Internet gambling among high school students in Hong Kong

A Comparative Profile of Online, Offline, and Mixed-Mode Problematic Gamblers' Gambling Involvement, Motives, and HEXACO Personality Traits

Few studies have compared gamblers who play in exclusively online (i.e., Internet-based), exclusively offline (i.e., land-based), and mixed-mode contexts. In studies that have compared these groups, mixed-mode gamblers have consistently exhibited the greatest susceptibility to problematic gambling. In order to expand the scope of previous research that has compared gamblers based on their preferred mode of play, and to improve understanding of mixed-mode gamblers' proneness to problematic gambling, a sample of gamblers who play in exclusively online, exclusively offline, and mixed-mode contexts were compared on indices of gambling involvement, motives, and personality traits. Results indicated that mixed-mode gamblers played a wider range of games, and reported higher problematic gambling severity scores, higher scores on enhancement and social gambling motive scales, and lower and higher honesty-humility and extraversion personality scores, respectively. Associations between gambling motives and personality traits are discussed in relation to the role that these characteristics might play in mixed-mode gamblers' increased risk of gambling-related harm.

Online Gambling Patterns and Predictors of Problem Gambling Among Korean Adolescents During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-sectional Study

PURPOSE

This study examined online gambling patterns among Korean adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic and identified predictors of problem gambling based on a socio-ecological model.

METHODS

It used nationally representative data from the 2020 National Survey on Youth Gambling Problems conducted by the Korea Center on Gambling Problems. This study selected a sample of 780 adolescents aged 13-18 years who reported having gambled online at least once in the last three months from the raw data of respondents. They were classified as the non-problem group and problem group according to the Gambling Problems Severity Scale (GPSS) of the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory (CAGI). The predictive factors of problem gambling were analyzed by logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The prevalence of problem gambling was 24.6 %. Its predictors included intrapersonal [male (odds ratios, OR = 1.67); gambling prior to COVID-19 (OR = 2.08)] and interpersonal factors [frequent gamblers in peers (OR = 4.34); peer pressure (OR = 2.34)]. Social factors, such as gambling in online community (OR = 5.60), sports betting (OR = 53.24), and lotteries (OR = 17.03) were associated with problem gambling.

CONCLUSIONS

The major predictors of problem gambling among adolescent online gamblers included peer gambling and specific types of gambling. To prevent problem gambling, strategies targeting peer groups are essential. In addition, nurses need to share with families, schools, communities, and policymakers that online gambling, such as lotteries and sports betting, are high-risk of adolescent problem gambling, and recommend them to collaborate for stricter regulatory measures.

Annual Research Review: Emergence of problem gambling from childhood to emerging adulthood: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The risk for problematic gambling and associated high-risk behaviors is elevated during adolescence and emerging adulthood. Activities with gambling-like features and novel forms of gambling may place youth at an increased risk for problem gambling.

AIM AND METHOD

The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the association between both activities with gambling-like features and novel gambling activities and problem gambling among youth while examining the role of psychopathology and cognitive processes. Six databases (PsychINFO, MEDLINE, PubMed, Social Work Abstracts, Technology Collection, and Scopus) were searched in November 2021 for peer-reviewed articles investigating the association between the aforementioned variables among youth up to the age of 25 years. Risk of bias was assessed using the Observational Study Quality Evaluation.

FINDINGS

Forty-five articles were included in the review. Positive associations were observed between engagement in activities with gambling-like features (e.g., video games, social casino games, loot boxes) and problem gambling. Increased involvement with novel forms of gambling (e.g., online sports betting, fantasy sports, and esports betting) were also associated with a greater risk for problematic gambling. Males reported higher rates of engagement in these activities and a greater risk of problem gambling than females. Impulsivity, risk taking, cognitive distortions, and specific emotional vulnerabilities were associated with an increased risk of problem gambling.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the need for additional longitudinal research controlling for relevant confounders, these findings underline how engagement in activities with gambling-like features are relevant in the developmental trajectory toward problem gambling.

Psychometric Properties of the South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised for Adolescents in Chinese Adolescent Gamblers

Objectives: Adolescent gambling is a public health concern of increasing importance. The lack of comprehensive evaluations on adolescent gambling disorder (GD) assessment tools hinders the timely detection of Chinese adolescents with gambling problems. This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA) and determine its optimal screening cutoff score among Chinese adolescent gamblers to address this gap.

Methods: We surveyed 1407 Chinese secondary school students aged 11–19 years in Macao, China, among which 258 past-year gamblers’ data was used for assessing SOGS-RA’s performance in detecting risk for adolescent GD.

Results: SOGS-RA displayed satisfactory reliability and validity for assessing probable GD among Chinese adolescent gamblers. Under the DSM-5 GD framework, we proposed ≥4 as SOGS-RA’s optimal cutoff score of screening for probable GD and further identified 5.8% of past-year gamblers prone to probable GD in the present study.

Conclusion: SOGS-RA can provide a reliable and valid assessment of adolescent’ GD risk in the Chinese context, facilitate early identification of probable GD cases, and alleviate the public health concern for Chinese adolescents.

Parental Acceptance/Rejection Perceptions and Attachment Styles of Men With Online Gambling Disorder

Online gambling disorder has recently emerged as a significant public health issue. Family dynamics play an important role in the development of online gambling disorder. In this research, the aimed to compare the parental acceptance/rejection and attachment styles of individuals with online gambling disorder with a healthy control group. Also, the relationship between parental acceptance/rejection and attachment styles was examined in individuals with online gambling disorder. The study group consisted of 53 male patients with online gambling disorder and 57 healthy controls. The individuals with online gambling disorder perceived more rejection from mothers but especially from fathers than the individuals in the control group. Paternal hostility/aggression and indifference/neglect are determinants of online gambling behavior. The individuals with online gambling disorder had lower levels of secure attachment and higher levels of dismissive and fearful attachment than the individuals in the control group. Both secure attachment style and dismissive attachment style are thought to be determinants of gambling behavior. Mother-father rejection and insecure attachment are important in terms of creating risk for online gambling. Assessment of the effects of maternal and especially paternal rejection in online gambling disorder will be beneficial within the scope of preventive mental health.

Relationships Among Extreme Sports Participation, Sensation Seeking, and Negative Risky Behaviors of Middle-School Students

Objective: The aim was to investigate the relationships among extreme sports participation, sensation seeking, and negative risky behaviors (smoking, drinking alcohol, and gambling) for middle-school students. Methods: Using a convenience sampling procedure, all students from a middle school in a district of Chongqing were selected to participate in the survey, which included questions on their extreme sports participation rate, and smoking, drinking alcohol, and gambling behavior. Results: A sample of 2,987 middle-school students participated in this study. The results showed that the proportions of students participating in extreme sports, smoking, drinking alcohol, and gambling were 19.9, 4.8, 18.4, and 3.0%, respectively. There were significant differences between different genders, schools, place of residence, smoking, drinking, gambling, and sensation seeking of the participation rate of students of extreme sports, the rate of boys, junior middle-school students, urban students, smokers, alcohol drinkers, gamblers, and high-sensation-seeking students were relatively higher than that of girls, senior middle-school students, rural students, no-smokers, no-alcohol drinkers, no-gamblers, and low-sensation-seeking students. Alcohol drinking, gambling, and sensation seeking were associated with extreme sports participation, and the students who drank alcohol, who gambled, and who were high sensation seeking were more likely to participate in extreme sports than those who did not drink alcohol, who did not gamble, and who were low sensation seeking. Conclusion: Middle schools should integrate extreme sports education into physical education and risky-behavior education, strengthen relevant knowledge and safety training, and guide students to meet their sensation-seeking needs through participation in extreme sports instead of risky behaviors.

Changes Over Time and Predictors of Online Gambling in Three Norwegian Population Studies 2013-2019

Objectives: To investigate changes over time and identify predictors of online gambling among gamblers by using three Norwegian representative samples covering a 6-year (2013-2019) period. We also aimed to identify different characteristics (including video game participation and video gaming problems) of online compared to offline gamblers. Methods: Data from gamblers (N = 15,096) participating in three cross-sectional surveys (2013, 2015, and 2019) based on random sampling from the Norwegian Population Registry were analyzed. Participants were asked how frequently they engaged in online gambling on different platforms (e.g., mobile phone). Data on sociodemographics, games gambled, gambling problems, gaming, and problem gaming were collected and analyzed by logistic regression analyses. Results: Overall, an increase in online gambling from 2013 to 2015 was found (a larger percentage of gamblers reported having gambled online at least once during the last year), and an increase in online gambling from 2015 to 2019 was found (more gamblers reported having gambled online at least once last year and at least once per week). The increase was largest for gambling on mobile phone. Consistent predictors of online gambling (at least once last year and at least once per week) were male gender, high income, being unemployed, being on disability pension, having work assessment allowance, being a homemaker or retiree, number of games gambled, and gambling problems. Conclusions: Online gambling, especially on mobile phones, has increased significantly during the last 6 years in Norway. Hence, gambling availability seems to have grown, which may pose a risk for development of gambling problems. Compared to offline gamblers, online gamblers were more likely to be men, young, not working or studying, gambling on several games, and having gambling problems. Responsible gambling efforts aiming at preventing or minimizing harm related to online gambling should thus target these groups.

A Perspective on Age Restrictions and Other Harm Reduction Approaches Targeting Youth Online Gambling, Considering Convergences of Gambling and Videogaming

Internet gambling has become a popular activity among some youth. Vulnerable youth may be particularly at risk due to limited harm reduction and enforcement measures. This article explores age restrictions and other harm reduction measures relating to youth and young adult online gambling. A systematic rapid review was conducted by searching eight databases. Additional articles on online gambling (e.g., from references) were later included. To place this perspective into context, articles on adult gambling, land-based gambling, and substance use and other problematic behaviors were also considered. Several studies show promising findings for legally restricting youth from gambling in that such restrictions may reduce the amount of youth gambling and gambling-related harms. However, simply labeling an activity as "age-restricted" may not deter youth from gambling; in some instances, it may generate increased appeal for gambling. Therefore, advertising and warning labels should be examined in conjunction with age restrictions. Recommendations for age enforcement strategies, advertising, education, and warning labels are made to help multiple stakeholders including policymakers and public health officials internationally. Age restrictions in online gambling should consider multiple populations including youth and young adults. Prevention and harm reduction in gambling should examine how age-restriction strategies may affect problem gambling and how they may be best enforced across gambling platforms. More research is needed to protect youth with respect to online gambling.

Minors and Online Gambling: Prevalence and Related Variables

Substantial access to the Internet by minors has brought about consequences that are not always positive. The increase of online gambling or betting is one of those. Although in most cases online gambling by minors does not result in a disorder, it does imply a higher probability of developing a gambling disorder in adulthood, and it can cause economic, family, school and social problems. The aim of this study, carried out in the Galician region of Spain with a sample of 3772 students aged between 12 and 17 years, was to estimate the prevalence of online gambling in minors; to characterize the profile of online gamblers; to explore the differences in Internet and smartphone usage habits, online risky practices, problematic Internet use and parental involvement between online gamblers and non-online gamblers; and to analyse the relation between online gambling and academic performance. The results revealed that 6.5% of Galician adolescents are online gamblers, a figure that has more than tripled over seven years. 9 out of 10 online gamblers are male, and their mean age is 15. Online gamblers had significantly higher rates of problematic Internet use, active sexting, cyberbullying, or contacting strangers through the Internet. Furthermore, online gamblers had higher scores on impulsiveness, lower scores on assertiveness, and were lacking parental control. These data show that online gambling is not an isolated problem, so prevention should be understood in a comprehensive manner.

Psychosocial risk factors in disordered gambling: A descriptive systematic overview of vulnerable populations

BACKGROUND

Gambling is a behaviour engaged in by millions of people worldwide; for some, gambling can become a severely maladaptive behaviour, and previous research has identified a wide range of psychosocial risk factors that can be considered important for the development and maintenance of disordered gambling. Although risk factors have been identified, the homogeneity of risk factors across specific groups thought to be vulnerable to disordered gambling is to date, unexplored.

METHODS

To address this, the current review sought to conduct a systematic overview of literature relating to seven vulnerable groups: young people and adolescents, older adults, women, veterans, indigenous peoples, prisoners, and low socio-economic/income groups.

RESULTS

Multiple risk factors associated with disordered gambling were identified; some appeared consistently across most groups, including being male, co-morbid mental and physical health conditions, substance use disorders, accessibility and availability of gambling, form and mode of gambling, and experience of trauma. Further risk factors were identified that were specific to each vulnerable group.

CONCLUSION

Within the general population, certain groups are more vulnerable to disordered gambling. Although some risk factors are consistent across groups, some risk factors appear to be group specific. It is clear that there is no homogenous pathway in to disordered gambling, and that social, developmental, environmental and demographic characteristics can all interact to influence an individual's relationship with gambling.

Gambling involvement and problem gambling correlates among European adolescents: results from the European Network for Addictive Behavior study

PURPOSE

Worldwide, concern has grown over the expansion of gambling among adolescents, who have an increased likelihood of developing risk-taking behaviors. This study aimed to increase knowledge of problem gambling among adolescents in seven European countries and to assess the effect of demographic and lifestyle factors recorded in the European Network for Addictive Behavior survey (https://www.eunetadb.eu).

METHODS

A cross-sectional school-based study (n = 13,284) was conducted in Germany, Greece, Iceland, The Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Spain. Anonymous self-completed questionnaires included socio-demographic data, internet usage characteristics, school achievement, parental control, the Internet Addiction Test, the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents Test and Achenbach's Youth Self-Report.

RESULTS

12.5% of the participants reported last year gambling activities either online or offline. 3.6% of the study participants and 28.1% of gamblers (either online or offline) were at risk or had a gambling problem. The study results showed that a higher proportion of adolescents was either at risk or had a gambling problem among males, in the older age group, when the parental educational level was lower/middle, and in the absence of siblings. Furthermore, being at risk or having a gambling problem was associated with lower age at first use of the internet, lower school grades, using the internet 6-7 days per week, and problematic internet use. At risk or problem gamblers had higher scores on all scales of problem behavior and lower scores (lower competence) on activities and academic performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underline the need for better gambling legislation and suggest the importance of developing social responsibility tools that may help diminish adolescent gambling involvement, with special attention to males.

Public health effects of gambling - debate on a conceptual model

BACKGROUND

Gambling for money is a popular leisure time activity in most countries, which has major social and economic impacts not only affecting the gambler, but his/her significant others, and the society. Gambling impact studies can help researchers and policymakers compare the health and social costs and benefits of different gambling policies and can be used when considering which gambling policies will reduce or increase costs or benefits the most. In a public health approach, the impacts of gambling, negative and positive, are assessed across the entire severity spectrum of the activity. Although some studies have created basic principles for conducting impact studies, a theoretical model is currently lacking. The aim of this debate is to review complementing and contrasting views on the effects of gambling to create a conceptual model, where a public health perspective is applied.

MAIN TEXT

The effects of gambling can be structuralized using a conceptual model, where impacts are divided into negative and positive; costs and benefits. Costs and benefits are categorized into three classes: financial, labor and health, and well-being. These classes manifest in personal, interpersonal, and societal levels. Individual impacts cause effects on a personal level to gamblers themselves. External impacts influence the interpersonal and society/community levels and concern other people. The temporal level refers to the development, severity and scope of the gambling impact. These include general impacts, impacts of problem gambling and long-term impacts of gambling.

CONCLUSIONS

The conceptual model offers a base on which to start building common methodology for assessing the impact of gambling on the society. While measuring monetary impacts is not always straightforward, the main issue is how to measure the social impacts, which are typically ignored in calculations, as are personal and interpersonal impacts. The reviewed empirical work largely concentrated on the costs of gambling, especially costs on the community level. The Model can be used to identify areas where research is scarce. Filling the gaps in knowledge is essential in forming a balanced evidence base on the impacts of gambling. Ideally, this evidence could be the starting point in formulating public policies on gambling.

Youth Gambling in Hong Kong: Prevalence, Psychosocial Correlates, and Prevention

PURPOSE

Youth gambling has long been considered a risk behavior and public health concern. Compared to Western literature, empirical studies on youth gambling in Hong Kong are scarce. The present review paper aims to provide an overall picture about the prevalence rates and psychosocial correlates of Hong Kong young people's gambling behaviors, as well as existing prevention/intervention measures.

METHODS

We searched literature in four major databases (PubMed, Sociological Abstracts, PsycINFO, and Web of Science), government documents and commissioned research reports. A total of 28 published papers on youth gambling in Hong Kong were identified and reviewed.

RESULTS

The results showed that a high percentage of Hong Kong youth involved in gambling activities and the prevalence rate of problem/pathological gambling was comparable to the global findings. Risk factors at individual, family and peer, and environmental levels were identified which provide useful information for the development of prevention strategies targeting youth gambling. While intervention and prevention services are available in Hong Kong, programmes specifically designed for young people are limited.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that there is a need to conduct longitudinal studies based a more representative sample of adolescents in Hong Kong with consistent measures and cut-off criterion.

Factors associated with social casino gaming among adolescents across game types

Background

With the proliferation of social casino games (SCGs) online, which offer the opportunity to gamble without monetary gains and losses, comes a growing concern regarding the effects of these unregulated games on public health, particularly among adolescents. However, given the limited research pertaining to SCG use, little is currently known about the manner in which adolescents engage with this new gambling medium. The present study aims to identify the factors that characterize adolescent social casino gamers, and to determine whether these factors differ by SCG type. Moreover, the study examines the extent to which social casino gaming is associated with monetary gambling and problem gambling in this cohort.

Method

Data were obtained from students in Grades 9 to 12 (n = 10,035) residing in the Canadian provinces of Ontario, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. Participants completed the Youth Gambling Survey (YGS), which is a supplementary instrument administered alongside the Canadian Student Tobacco, Alcohol and Drugs Survey (CSTADS). Logistic regression was used to assess the factors associated with SCG play.

Results

Overall, 12.4% of respondents reported having participated in SCGs in the past three months. Compared to adolescents who did not report playing SCGs, SCG players were typically more likely to participate in monetary gambling activities, and were more prevalently classified as problem gamblers of low-to-moderate severity or high severity. Although profiles of SCG players differed across SCG game types, factors significantly associated with the playing of SCGs were gender, weekly spending money, having friends and parents who gamble, and screen time. It was also shown that current smokers were significantly more likely to participate in simulated slots online relative to adolescents who did not play SCGs.

Conclusion

Significant associations exist between SCG play, monetary gambling, and problem gambling among adolescents. Gambling intervention efforts directed at this population should aim to identify personal and environmental factors associated with social casino gaming, and should be tailored to different types of SCGs.

Gambling disorder in adolescents: prevalence, new developments, and treatment challenges

Research on adolescence gambling over the past twenty years has revealed significant incidence and prevalence rates and highlighted the possible negative effects on an adolescent’s well-being. Several risk and protective factors have also been identified. Over the course of the past few years, technological advances have heralded the advent of new avenues for gambling as well as new opportunities to gamble without any direct monetary exchange. This review article examines those established trends as well as the new issues that we are faced with, in order to accurately portray the current challenges in research, prevention, and treatment.

Do High School Students in India Gamble? A Study of Problem Gambling and Its Correlates

Studies from the West suggest that significant numbers of high school students gamble, despite it being illegal in this age group. To date, there have been no studies on the prevalence of gambling among senior high school and higher secondary school students in India. This study reports point prevalence of gambling and its psychosocial correlates among high school students in the State of Kerala, India. 5043 high school students in the age group 15-19 years, from 73 schools, were selected by cluster random sampling from the district of Ernakulam, Kerala, South India. They completed questionnaires that assessed gambling, substance use, psychological distress, suicidality, and symptoms of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Of a total of 4989 completed questionnaires, 1400 (27.9 %) high school students reported to have ever gambled and 353 (7.1 %) were problem gamblers. Of those who had ever gambled, 25.2 % were problem gamblers. Sports betting (betting on cricket and football) was the most popular form of gambling followed by the lottery. Problem gamblers when compared with non-problem gamblers and non-gamblers were significantly more likely to be male, have academic failures, have higher rates of lifetime alcohol and tobacco use, psychological distress, suicidality, history of sexual abuse and higher ADHD symptom scores. Gambling among adolescents in India deserves greater attention, as one in four students who ever gambled was a problem gambler and because of its association with a range of psychosocial variables.

Gambling Risk Amongst Adolescents: Evidence from a School-Based Survey in the Malaysian Setting

There has been emerging evidence regarding gambling experiences of young people in Asia recently, but to date, none in Malaysia. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of gambling, and to identify individual, familial and high-risk behaviours factors among Malaysian adolescents. A cross-sectional study was conducted over 4 months at randomly selected secondary schools in Seremban in Negeri Sembilan state. A total of 2265 self-administered, anonymous questionnaires were distributed to the students. The students completed the questionnaire consisting of sociodemographic and family background, gambling behaviours, high risk behaviours and mental health questions. Approximately 29.6 % (95 % CI 27.7-31.5) of respondents reported participating in some forms of gambling activities in the previous 12 months. Among these, 3.6 % (95 % CI 2.8-4.3) of them were problem gamblers. Parental gambling was the strongest correlate with adolescent gambling behaviour. Signification association was found between gambling behaviour and gender (being males), but interestingly, not with ethnicity. Adolescents who reported engaging in high risk behaviours (such as smoking, alcohol consumption, involvement in physical fights, illegal vehicular racing) were also more likely to gamble. Gambling is not an uncommon phenomenon amongst Malaysian adolescents. Public awareness campaign, health education to targeted groups, revision of existing laws, and screening at primary care level should be implemented to address the issue of gambling among adolescents. This study also highlights the need to examine the national scope of the problem in Malaysia.

Development, implementation, and evaluation of a multi-addiction prevention program for primary school students in Hong Kong: the B.E.S.T. Teen Program

Based on the evaluation findings of the B.E.S.T. Teen Program which aimed at promoting behavioral, emotional, social, and thinking competencies in primary school students, it is argued in this paper that promotion of psychosocial competence to prevent addiction in primary school students is a promising strategy. A total of 382 Primary 5 (Grade 5) and 297 Primary 6 (Grade 6) students from five primary schools in Hong Kong participated in the program. Different evaluation strategies were adopted to evaluate the program. First, objective outcome evaluation adopting a non-equivalent group pretest–posttest experimental-control group design was conducted to examine change in the students. Second, to gauge students’ perceptions of the program, subjective outcome evaluation was conducted. The evaluation findings basically converged to tentatively suggest that young adolescents benefited from participating in the program. Implications on the development, implementation, and evaluation of addiction prevention programs for teenagers are discussed.