MiR-214 regulates the pathogenesis of patients with coronary artery disease by targeting VEGF

Probiotics, gut microbiome, and cardiovascular diseases: An update

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are one of the most challenging diseases and many factors have been demonstrated to affect their pathogenesis. One of the major factors that affect CVDs, especially atherosclerosis, is the gut microbiota (GM). Genetics play a key role in linking CVDs with GM, in addition to some environmental factors which can be either beneficial or harmful. The interplay between GM and CVDs is complex due to the numerous mechanisms through which microbial components and their metabolites can influence CVDs. Within this interplay, the immune system plays a major role, mainly based on the immunomodulatory effects of microbial dysbiosis and its resulting metabolites. The resulting modulation of chronic inflammatory processes was found to reduce the severity of CVDs and to maintain cardiovascular health. To better understand the specific roles of GM-related metabolites in this interplay, this review presents an updated perspective on gut metabolites related effects on the cardiovascular system, highlighting the possible benefits of probiotics in therapeutic strategies.

Diagnostic value of peripheral blood miR-296 combined with vascular endothelial growth factor B on the degree of coronary artery stenosis in patients with coronary heart disease

OBJECTIVE

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disorder resulting from organic and functional coronary artery stenosis (CAS), thus causing reduced oxygenated blood in the heart. miRNAs are useful biomarkers in the diagnosis of atherosclerosis, CHD, and acute coronary syndrome. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is closely related to CHD. This study explored the correlation of miR-296 and VEGF-B expression levels in peripheral blood with CAS degree in CHD patients.

METHODS

Totally 220 CHD patients were enrolled and classified into mild-(71 cases)/moderate-(81 cases)/severe-CAS (68 cases) groups, with another 80 healthy cases as controls. The serum miR-296 and VEGF-B expression levels were detected using reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The correlation between miR-296 and CAS-related indexes was assessed via Pearson analysis. The binding relationship of miR-296 and VEGF-B was first predicted and their correlation was further analyzed via the Pearson method. The clinical diagnostic efficacy of miR-296 or VEGF-B on CAS degree was evaluated by the receiver operating characteristic curve.

RESULTS

Serum miR-296 was downregulated in CHD patients and was the lowest in patients with severe-CAS. miR-296 was negatively-correlated with high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, brain natriuretic peptide, and cardiac troponin I. miR-296 targeted VEGF-B. VEGF-B was upregulated in CHD patients and inversely-related to miR-296. Low expression of miR-296 and high expression of VEGF-B both had high clinical diagnostic values on CAS degree in CHD patients. miR-296 combined with VEGF-B increased the diagnostic value on CAS.

CONCLUSION

Low expression of miR-296 combined with high expression of its target VEGF-B predicts CAS degree in CHD patients.

Predicting Microenvironment in CXCR4- and FAP-Positive Solid Tumors-A Pan-Cancer Machine Learning Workflow for Theranostic Target Structures

(1) Background: C-X-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 4 (CXCR4) and Fibroblast Activation Protein Alpha (FAP) are promising theranostic targets. However, it is unclear whether CXCR4 and FAP positivity mark distinct microenvironments, especially in solid tumors. (2) Methods: Using Random Forest (RF) analysis, we searched for entity-independent mRNA and microRNA signatures related to CXCR4 and FAP overexpression in our pan-cancer cohort from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database-representing n = 9242 specimens from 29 tumor entities. CXCR4- and FAP-positive samples were assessed via StringDB cluster analysis, EnrichR, Metascape, and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA). Findings were validated via correlation analyses in n = 1541 tumor samples. TIMER2.0 analyzed the association of CXCR4 / FAP expression and infiltration levels of immune-related cells. (3) Results: We identified entity-independent CXCR4 and FAP gene signatures representative for the majority of solid cancers. While CXCR4 positivity marked an immune-related microenvironment, FAP overexpression highlighted an angiogenesis-associated niche. TIMER2.0 analysis confirmed characteristic infiltration levels of CD8+ cells for CXCR4-positive tumors and endothelial cells for FAP-positive tumors. (4) Conclusions: CXCR4- and FAP-directed PET imaging could provide a non-invasive decision aid for entity-agnostic treatment of microenvironment in solid malignancies. Moreover, this machine learning workflow can easily be transferred towards other theranostic targets.

Epigenetics and Gut Microbiota Crosstalk: A potential Factor in Pathogenesis of Cardiovascular Disorders

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the leading cause of mortality, morbidity, and "sudden death" globally. Environmental and lifestyle factors play important roles in CVD susceptibility, but the link between environmental factors and genetics is not fully established. Epigenetic influence during CVDs is becoming more evident as its direct involvement has been reported. The discovery of epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and histone modification, suggested that external factors could alter gene expression to modulate human health. These external factors also influence our gut microbiota (GM), which participates in multiple metabolic processes in our body. Evidence suggests a high association of GM with CVDs. Although the exact mechanism remains unclear, the influence of GM over the epigenetic mechanisms could be one potential pathway in CVD etiology. Both epigenetics and GM are dynamic processes and vary with age and environment. Changes in the composition of GM have been found to underlie the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases via modulating epigenetic changes in the form of DNA methylation, histone modifications, and regulation of non-coding RNAs. Several metabolites produced by the GM, including short-chain fatty acids, folates, biotin, and trimethylamine-N-oxide, have the potential to regulate epigenetics, apart from playing a vital role in normal physiological processes. The role of GM and epigenetics in CVDs are promising areas of research, and important insights in the field of early diagnosis and therapeutic approaches might appear soon.

Synthesis, Molecular Docking, and Preclinical Evaluation of a New Succinimide Derivative for Cardioprotective, Hepatoprotective and Lipid-Lowering Effects

Cardiac and hepatotoxicities are major concerns in the development of new drugs. Better alternatives to other treatments are being sought to protect these vital organs from the toxicities of these pharmaceuticals. In this regard, a preclinical study is designed to investigate the histopathological effects of a new succinimide derivative (Comp-1) on myocardial and liver tissues, and the biochemical effects on selected cardiac biomarkers, hepatic enzymes, and lipid profiles. For this, an initially lethal/toxic dose was determined, followed by a grouping of selected albino rats into five groups (each group had n = 6). The control group received daily oral saline for 8 days. The 5-FU (5-Fluorouracil) group received oral saline daily for 8 days, added with the administration of a single dose of 5-FU (150 mg/kg I.P.) on day 5 of the study. The atenolol group received oral atenolol (20 mg/kg) for 8 days and 5-FU (150 mg/kg I.P.) on day 5 of the protocol. Similarly, two groups of rats treated with test compound (Comp-1) were administered with 5 mg/kg I.P. and 10 mg/kg I.P. for 8 days, followed by 5-FU (150 mg/kg I.P.) on day 5. Toxicity induced by 5-FU was manifested by increases in the serum creatinine kinase myocardial band (CK-MB), troponin I (cTnI) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), lipid profile, and selected liver enzymes, including ALP (alkaline phosphatase), ALT (alanine transaminase), AST (aspartate aminotransferase), BT (bilirubin total), and BD (direct bilirubin). These biomarkers were highly significantly decreased after the administration of the mentioned doses of the test compound (5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg). Similarly, histological examination revealed cardiac and hepatic tissue toxicity by 5-FU. However, those toxic effects were also significantly recovered/improved after the administration of Comp-1 at the said doses. This derivative showed dose-dependent effects and was most effective at a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight. Binding energy data computed via docking simulations revealed that our compound interacts toward the human beta2-adrenergic G protein-coupled receptor (S = −7.89 kcal/mol) with a slight stronger affinity than the calcium channel T-type (S = −7.07 kcal/mol). In conclusion, the histological and biochemical results showed that the test compound (Comp-1) had prominent cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and lipolytic effects against 5-FU-induced toxicity in the subjected animal model.

Study of the Association between VEGF Polymorphisms and the Risk of Coronary Artery Disease in Koreans

Coronary artery disease (CAD), a leading cause of death worldwide, has a complex etiology comprising both traditional risk factors (type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, arterial hypertension, and cigarette smoking) and genetic factors. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) notably contributes to angiogenesis and endothelial homeostasis. However, little is known about the relationship between CAD and VEGF polymorphisms in Koreans. The aim of this study is to investigate the associations of 2 VEGF promoter region polymorphisms (−1154G>A [rs1570360], −1498T>C [rs833061]) and 4 VEGF 3′-UTR polymorphisms (+936C>T [rs3025039], +1451C>T [rs3025040], +1612G>A [rs10434], and +1725G>A [rs3025053]) with CAD susceptibility in Koreans. We studied 885 subjects: 463 CAD patients and 422 controls. Genotyping was conducted with polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and TaqMan allelic discrimination assays, and the genotype frequencies were calculated. We then performed haplotype and genotype combination analyses and measured the associations between VEGF polymorphisms and clinical variables in both the CAD patients and control subjects. We detected statistically significant associations between CAD and certain VEGF allele combinations. In the haplotypes of 5 single-nucleotide polymorphisms, the VEGF allele combination −1154A/+936T was associated with a decreased prevalence of CAD (A-T-T-G-G of VEGF −1154G>A/−1498T>C/+936C>T/+1612G>A/+1725G>A, AOR = 0.077, p = 0.021). In contrast, the VEGF allele combinations −1498T/+1725A and −1498T/+1612A/+1725A were associated with an increased prevalence of CAD (G-T-C-C-A of VEGF −1154G>A/−1498T>C/+936C>T/+1451C>T/+1725G>A, AOR = 1.602, p = 0.047; T-C-C-A-A of VEGF −1498T>C/+936C>T/+1451C>T/+1612G>A/+1725G>A, AOR = 1.582, p = 0.045). Gene−environment combinatorial analysis showed that the combination of the VEGF +1725AA genotype and several clinical factors (e.g., body mass index, hemoglobin A1c, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) increased the risk of CAD. Therefore, we suggest that VEGF polymorphisms and clinical factors may impact CAD prevalence.

The impact of proangiogenic microRNA modulation on blood flow recovery following hind limb ischemia. A systematic review and meta-analysis of animal studies

BACKGROUND

Pro-angiogenic microRNA modulation is a potentially attractive approach in the management of peripheral artery disease (PAD). The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the impact of microRNAs involved in the process of angiogenesis on blood flow recovery following hind limb ischemia induction in animal models.

METHODS

A literature search was performed to identify studies testing the efficacy of microRNA treatment on animal models of hind limb ischemia. Following that, a meta-analysis of the included studies was executed with the primary outcome being the change in ischemic-to-normal hind limb perfusion ratio assessed via laser Doppler imaging. Moreover, risk of bias, sensitivity analysis and publication bias were evaluated.

RESULTS

Studies evaluation led to the inclusion of 18 studies whose meta-analysis suggested that microRNA treatment resulted in improved ischemic hind limb perfusion 7 [standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.93, 95% CI 0.49-1.38], 14 (SMD: 1.31, 95% CI 0.78-1.84), and 21 days (SMD: 1.13, 95% CI 0.59-1.66) after hind limb ischemia induction. Moderate-to-substantial heterogeneity and possible publication bias were noted. Risk of bias was unclear despite the balanced baseline animal characteristics.

CONCLUSION

The present meta-analysis suggests that pro-angiogenic modulation of microRNAs accelerates vascular perfusion recovery in animal models of acute hind limb ischemia. Further studies on animal models with similar characteristics to that of PAD patients are warranted to translate those findings in human PAD setting.

LncRNA NORAD Promotes Vascular Endothelial Cell Injury and Atherosclerosis Through Suppressing VEGF Gene Transcription via Enhancing H3K9 Deacetylation by Recruiting HDAC6

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a major atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and the leading cause of mortality globally. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play crucial roles in CAD development. To date, the effect of lncRNA non-coding RNA activated by DNA damage (NORAD) on atherosclerosis in CAD remains unclear. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the effect of lncRNA NORAD on vascular endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis. Here, ox-LDL-treated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and high-fat-diet (HFD)-fed ApoE^–/– mice were utilized as in vitro and in vivo models. The present study found that lncRNA NORAD expression was increased in ox-LDL-treated HUVECs and thoracic aorta of atherosclerotic mice, and knockdown of lncRNA NORAD alleviated vascular endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis development in vitro and in vivo. Knockdown of lncRNA NORAD aggravated ox-LDL-reduced or atherosclerosis-decreased vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression in HUVECs and thoracic aorta of mice to ameliorate vascular endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis development. Moreover, nucleus lncRNA NORAD suppressed VEGF gene transcription through enhancing H3K9 deacetylation via recruiting HDAC6 to the VEGF gene promoter in ox-LDL-treated HUVECs. In addition, VEGF reduced FUS (FUS RNA binding protein) expression by a negative feedback regulation in HUVECs. In summary, lncRNA NORAD enhanced vascular endothelial cell injury and atherosclerosis through suppressing VEGF gene transcription via enhancing H3K9 deacetylation by recruiting HDAC6. The findings could facilitate discovering novel diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for CAD.

Aberrant DNA methylation and miRNAs in coronary artery diseases and stroke: a systematic review

Coronary artery disease (CAD) and ischemic stroke are the two most predominant forms of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) caused by genetic, epigenetic and environmental risk factors. Although studies on the impact of 'epigenetics' in CVDs is not new, its effects are increasingly being realized as a key regulatory determinant that may drive predisposition, pathophysiology and therapeutic outcome. The most widely studied epigenetic risk factors are regulated by DNA methylation and miRNA expression. To keep pace with growing developments and discoveries, a comprehensive review was performed using Pubmed, Science Direct and Scopus databases to highlight the role of DNA methylation and miRNAs in CAD and stroke subjects. Network analysis was performed using ClueGO software and miRTargetLink database. We identified 32 studies of DNA methylation on CAD and stroke, of which, 6 studies showed differences in global DNA methylation, 10 studies reported the genome-wide difference in DNA methylation and 16 studies demonstrated altered DNA methylation at 14 candidate loci. The network analysis showed positive regulation of nitric oxide biosynthetic process, homocysteine metabolic process and negative regulation of lipid storage. About, 155 miRNAs were associated with CAD, stroke and related phenotypes in 83 studies. Interestingly, mir-223 hypomethylation and altered expression were associated with cerebral infarction and stroke. The target prediction for 18 common miRNAs between CAD and stroke showed strong interaction with SP3 and SP1 genes. This systematic review addresses the present knowledge on DNA methylation and miRNAs in CAD and stroke, whose abnormal regulation has been implicated in etiology or progression of the diseases.

MicroRNA-665 Regulates Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells by Targeting TGFBR1

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is one of the heavy health burdens worldwide. Aberrant proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contributes to the occurrence and development of CAD. This study aimed at exploring differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) and their regulatory mechanisms in the development of CAD.The miRNA expression profile of GSE28858 was obtained from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) between CAD and healthy control samples were analyzed using limma package in R. Target genes of DEmiRNAs were predicted, and a miRNA-target gene network was constructed. The relationship between miR-665 and transforming growth factor beta receptor 1 (TGFBR1) was selected for further analysis. The interaction between miR-665 and TGFBR1 was confirmed by dual luciferase reporter assay. Effects of miR-665 on cell viability and apoptosis of VSMCs were evaluated by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay and flow cytometry, respectively. Besides, western blot assays for BCL2L11 and caspase 3 were also conducted.A total of 38 upregulated miRNAs and 28 downregulated miRNAs were identified. The expression level of miR-665 was significantly downregulated in patients with CAD. TGFBR1 was proved to be a target gene of miR-665. Besides, ectopic expression of miR-665 obviously inhibited VSMC growth and promoted VSMC apoptosis. TGFBR1 overexpression in VSMCs transfected with miR-665 mimic could restore the effect of miR-665 on the proliferation and apoptosis of VSMCs.MiR-665 might participate in the proliferation and apoptosis of VSMCs by targeting TGFBR1.

The miR-199a/214 Cluster Controls Nephrogenesis and Vascularization in a Human Embryonic Stem Cell Model

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are gene expression regulators and they have been implicated in acquired kidney diseases and in renal development, mostly through animal studies. We hypothesized that the miR-199a/214 cluster regulates human kidney development. We detected its expression in human embryonic kidneys by in situ hybridization. To mechanistically study the cluster, we used 2D and 3D human embryonic stem cell (hESC) models of kidney development. After confirming expression in each model, we inhibited the miRNAs using lentivirally transduced miRNA sponges. This reduced the WT1+ metanephric mesenchyme domain in 2D cultures. Sponges did not prevent the formation of 3D kidney-like organoids. These organoids, however, contained dysmorphic glomeruli, downregulated WT1, aberrant proximal tubules, and increased interstitial capillaries. Thus, the miR-199a/214 cluster fine-tunes differentiation of both metanephric mesenchymal-derived nephrons and kidney endothelia. While clinical implications require further study, it is noted that patients with heterozygous deletions encompassing this miRNA locus can have malformed kidneys.

Extracellular Vesicle miRNAs in the Promotion of Cardiac Neovascularisation

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide claiming almost 17. 9 million deaths annually. A primary cause is atherosclerosis within the coronary arteries, which restricts blood flow to the heart muscle resulting in myocardial infarction (MI) and cardiac cell death. Despite substantial progress in the management of coronary heart disease (CHD), there is still a significant number of patients developing chronic heart failure post-MI. Recent research has been focused on promoting neovascularisation post-MI with the ultimate goal being to reduce the extent of injury and improve function in the failing myocardium. Cardiac cell transplantation studies in pre-clinical models have shown improvement in cardiac function; nonetheless, poor retention of the cells has indicated a paracrine mechanism for the observed improvement. Cell communication in a paracrine manner is controlled by various mechanisms, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs have emerged as novel regulators of intercellular communication, by transferring molecules able to influence molecular pathways in the recipient cell. Several studies have demonstrated the ability of EVs to stimulate angiogenesis by transferring microRNA (miRNA, miR) molecules to endothelial cells (ECs). In this review, we describe the process of neovascularisation and current developments in modulating neovascularisation in the heart using miRNAs and EV-bound miRNAs. Furthermore, we critically evaluate methods used in cell culture, EV isolation and administration.

miR-214 Protects Against Uric Acid-Induced Endothelial Cell Apoptosis

Background: Uric acid (UA) has been reported to be an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and can cause endothelial cell apoptosis through unclear mechanisms. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that miR-214 plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases. This study was to investigate the role of miR-214 in UA-induced endothelial cell apoptosis and the underlying mechanism.

Material and methods: We enrolled 30 patients with hyperuricemia and 32 healthy controls and analyzed the levels of miR-214 in the serum of the participants. Then mouse aorta endothelial cells (MAECs) were treated with UA to induce cell apoptosis. An miR-214 mimic and a specific COX-2 inhibitor (NS398) were used to confirm the roles of these molecules in mediating UA-induced MAEC apoptosis or COX-2/PGE₂ cascade activation.

Results: A significant reduction in circulating miR-214 in the hyperuricemia patients compared with the healthy controls, along with a negative correlation with UA levels was observed. In the MAECs, UA treatment strikingly increased apoptosis as shown by the upregulation of BAX and cleaved Caspase-3 and the increased number of apoptotic cells. Interestingly, the expression of COX-2 was also upregulated at both the protein and mRNA levels during UA-induced cell apoptosis. In addition, an miR-214 mimic blocked UA-induced MAEC apoptosis, COX-2 induction and PGE₂ secretion. The inhibition of COX-2 markedly ameliorated UA-induced apoptotic response and PGE₂ production in MAECs. Luciferase activity assays further confirmed that COX-2 is a target gene of miR-214 in endothelial cells.

Conclusion: We concluded that miR-214 could alleviate UA-induced MAEC apoptosis possibly by inhibiting the COX-2/PGE₂ cascade.

MicroRNA-214 modulates the senescence of vascular smooth muscle cells in carotid artery stenosis

Background

MicroRNAs control gene expression by post-transcriptional inhibition. Dysregulation of the expressions of miR-199a/214 cluster has been linked to cardiovascular diseases. This study aimed at identifying potential microRNAs related to vascular senescence.

Methods

Seven candidate microRNAs (miR-19a, −20a, −26b, −106b, − 126, − 214, and − 374) related to cell proliferation were tested for their expressions under CoCl₂-induced hypoxia in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). After identification of miR-214 as the candidate microRNA, telomere integrity impairment and cell cycle arrest were examined in VSMCs by using miR-214 mimic, AntagomiR, and negative controls. To investigate the clinical significance of miR-214 in vascular diseases, its plasma level from patients with carotid artery stenosis (CAS) was assessed by quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

Results

CoCl₂ treatment for 48 h suppressed cell proliferation and angiogenesis as well as enhanced cell senescence in VSMCs. Besides, miR-214 level was elevated in both intracellular and exosome samples of VSMCs after CoCl₂ treatment. Manipulating miR-214 in VSMCs demonstrated that miR-214 not only inhibited angiogenic and proliferative capacities but also promoted senescence through the suppression of quaking. Additionally, circulating miR-214 level was upregulated in CAS patients with high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) value.

Conclusion

Our findings suggested that miR-214 plays a role in the modulation of VSMC angiogenesis, proliferation, and senescence with its plasma level being increased in CAS patients with elevated LDL-C value, implying that it may be a vascular senescence marker and a potential therapeutic target for vascular diseases.

Noncoding RNAs as Biomarkers for Acute Coronary Syndrome

Acute coronary syndrome (ACS), consisting of acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina, is the most dangerous and fatal form of coronary heart disease. Acute coronary syndrome has sudden onset and rapid development, which may lead to malignant life-threatening conditions at any time. Therefore, early detection and diagnosis are critical for patients with ACS. Recent studies have found that noncoding RNA is of great significance in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we summarized recent data on circulating noncoding RNAs (including microRNA, long noncoding RNA, and circular RNA) as diagnostic and prognostic markers in ACS including acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina. Specifically, microRNAs (miRNAs) as diagnostic markers are divided into three types: miRNAs of increased expression in ACS, miRNAs of decreased expression in ACS, and miRNAs of contradictory expression in ACS. Moreover, we described these miRNAs of increased expression in ACS based on miRNAs family. This review may result in a great guidance of noncoding RNAs as biomarkers for ACS in clinical practice.

MMP9, CXCR1, TLR6, and MPO participant in the progression of coronary artery disease

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the most frequent cardiovascular disease, which is induced by the decreased myocardial blood supply. The present study is conducted to understand the mechanisms of CAD. The GSE98583, GSE69587, and GSE71226 datasets from the Gene Expression Omnibus database were obtained. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were analyzed by the limma package, then the DEGs appeared in two or three datasets were selected as the coregulated genes using the VENNY tool, followed by enrichment analysis using DAVID tool. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, microRNA-transcription factor-target regulatory network, and drug-gene network were visualized. Finally, quantitative PCR and dual-luciferase reporter assay were conducted to validate the expression of key genes and the target relationship. There were 221 coregulated genes in GSE98583, GSE69587, and GSE71226. Besides, four pathways and 23 functional terms for co-upregulated genes, and 11 functional terms for co-downregulated genes were enriched. The degrees of PPI network nodes matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 1 (CXCR1), toll-like receptor 6 (TLR6), and myeloperoxidase (MPO) were relatively higher. Moreover, MPO could interact with MMP9, CXCR1, and TLR6 in the PPI network. In the regulatory network, TLR6 and MMP9 separately were targeted by miR-3960 and v-rel avian reticuloendotheliosis viral oncogene homolog A (RELA). Additionally, MMP9, CXCR1, and MPO were involved in the drug-gene network. The expression of MMP9, CXCR1, TLR6, and MPO were significantly upregulated in CAD samples than control, and miR-3960 could bind to TLR6 to inhibit its expression. CXCR1 and MPO might be involved in the progression of CAD. Besides, miR-3960 might function in the pathogenesis of CAD through targeting TLR6, and RELA might exert its role in CAD via targeting MMP9.

Oridonin relieves hypoxia-evoked apoptosis and autophagy via modulating microRNA-214 in H9c2 cells

Oridonin (Orid) has been diffusely applied to remedy dissimilar cancers. Howbeit, the influence of Orid in ischemic heart disease (IHD) remains imprecise. The current study uncovered the functions of Orid in hypoxia-caused apoptosis and autophagy in H9c2 cells. H9c2 cells received hypoxia and Orid manipulation, cell viability, apoptosis, apoptosis-interrelated factors and autophagy-correlative factors were appraised. After the extraordinary vectors transfections, the impacts of miR-214 inhibition on hypoxia-triggered apoptosis and autophagy were investigated. Further, dual luciferase reporter assay was enforced for ascertaining the pertinence between miR-214 and PTEN. PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway was finally determined using western blot. We found that, Orid significantly alleviated hypoxia-induced apoptosis and autophagy through regulation their associated proteins in H9c2 cells. Up-regulation of miR-214 was found in hypoxia and Orid co-managed cells, meanwhile, repression of miR-214 obviously annulled the modulatory functions of Orid in hypoxia-evoked apoptosis and autophagy. Additionally, PTEN was forecasted to be a firsthand target of miR-214. Besides, we observed that Orid evoked PI3K/AKT/mTOR activation through elevation of miR-214 in hypoxia-managed H9c2 cells. In conclusion, the amusing results corroborated that Orid relieved hypoxia-caused apoptosis and autophagy via adjusting PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway through enhancement of miR-214 in H9c2 cells.

MiR-214 is an important regulator of the musculoskeletal metabolism and disease

MiR-214 belongs to a family of microRNA (small, highly conserved noncoding RNA molecules) precursors that play a pivotal role in biological functions, such as cellular function, tissue development, tissue homeostasis, and pathogenesis of diseases. Recently, miR-214 emerged as a critical regulator of musculoskeletal metabolism. Specifically, miR-214 can mediate skeletal muscle myogenesis and vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and differentiation. MiR-214 also modulates osteoblast function by targeting specific molecular pathways and the expression of various osteoblast-related genes; promotes osteoclast activity by targeting phosphatase and tensin homolog (Pten); and mediates osteoclast-osteoblast intercellular crosstalk via an exosomal miRNA paracrine mechanism. Importantly, dysregulation in miR-214 expression is associated with pathological bone conditions such as osteoporosis, osteosarcoma, multiple myeloma, and osteolytic bone metastasis of breast cancer. This review discusses the cellular targets of miR-214 in bone, the molecular mechanisms governing the activities of miR-214 in the musculoskeletal system, and the putative role of miR-214 in skeletal diseases. Understanding the biology of miR-214 could potentially lead to the development of miR-214 as a possible biomarker and a therapeutic target for musculoskeletal diseases.

MicroRNA-378 Promotes Osteogenesis-Angiogenesis Coupling in BMMSCs for Potential Bone Regeneration

Bone tissue regeneration was closely associated with osteogenesis and angiogenesis. The harmonious regulation of osteogenetic and angiogenic growth factors would enhance bone regeneration, while the imbalance of that would lead to local excessive bone formation or vascular mass due to exogenous delivery. Therefore, microRNA is believed to regulate multiple metabolism progress through endogenous signaling pathways on the gene level. In this work, we identified microRNA 378 as a positive regulator of osteogenesis and angiogenesis simultaneously and also observed an increase of microRNA 378 than control in human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMMSCs) after osteoblast induction. Besides, osteogenetic and angiogenic gene expression increased simultaneously after overexpression of microRNA 378. Moreover, alizarin red staining and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining enhanced, and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) increased. In this way, we believed miR378 was an ideal target to osteogenesis-angiogenesis coupling for bone regeneration, which provides a potential tool for the gene therapy of bone regeneration.

miR-214-Dependent Increase of PHLPP2 Levels Mediates the Impairment of Insulin-Stimulated Akt Activation in Mouse Aortic Endothelial Cells Exposed to Methylglyoxal

Evidence has been provided linking microRNAs (miRNAs) and diabetic complications, by the regulation of molecular pathways, including insulin-signaling, involved in the pathophysiology of vascular dysfunction. Methylglyoxal (MGO) accumulates in diabetes and is associated with cardiovascular complications. This study aims to analyze the contribution of miRNAs in the MGO-induced damaging effect on insulin responsiveness in mouse aortic endothelial cells (MAECs). miRNA modulation was performed by transfection of specific miRNA mimics and inhibitors in MAECs, treated or not with MGO. miRNA-target protein levels were evaluated by Western blot. PH domain leucine-rich repeat protein phosphatase 2 (PHLPP2) regulation by miR-214 was tested by luciferase assays and by the use of a target protector specific for miR-214 on PHLPP2-3′UTR. This study reveals a 4-fold increase of PHLPP2 in MGO-treated MAECs. PHLPP2 levels inversely correlate with miR-214 modulation. Moreover, miR-214 overexpression is able to reduce PHLPP2 levels in MGO-treated MAECs. Interestingly, a direct regulation of PHLPP2 is proved to be dependent by miR-214. Finally, the inhibition of miR-214 impairs the insulin-dependent Akt activation, while its overexpression rescues the insulin effect on Akt activation in MGO-treated MAECs. In conclusion, this study shows that PHLPP2 is a target of miR-214 in MAECs, and identifies miR-214 downregulation as a contributing factor to MGO-induced endothelial insulin-resistance.

The role of miR-214 in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death throughout the world. The increase in new patients every year leads to a demand for the identification of valid and novel prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are critical endogenous small noncoding RNAs that negatively modulate gene expression by regulating its translation. miRNAs are implicated in most physiological processes of the heart and in the pathological progression of cardiovascular diseases. miR-214 is a deregulated miRNA in many pathological conditions, and it contributes to the pathogenesis of multiple human disorders, including cancer and cardiovascular diseases. miR-214 has dual functions in different cardiac pathological circumstances. However, it is considered as a promising marker in the prognosis, diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we discuss the role of miR-214 in various cardiac disease conditions, including ischaemic heart diseases, cardiac hypertrophy, pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), angiogenesis following vascular injury and heart failure.

A New Network-Based Strategy for Predicting the Potential miRNA-mRNA Interactions in Tumorigenesis

MicroRNA (miRNA) plays an important role in the degradation and inhibition of mRNAs and is a kind of essential drug targets for cancer therapy. To facilitate the clinical cancer research, we proposed a network-based strategy to identify the cancer-related miRNAs and to predict their targeted genes based on the gene expression profiles. The strategy was validated by using the data sets of acute myeloid leukemia (AML), breast invasive carcinoma (BRCA), and kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC). The results showed that in the top 20 miRNAs ranked by their degrees, 90.0% (18/20), 70.0% (14/20), and 70.0% (14/20) miRNAs were found to be associated with the cancers for AML, BRCA, and KIRC, respectively. The KEGG pathways and GO terms enriched with the genes that were predicted as the targets of the cancer-related miRNAs were significantly associated with the biological processes of cancers. In addition, several genes, which were predicted to be regulated by more than three miRNAs, were identified to be the potential drug targets annotated by using the human protein atlas database. Our results demonstrated that the proposed strategy can be helpful for predicting the miRNA-mRNA interactions in tumorigenesis and identifying the cancer-related miRNAs as the potential drug targets.

Dysregulation of endothelial colony-forming cell function by a negative feedback loop of circulating miR-146a and -146b in cardiovascular disease patients

Functional impairment of endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFCs), a specific cell lineage of endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) is highly associated with the severity of coronary artery disease (CAD), the most common type of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Emerging evidence show that circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) in CAD patients’ body fluid hold a great potential as biomarkers. However, our knowledge of the role of circulating miRNA in regulating the function of ECFCs and the progression of CAD is still in its infancy. We showed that when ECFCs from healthy volunteers were incubated with conditioned medium or purified exosomes of cultured CAD ECFCs, the secretory factors from CAD ECFCs dysregulated migration and tube formation ability of healthy ECFCs. It is known that exosomes influence the physiology of recipient cells by introducing RNAs including miRNAs. By using small RNA sequencing (smRNA-seq), we deciphered the circulating miRNome in the plasma of healthy individual and CAD patients, and found that the plasma miRNA spectrum from CAD patients was significantly different from that of healthy control. Interestingly, smRNA-seq of both healthy and CAD ECFCs showed that twelve miRNAs that had a higher expression in the plasma of CAD patients also showed higher expression in CAD ECFCs when compared with healthy control. This result suggests that these miRNAs may be involved in the regulation of ECFC functions. For identification of potential mRNA targets of the differentially expressed miRNA in CAD patients, cDNA microarray analysis was performed to identify the angiogenesis-related genes that were down-regulated in CAD ECFCs and Pearson’s correlation were used to identify miRNAs that were negatively correlated with the identified angiogenesis-related genes. RT-qPCR analysis of the five miRNAs that negatively correlated with the down-regulated angiogenesis-related genes in plasma and ECFC of CAD patients showed miR-146a-5p and miR-146b-5p up-regulation compared to healthy control. Knockdown of miR-146a-5p or miR-146b-5p in CAD ECFCs enhanced migration and tube formation activity in diseased ECFCs. Contrarily, overexpression of miR-146a-5p or miR-146b-5p in healthy ECFC repressed migration and tube formation in ECFCs. TargetScan analysis showed that miR-146a-5p and miR-146b-5p target many of the angiogenesis-related genes that were down-regulated in CAD ECFCs. Knockdown of miR-146a-5p or miR-146b-5p restores CAV1 and RHOJ levels in CAD ECFCs. Reporter assays confirmed the direct binding and repression of miR-146a-5p and miR-146b-5p to the 3’-UTR of mRNA of RHOJ, a positive regulator of angiogenic potential in endothelial cells. Consistently, RHOJ knockdown inhibited the migration and tube formation ability in ECFCs. Collectively, we discovered the dysregulation of miR-146a-5p/RHOJ and miR-146b-5p/RHOJ axis in the plasma and ECFCs of CAD patients that could be used as biomarkers or therapeutic targets for CAD and other angiogenesis-related diseases.

MicroRNA-199a acts as a potential suppressor of cardiomyocyte autophagy through targeting Hspa5

Autophagy is an adaptive response to cardiomyocytes survival under stress conditions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs, miR) have been described to act as potent modulators of autophagy. To investigate whether and how miR-199a modulated autophagy in vitro, primary cardiomyocytes were treated under starvation to induce autophagy. Results showed that down-regulation of miR-199a was sufficient to activate cardiomyocytes autophagy. MiR-199a suppressed cardiomyocytes autophagy through direct inhibiting heat shock protein family A member 5 (Hspa5). Forced overexpression of Hspa5 recovered the inhibitory effect of miR-199a in autophagy activation. Our results suggested miR-199a as an effective suppressor of starvation-induced cardiomyocytes autophagy and that Hspa5 was a direct target during this process. These results extend the understanding of the role and pathway of miR-199a in cardiomyocytes autophagy, and may introduce a potential therapeutic strategy for the protection of cardiomyocytes in myocardial infarction or ischemic heart disease.

Identifying circulating microRNAs as biomarkers of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review

The aim of the present study is to identify microRNAs (miRs) with high potential to be used as biomarkers in plasma and/or serum to clinically diagnose, or provide accurate prognosis for survival in, patients with atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and acute coronary syndrome (ACS). A systematic search of published original research yielded a total of 72 studies. After review of the risk of bias of the published studies, according to Cochrane Collaboration and the QUADUAS Group standards, 19 studies were selected. Overall 52 different miRs were reported. In particular, miR-133a/b (5 studies), miR-208a/b (6 studies), and miR-499 (7 studies) were well studied and found to be significant diagnostic and/or prognostic markers across different cardiovascular disease progression stages. miR-1 and miR-145b are potential biomarkers of ACS; miR-1 with higher sensitivity for all acute myocardial infarction (AMI), and miR-145 for STEMI and worse outcome of AMI. But when miRs were studied across different ACS study populations, patients had varying degrees of coronary stenosis, which was identified as an important confounder that limited the ability to quantitatively pool the study results. The identified miRs were found to regulate endothelial function and angiogenesis (miR-1, miR-133), vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation (miR-133, miR-145), communication between vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cell to stabilize plaques (miR-145), apoptosis (miR-1, miR-133, miR-499), cardiac myocyte differentiation (miR-1, miR-133, miR-145, miR-208, miR-499), and to repress cardiac hypertrophy (miR-133). Their role in these processes may be explained by regulation of shared RNA targets such as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (or p21), ETS proto-oncogene 1, fascin actin-bundling protein 1, hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated potassium channel 4, insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor LIM and SH3 protein 1, purine nucleoside phosphorylase, and transgelin 2. These mechanistic data further support the clinical relevance of the identified miRs. miR-1, miR-133a/b, miR-145, miR-208a/b, and miR-499(a) in plasma and/or serum show some potential for diagnosis of cardiovascular disease. However, biased selection of miRs in most studies and unexplained contrasting results are major limitations of current miR research. Inconsistencies need to be addressed in order to definitively identify clinically useful miRs. Therefore, this paper presents important aspects to improve future miR research, including unbiased selection of miRs, standardization/normalization of reference miRs, adjustment for patient comorbidities and medication, and robust protocols of data-sharing plans that could prevent selective publication and selective reporting of miR research outcomes.

Tumor-suppressing roles of miR-214 and miR-218 in breast cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that are key post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. MicroRNA-214 (miR-214) and microRNA-218 (miR-218) have shown the function of tumor suppressors in various types of human cancers. However, the biological functions of miR-214 and miR-218 in breast cancer have not been elucidated completely. The present study evaluated the expression and biological function of miR-214 and miR-218 in human breast cancer. Our results revealed that the expression of miR-214 and miR-218 were significantly decreased in breast cancer tissues compared with adjacent tissues. The aberrant expression of miR-214 and miR-218 were negatively associated with Ki-67, and the miR-218 expression was positively associated with progesterone receptor (PR) in breast cancer tissues. In vitro, the cell proliferation and migration were decreased, cell apoptosis was induced, and cell cycle was also disturbed in miR-214 or miR-218 overexpressed breast cancer cells. Our results demonstrated that miR-214 and miR-218 function as tumor suppressors in breast cancer, and may become biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets in breast cancer.

MiR-145 facilitates proliferation and migration of endothelial progenitor cells and recanalization of arterial thrombosis in cerebral infarction mice via JNK signal pathway

Arterial thrombosis in cerebral infarction severely affects patients' lives. Classical treatment including surgery and medication both had significantly adverse effects, making it necessary to find novel strategy. Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have been shown to enhance the recanalization of thrombosis, while leaving its molecular mechanism unclear. EPCs were separated from peripheral blood, and were transfected by microRNA (miR)-145. The growth, proliferation and migration abilities were quantified by MTT, clone formation and Transwell assays, respectively. Cell apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry. The activation of JNK signaling pathway was measured by Western blotting, followed by JNK inhibitor SP600125. In a mouse cerebral infarction model, miR-145 transfected EPCs were injected to observe the condition of arterial thrombosis. MiR-145 transfection enhanced growth, migration and proliferation of EPCs without induction of apoptosis. MiR-145 exerts its effects via JNK signaling pathway, as the blocking inhibited cell migration/proliferation. In vivo injection of miR-145 transfected EPCs also potentiated cell proliferation and migration, in addition to the recanalization of arterial thrombosis. MiR-145 facilitates proliferation and migration of EPCs and recanalization of arterial thrombosis in cerebral infarction mice via JNK signal pathway. This study provided new insights regarding infarction treatment.

Interleukin-33 in Tissue Homeostasis, Injury, and Inflammation

Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a nuclear-associated cytokine of the IL-1 family originally described as a potent inducer of allergic type 2 immunity. IL-33 signals via the receptor ST2, which is highly expressed on group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) and T helper 2 (Th2) cells, thus underpinning its association with helminth infection and allergic pathology. Recent studies have revealed ST2 expression on subsets of regulatory T cells, and for a role for IL-33 in tissue homeostasis and repair that suggests previously unrecognized interactions within these cellular networks. IL-33 can participate in pathologic fibrotic reactions, or, in the setting of microbial invasion, can cooperate with inflammatory cytokines to promote responses by cytotoxic NK cells, Th1 cells, and CD8(+) T cells. Here, we highlight the regulation and function of IL-33 and ST2 and review their roles in homeostasis, damage, and inflammation, suggesting a conceptual framework for future studies.

Blocking of targeted microRNAs from next-generation sequencing libraries

Highly abundant microRNAs (miRNAs) in small RNA sequencing libraries make it difficult to obtain efficient measurements of more lowly expressed species. We present a new method that allows for the selective blocking of specific, abundant miRNAs during preparation of sequencing libraries. This technique is specific with little off-target effects and has no impact on the reproducibility of the measurement of non-targeted species. In human plasma samples, we demonstrate that blocking of highly abundant hsa-miR-16–5p leads to improved detection of lowly expressed miRNAs and more precise measurement of differential expression overall. Furthermore, we establish the ability to target a second abundant miRNA and to multiplex the blocking of two miRNAs simultaneously. For small RNA sequencing, this technique could fill a similar role as do ribosomal or globin removal technologies in messenger RNA sequencing.