"I'm sorry I did it... but he started it": a comparison of the official and self-reported homicide descriptions of psychopaths and non-psychopaths

Contextual considerations for deception production and detection in forensic interviews

Most deception scholars agree that deception production and deception detection effects often display mixed results across settings. For example, some liars use more emotion than truth-tellers when discussing fake opinions on abortion, but not when communicating fake distress. Similarly, verbal and nonverbal cues are often inconsistent predictors to assist in deception detection, leading to mixed accuracies and detection rates. Why are lie production and detection effects typically inconsistent? In this piece, we argue that aspects of the context are often unconsidered in how lies are produced and detected. Greater theory-building related to contextual constraints of deception are therefore required. We reintroduce and extend the Contextual Organization of Language and Deception (COLD) model, a framework that outlines how psychological dynamics, pragmatic goals, and genre conventions are aspects of the context that moderate the relationship between deception and communication behavior such as language. We extend this foundation by proposing three additional aspects of the context - individual differences, situational opportunities for deception, and interpersonal characteristics - for the COLD model that can specifically inform and potentially improve forensic interviewing. We conclude with a forward-looking perspective for deception researchers and practitioners related to the need for more theoretical explication of deception and its detection related to the context.

Psychopathy and Intimate Partner Violence

Several studies found that psychopathy is an important predictor of criminal behavior in general and of intimate partner violence in particular. However, these conclusions are often based on scales with less well-established validity, and some inconsistent results have emerged with regard to the contribution of specific psychopathic facets to intimate partner violence. In a sample of 152 batterers from Portugal aged between 22 and 70 years old, we examined whether Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) total scores and the four facets (scored based on a semistructured interview and on file information) predicted the frequency of intimate partner violence. Two separate linear regression analyses were conducted controlling for criminal variables. PCL-R total scores positively predicted intimate partner violence frequency, above and beyond the criminal variables. As for the four facets, only the PCL-R affective facet held a significant effect in predicting intimate partner violence frequency after controlling for criminal variables. These results support the inclusion of psychopathy in risk assessments and treatment of perpetrators of intimate partner violence, particularly with regard to the affective deficits of the construct.

Sexual Homicide: a Criminological Perspective

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review presents recent findings of research focusing on sexual homicide. Firstly, we examine international comparative studies of victim, offender, and crime characteristics. Secondly, we review an important body of literature that compares developmental and psychological as well as the decision-making process of sexual murderers with other violent offenders. Thirdly, recent and major findings on links between sexual homicide and psychopathy as well as sadism are presented. Fourthly, findings on spatial behavior and factors that can explain it are discussed. Finally, the last section reviews characteristics of sexual homicide involving children and elderly victims.

RECENT FINDINGS

International comparisons suggest that sexual homicide presents more similarities than differences across countries implying that most of knowledge can be generalized and applied to other countries. Comparisons with other types of violent offenders highlight that sexual murderers are a specific type of offenders with particular characteristics (criminal careers, developmental factors, personality disorders, lifestyle characteristics) and crime commission process (modus operandi, spatial behavior). As to the etiological factors of sexual homicide, psychopathy and sadism are important characteristics of sexual murderers leading their criminal life as well as their everyday life. Finally, studies focusing on specific types of vulnerable victims showed a high level of heterogeneity within the population of sexual murderers. Sexual murderers are specific offenders with peculiar characteristics and further research should develop proper knowledge on it. Creation of new international databases allows research to confirm and increase knowledge by considering sexual homicides as a complex heterogenous crime.

What Can We Learn About Psychopathic Offenders by Studying Their Communication? A Review of the Literature

Experts have long warned against psychotherapy with psychopathic offenders out of a fear that they will beguile therapists into believing they have been rehabilitated, only to commit new offenses upon release. Yet the question is not whether to communicate with psychopathic offenders, but rather how to do so in a way which can facilitate real change. In this article, we ask: What can we learn about psychopathic offenders by studying their communication? We review the literature and describe how psychopathy is manifested in communication, how psychopathy can be understood based on this communication, and how therapists may communicate with psychopaths to create change and avoid being fooled. We recommend that therapists do not withdraw from psychopathic offenders but rather study their communication more carefully.

Detecting memory performance validity with DETECTS: A computerized performance validity test

Evaluating performance validity is essential in neuropsychological and forensic assessments. Nonetheless, most psychological assessment tests are unable to detect performance validity and other methods must be used for this purpose. A new Performance Validity Test (DETECTS - Memory Performance Validity Test) was developed with several characteristics that enhance test utility. Moreover, precise response time measurement was added to DETECTS. Two groups of participants (normative and simulator group) completed DETECTS and three memory tests from the Wechsler Memory Scale III. Simulators achieved considerably lower scores (hits) and higher response times in DETECTS compared with the normative group. All participants in the normative group were classified correctly and no simulator was classified as having legitimate memory deficits. Thus, DETECTS seems to be a valuable computerized Performance Validity Test with reduced application time and effective cut-off scores as well as high sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive power values. Lastly, response time may be a very useful measure for detecting memory malingering.

The Development of Severe and Chronic Violence Among Youth: The Role of Psychopathic Traits and Reward Processing

Psychopathic traits are a manifestation of a personality pathology that comprises a core affective-interpersonal dysfunction (callous-unemotional traits) and an impulsive-antisocial behavioral component. Of particular importance, psychopathic traits are associated with the perpetration of some of the most severe acts of violence, and they appear to indicate a subset of youth at risk for earlier onset, greater frequency, and persistence of violent offending. Although these youth represent a minority of the population, they commit a significant proportion of the violence in the general community. In our review, we highlight evidence of a unique neurobiological predisposition that underlies the core affective deficits and describe contemporary accounts for the developmental processes leading to the antisocial behavior associated with psychopathy. Current evidence suggests that, for this subset of youth, the structure and function of neural circuitry supporting emotion processing, reward learning, decision making, and the development of emotion related to empathy may be crucial to understanding why they are at risk for violence. In particular, a reward dominant pattern of neurobehavioral conditioning may explain how these youth progress to some of the most severe and persistent forms of violence. However, this pattern of conditioning may also be essential to the primary prevention of such deleterious behavior. We suspect that effective strategies to prevent such violence may ultimately be informed by understanding these affective and motivational mechanisms.

A new legal treatment for psychopaths? Perplexities for legal thinkers

Public perception, fueled not only by popular and news media but also by expert claims that psychopaths are archetypes of evil: incorrigible, remorseless, cold-blooded criminals, whose crimes manifest in the most extreme levels of violence. But is there empirical evidence that psychopaths truly are what they are portrayed to be? If so, should the law respond, and adjust its treatment of psychopaths in court - permitting psychopathy to be admitted under an insanity defense and/or resulting in mitigation? In this paper, we demonstrate that fundamental questions from the law to science remain unanswered and must be addressed before any alternative treatment of psychopathy can be considered. As it stands, psychopaths cannot be reliably defined or diagnosed and, as we will demonstrate, even the presumed link with criminal dangerousness is problematic. We conclude that the current legal approach should not be modified, however, if preliminary findings regarding impairments in impulsivity/self-control are confirmed, some, but not all individuals who fall under one definition of psychopathy may merit different treatment in future.

Moral Disengagement and Psychopathy: A Study on Offenders in Italian Jails

This article investigates mechanisms of moral disengagement and psychopathy in offender detainees (sex offenders and non-sex offenders). In particular, this article investigates whether, in all offenders, moral disengagement and psychopathy are correlated, if there are any differences between sex offenders and non-sex offenders as to psychopathy, and if there are any differences between rapists and child molesters in regard to their levels of psychopathy. The results indicate that, in all offenders, levels of moral disengagement are associated with levels of psychopathy, while sex offenders are more selfish, more insensitive and less remorseful than non-sex offenders. It is also found that rapists display more antisocial behaviour problematic elements in their lifestyle than child molesters. As well as increasing the dedicated literature, studying the mechanisms and characteristics of offenders - and of sex offenders in particular - may be of considerable importance for the promotion of effective and targeted treatment strategies.

Antisocial features and "faking bad": A critical note

We critically review the literature on antisocial personality features and symptom fabrication (i.e., faking bad; e.g., malingering). A widespread assumption is that these constructs are intimately related. Some studies have, indeed, found that antisocial individuals score higher on instruments detecting faking bad, but others have been unable to replicate this pattern. In addition, studies exploring whether antisocial individuals are especially talented in faking bad have generally come up with null results. The notion of an intrinsic link between antisocial features and faking bad is difficult to test and research in this domain is sensitive to selection bias. We argue that research on faking bad would profit from further theoretical articulation. One topic that deserves scrutiny is how antisocial features affect the cognitive dissonance typically induced by faking bad. We illustrate our points with preliminary data and discuss their implications.

The construct of psychopathy in a Chilean prison population

OBJECTIVE

To test the four-factor model of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist - Revised (PCL-R) empirical construct of psychopathy in a Chilean prison population by using instruments that supply different types of data.

METHODS

Two hundred and nine male inmates of the Prison of Los Andes, Chile, were evaluated. Confirmatory factor analysis was carried out with the PCL-R and the Self-Report of Psychopathy - III - Short Form (SRP-III-SF).

RESULTS

The distributions of total PCL-R and SRP-III-SF scores were normal (Kolmorogov-Smirnov [K-S] = 1.04, p = 0.230; K-S = 0.812, p = 0.525, respectively), with means of 20.9 ± 6.8 for the former and 61.6 ± 15.2 for the latter. Model fit was good for the PCL-R (Tucker Lewis index [TLI] = 0.96; root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.04) and for the SRP-SF (TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained with the PCL-R and the SRP-SF showed adequate fit to the empirical four-factor model of psychopathy and support this model. As foreseeable, fit was better for the PCL-R, which combines several sources of information.

Examining ethnic differences in self-reported psychopathic traits among Portuguese male juvenile offenders

The aim of the present study was to analyze differences regarding psychopathic traits and related constructs in male youths of diverse ethnic backgrounds. The participants were 216 male youths from the Juvenile Detention Centers of the Portuguese Ministry of Justice (White Europeans group: n = 108; ethnic minorities group: n = 108). Psychopathy was measured by the Antisocial Process Screening Device and the Child and Adolescent Taxon Scale. The results showed that no differences were found between ethnic groups regarding psychopathic traits and psychopathy taxon. Independent of ethnic group membership, psychopathic trait scores were significantly associated with behavioral problems, conduct disorder, self-reported delinquency, seriousness of criminal activity, age of criminal activity onset, and age at first trouble with the law. The present study adds support to the literature regarding youth psychopathic traits and supports the psychopathy construct as universally and interculturally consistent.

Psychological and behavioral adjustment in female youths with high or low psychopathic traits

The aim of the present study was to analyze the role of psychopathic traits in female juvenile delinquency. Using a sample of 236 young females from the Juvenile Detention Centers of the Portuguese Ministry of Justice and schools in the Lisbon area, a group of female youths with high psychopathic traits (n=118; M=15.84 years of age; range=14-18 years of age) and a group of female youths with low psychopathic traits (n=118; M=15.77 years of age; range=14-18 years of age) were formed based on the Portuguese version of the Antisocial Process Screening Device-Self-report (APSD-SR). The results showed that young females with high psychopathic traits start engaging in criminal activities and come into contact with the justice system earlier in life; exhibit higher levels of behavioral problems, conduct disorder, delinquent behaviors and serious criminality; and demonstrate lower levels of self-esteem and pro-social behavior. The importance of some variables in predicting group membership (high versus low psychopathic traits) was established through a binary logistic regression. Our findings reinforce the importance of the psychopathy construct for the early identification of potentially high-risk female youths and for the assessment of female youths who have already come into contact with the judicial system.

Violent female youth: an examination of instrumental violence, psychopathy, and offense characteristics

Female youth are a strikingly under-studied population within the accumulated forensic literature, yet they represent a significant and growing population within forensic contexts. Despite research demonstrating a relationship between the presence of psychopathic traits and instrumental violence among adult offenders, researchers have only recently begun to examine this relationship among juvenile offenders. Our investigation of this potential relationship among a large sample of female offenders (N = 145) who had committed a violent offense revealed that youths with more psychopathic traits were not significantly more likely to use instrumental violence in the commission of their crimes than those with less psychopathic traits. The findings are discussed in terms of offense severity, and a comprehensive overview of female youths' specific motivations and offense characteristics are provided. Research directions and clinical implications are discussed.

Psychopathy and internalizing psychopathology

There is general consensus in clinical and research literature that the core feature of psychopathy consists of an affective deficit. However, previous studies tend to find weak and inconsistent associations between psychopathy and measures of internalizing psychopathology. In this study we test whether the predominant practice of using questionnaires to assess internalizing psychopathology has influenced the results of previous research. We argue that questionnaires measure general distress rather than specific symptoms of internalizing psychopathology, and that the validity of questionnaires might be impaired by psychopathic traits, such as impression management and lack of affective experience. Combining a questionnaire (Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21; DASS-21) and a semi-structured interview (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-R Axis 1 Disorders; SCID-I) for internalizing psychopathology, we test the differential association of both measures with the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) in a sample of 89 male detainees. In accordance with our prediction, we found moderate negative associations between the Interpersonal and Affective facets of the PCL-R and SCID-I, but no significant associations with the DASS-21. We found no evidence that psychopathic traits decrease the validity of the responses on a questionnaire. We conclude that the interpersonal and affective features of psychopathy are negatively related to specific symptoms of internalizing psychopathology, but not with general distress.

Self-esteem and styles of coping with stress versus strategies of planning in people with psychopathic personality disorders

BACKGROUND

Psychopathy is a notion that has been difficult to define. The operational definition of psychopathy by Hare is one of the most commonly used in psychology and it is usually identified with the scale used to measure this type of personality, which is the Psychopathy Checklist - Revision (PCL-R). PCL-R is composed of two factors: Factor 1 describes a constellation of psychopathic traits considered by many clinicians to be basic for this type of personality, and Factor 2 describes types of behaviour indicating impulsiveness, lack of stability and antisocial lifestyle. The aim of the research was to verify a hypothesis that people with psychopathic personality disorders are characterised by high self-esteem, unconstructive strategies of planning actions and non-adaptive styles of coping with stress.

MATERIAL/METHODS

The group of participants included 30 people at the age of 22-36 convicted with a legally binding sentence. Methods were: 1. The Psychopathy Checklist-Revision (PCL-R); 2. Antisocial Personality Questionnaire (APQ); 3. Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS); 4. Generalised Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES).

RESULTS

The participants were diagnosed as psychopaths (PCL-R), and more specifically - as primary psychopaths (APQ). They revealed a grandiose sense of self-worth, increased self-control, impulsive style of functioning, perceived high self-efficacy (which might be considered as a defence mechanism). Psychopaths prefer a coping style focused on emotions and avoidance.

CONCLUSIONS

The hypothesis was confirmed, that people with psychopathic personality disorders are characterised by high self-esteem, unconstructive strategies of planning actions and non-adaptive styles of coping with stress.

Differential associations between psychopathy dimensions, types of aggression, and response inhibition

Findings on executive functioning in psychopathy are inconsistent. Different associations between psychopathy dimensions and executive functioning might explain contradicting findings. This study examined the role of psychopathy dimensions and types of aggression in response inhibition among 117 male adolescents (53 antisocial delinquents and 64 controls). Participants completed a self-report measure of aggression and a GoNoGo task. Psychopathy dimensions were assessed using the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version. Although high scores on the antisocial dimension and reactive aggression were associated with poor response inhibition, the affective-interpersonal dimension, proactive aggression, and verbal intelligence (IQ) were related to better response inhibition (two-factor model). Associations with the affective-interpersonal dimensions did not reach significance. Exploratory analyses showed that affective and antisocial facets accounted for the obtained opposing associations of the affective-interpersonal and antisocial psychopathy dimensions with response inhibition. The interpersonal and lifestyle facets (four-facet model) were unrelated to response inhibition. Results could not be explained by Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Findings suggest differential associations between the psychopathy dimensions, types of aggression, and response inhibition. Therefore, a dimensional approach to psychopathy and related concepts, such as aggression, might strongly improve diagnostic procedures. Global scores could mask important differential associations.

Predatory violence aiming at relief in a case of mass murder: Meloy's criteria for applied forensic practice

Mass murder is the result of the complex interaction of several factors. What seems ubiquitous within mass murder are extreme feelings of anger and revenge. Yet despite these intense affective states, mass murders are, as a rule, not behaviorally impulsive, but rather prepared. The presence of extreme hate and anger evokes an impulsive outburst of rage, whereas planning and premeditation point in the direction of a cognitive, rather unemotional deed. This inconsistency is also reflected in reports of offenders' emotional states during the execution of their crimes: while some mass murderers have been described as calm, focused and emotionless during the events, others have shown signs of hostility, confusion, and distress. Considering mass murder from the perspective of its violence mode might shed some light on its nature and dynamics. With respect to the differentiation between affective and predatory violence, Meloy (1988) developed a model for applied forensic practice. The fully documented case of mass murder discussed in this study contains nine indices of predatory violence and one of affective violence. Furious affects of hate and anger were present but appeared to precede the cold-blooded killings. As a matter of fact, it is argued that the offender carried out the predatory murder in order to alleviate the psychological tension and symptoms generated by these severe ego-dystonic affects. The offender thus didn't seem to strive for narcissistic gratification of omnipotence, but rather seemed to aim to solve a problem.

Psychopathy and instrumental violence: facet level relationships

The relationship between psychopathy and violence is well established. However, the extent to which psychopathy is related to different types of violent behavior warrants further study. We examined the relationship between instrumental violence, psychopathy, and psychopathic traits among 248 European American and African American adult male county jail inmates. We assessed instrumentality based on subjective motivations for respondent-identified acts of violence. Psychopathy was assessed using the PCL-R based on interview and file review. We controlled for potentially important covariates, namely IQ and prior violence. Results were in part consistent with findings from studies with adolescents, in that we identified a positive relationship between instrumentality of violence and manipulative interpersonal style. Results differed from youth studies with regard to relationships between instrumentality and other facets of psychopathy. The implications of our study are discussed with regard to treatment and the developmental stability of the relationship between psychopathic traits and instrumental violence.

Differential correlates to self-report and parent-report of callous-unemotional traits in a sample of juvenile sexual offenders

The association of callous-unemotional (CU) traits with violence and severe antisocial behavior has led to a recent focus on the association between CU traits and sexual offending behavior. When assessing juveniles with sexual offenses, practice standards recommend that multiple sources of data are considered. However, the differential correlates of parent-report versus self-report of CU traits in juvenile sex offenders have not been investigated. A sample of 94 detained male youth (mean age = 15.22, SD = 1.48) was administered both youth and parent versions of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU), a general delinquency risk assessment tool (YLS), and a sexual offending risk assessment tool (J-SOAP-II) to investigate concordance between self-report and parent-report of CU traits as well as association with general and sex-specific risk factors. Both parent-report and self-report of CU traits were significantly related to higher general delinquency risk scores, with parent-report showing stronger correlations than self-report. Both parent-report and self-report were related to sex-specific risk factors. However, only parent-report significantly predicted static sexual risk, while self-report significantly predicted dynamic sexual risk scores. Evidence supports the importance of including both parent- and self-report of CU traits in the comprehensive assessment of sexually offending youth.

A comparison of memory for homicide, non-homicidal violence, and positive life experiences

Defendants commonly claim amnesia for their criminal actions especially in cases involving extreme violence. While some claims are malingered or result from physiological factors, other cases may represent genuine partial or complete amnesia resulting from the psychological distress and/or extreme emotion associated with the perpetration of the crime. Fifty Canadian homicide offenders described their memories of their homicide, a non-homicide violent offense, and their most positive adulthood life experience. Self-reported and objective measures of memories for these events revealed that homicides were recalled with the greatest level of detail and sensory information. Although dissociative tendencies were associated with a self-reported memory loss, objective measures of memory quality did not reflect this perceived impairment, suggesting a failure of meta-memory. Recollections of positive life events were superior to those of non-homicidal violence, possibly due to greater impact and meaning attached to such experiences. Findings suggest that memory for homicide typically is enhanced by the powerful emotion associated with its perpetration.

The function of aggression in personality disordered patients

It has been suggested that psychological interventions for personality disorders should focus on improving adaptive expression of the functional needs expressed through problematic behaviors such as aggression. The measurement of function is a necessary condition for devising a function-based treatment approach. Two studies that employ a method for assessing the functions of aggressive behavior in personality disordered patients are described by: (a) a retrospective analysis, through file review of inpatient aggressive behaviors and of the index offenses of patients admitted for treatment, and (b) an analysis of inpatient aggressive incidents where staff and patients were interviewed to elicit functions. Results showed that most aggression had the function of expressing anger, although other functions were also evident. The profile of functions observed in the inpatient studies was somewhat dissimilar to that observed in the studies of predominantly psychotic patients. Therapeutic implications of these findings are discussed.

Psychopathy and violence: increasing specificity

A large body of literature has established that the construct of psychopathy is broadly related to violence, and the clinical application of the psychopathy construct as a predictor of violence appears to be increasing. This increased application warrants further specification of this relationship. That is, it may be important to identify factors that moderate relationships between psychopathy and violence, and to determine the extent to which subcomponents of the syndrome account for the relationships between psychopathy and specific types of violence. The present review summarises initial attempts to address these goals. We begin by summarising recent trends in the forensic application of the psychopathy construct. We then examine evidence bearing on the extent to which the predictive power of psychopathy for violence is moderated by other factors. Finally, we examine relationships between subcomponents of the psychopathy construct and specific types of violent and aggressive behaviour to examine whether relationships between psychopathy and violence are accounted for by specific components of psychopathy.