results revealed that perceived paternal involvement was positively related to both dyadic adjustment and parental alliance, that parenting alliance was negatively related to all three subscales of parenting stress and mothers' depression but that dyadic adjustment was negatively related to parenting distress (one subscale of parenting stress) and mothers' depression. Results from the multi-sample analyses indicated that the pattern of relationships was the same in the two groups, but that the model was not invariant. The most notable difference was that parenting alliance did not significantly account for depression in the mothers of younger children. Correlates of maternal mental health and well-being identified in this study could be useful when designing psychological interventions for mothers and fathers.

Antenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms: Association with quality of mother-infant interaction

Antenatal and postnatal depression are independently associated with an increased risk of adverse infant development. A key linking mechanism is the quality of mother-infant interaction.

OBJECTIVES

This study assesses the association between postnatal depressive symptoms (PDS) and their severity, with the quality of mother-infant interaction and compare the quality of mother-infant interaction and severity of the symptoms depending on the presence or absence of antenatal depressive symptoms (ADS).

METHODS

observational study in 177 psychosocial risk mother-infant dyads from Chile (infant aged 2-12 months).

RESULTS

Mothers with PDS had lower maternal sensitivity and a more intrusive/controlling style than mothers without PDS, although the severity of the symptoms was not associated with lower maternal sensitivity. Maternal sensitivity did not differ in the postnatal depressed mothers depending on the presence of ADS, although the mothers differed in interaction style and the severity of symptoms. Mothers with ADS and PDS presented with a predominant intrusive/controlling interaction style and more severe depressive symptoms, whereas those with only PDS presented with a predominant nonresponsive/passive interaction style and reduced severity of symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results corroborate the need to offer treatment and dyadic interventions to antenatal and postnatal depressive mothers and postulate that the presence of antenatal depressive symptoms may influence the subsequent mother-infant interaction style and greater severity of symptoms.

Coping and Stress Reactivity as Moderators of Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Youth's Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms

Youth's responses to stress are a central feature of risk and resilience across development. The current study examined whether youth coping and stress reactivity moderate the association of current maternal depressive symptoms with youth's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Mothers (M_age = 41.58, SD = 6.18) with a wide range of depressive symptoms and their children ages 9-15 (M_age = 12.25, SD = 1.89, 45.3% girls) completed measures of youth symptoms and coping and automatic responses to stress. Mothers also completed a self-report measure of depressive symptoms. Youth's primary and secondary control coping, stress reactivity, and involuntary disengagement moderated the association between current maternal depressive symptoms and youth symptoms. Maternal depressive symptoms were associated with youth's internalizing and externalizing symptoms when youth used low as opposed to high levels of primary and secondary control coping. Conversely, maternal depressive symptoms were associated with youth symptoms for youth with high levels of stress reactivity and involuntary disengagement. The findings suggest interventions focused on improving the use of primary and secondary control coping skills and reducing reactivity and involuntary disengagement to stress may benefit youth with mothers who are experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms.

Emotional and behavioral problems in children of depressed mothers: a school-based study in Southern Brazil

The present study aimed to verify the association between maternal depression and emotional and behavioral problems in school children in Pelotas, Southern Brazil, considering that maternal depression increases children's vulnerability for developing psychiatric disorders. This is a cross-sectional study with a school-based sample conducted between August 2015 and November 2016 and it is part of a major project entitled 'Healthy Childhood in Context: A Multidisciplinary Investigation'. Schoolchildren aged between 7 and 8 years and one of their respective parents or a primary caregiver were included in the study. Maternal depression was assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). The presence of emotional and behavioral problems in children was verified by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) - parents version. Children of depressed mothers exhibited higher mean scores in all SDQ domains and in the total score when compared to children of non-depressed mothers. Lower socio-economic status was also associated with higher SDQ scores. Our results showed the effects of both maternal depression and poverty on children emotional and behavioral problems, which evidence the need for child mental health preventive care, and free quality assistance for both mothers and their children.