Exosomes derived from microRNA-101-3p-overexpressing human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells suppress oral cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and migration

Oncogenic mechanisms of COL10A1 in cancer and clinical challenges (Review)

Collagen type X α1 chain (COL10A1), a gene encoding the α‑1 chain of type X collagen, serves a key role in conferring tensile strength and structural integrity to tissues. Upregulation of COL10A1 expression has been observed in different malignancies, including lung, gastric and pancreatic cancer, and is associated with poor prognosis. The present review provides an updated synthesis of the evolving biological understanding of COL10A1, with a particular focus on its mechanisms of action and regulatory functions within the context of tumorigenesis. For example, it has been established that increased COL10A1 expression promotes cancer progression by activating multiple signaling pathways, including the TGF‑β1/Smad, MEK/ERK and focal adhesion kinase signaling pathways, thereby inducing proliferation, invasion and migration. Additionally, COL10A1 has been demonstrated to induce epithelial‑mesenchymal transition and reshapes the extracellular matrix within tumor tissues. Furthermore, on the basis of methyltransferase‑like 3‑mediated N6‑methyladenosine methylation, COL10A1 intricately regulates the epitranscriptomic machinery, thereby augmenting its oncogenic role. However, although COL10A1 serves a pivotal role in gene transcription and the orchestration of tumor growth, the question of whether COL10A1 would serve as a viable therapeutic target remains a subject of scientific hypothesis requiring rigorous examination. Variables such as distinct tumor microenvironments and treatment associations necessitate further experimental validation. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment and understanding of the functional and mechanistic roles of COL10A1 in cancer may pave the way for the development of innovative cancer treatment strategies.

The tumor microenvironment's gambit: Exosomal pawns on the board of head and neck cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) harbors a hidden universe of interactions that profoundly shape the behavior of head and neck cancers (HNCs). HNCs are not merely localized afflictions; they constitute a pressing global health crisis that impacts millions, frequently resulting in severe prognoses due to late-stage diagnosis and intrinsic resistance to conventional therapies. In this intricate interplay, cancer cells function as strategic players, adeptly manipulating their microenvironment to foster proliferation, evade immune detection, and withstand therapeutic interventions. Central to this dynamic play are exosomes, the enigmatic pawns of cellular communication, carrying vital messages across the board. This review elucidates the multifaceted roles of exosomes within the TME, highlighting their capacity to transmit critical signals that not only promote tumor progression but also modulate immune responses, ultimately playing a crucial role in the evolving narrative of HNC. Our insights aim to catalyze further research and exploration into exosome-targeted therapies, potentially transforming the landscape of HNC treatment and improving clinical outcomes in this formidable battle against cancer.

Nanotechnology and bioengineering approaches to improve the potency of mesenchymal stem cell as an off-the-shelf versatile tumor delivery vehicle

Targeting actionable mutations in oncogene-driven cancers and the evolution of immuno-oncology are the two prominent revolutions that have influenced cancer treatment paradigms and caused the emergence of precision oncology. However, intertumoral and intratumoral heterogeneity are the main challenges in both fields of precision cancer treatment. In other words, finding a universal marker or pathway in patients suffering from a particular type of cancer is challenging. Therefore, targeting a single hallmark or pathway with a single targeted therapeutic will not be efficient for fighting against tumor heterogeneity. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess favorable characteristics for cellular therapy, including their hypoimmune nature, inherent tumor-tropism property, straightforward isolation, and multilineage differentiation potential. MSCs can be loaded with various chemotherapeutics and oncolytic viruses. The combination of these intrinsic features with the possibility of genetic manipulation makes them a versatile tumor delivery vehicle that can be used for in vivo selective tumor delivery of various chemotherapeutic and biological therapeutics. MSCs can be used as biofactory for the local production of chemical or biological anticancer agents at the tumor site. MSC-mediated immunotherapy could facilitate the sustained release of immunotherapeutic agents specifically at the tumor site, and allow for the achievement of therapeutic concentrations without the need for repetitive systemic administration of high therapeutic doses. Despite the enthusiasm evoked by preclinical studies that used MSC in various cancer therapy approaches, the translation of MSCs into clinical applications has faced serious challenges. This manuscript, with a critical viewpoint, reviewed the preclinical and clinical studies that have evaluated MSCs as a selective tumor delivery tool in various cancer therapy approaches, including gene therapy, immunotherapy, and chemotherapy. Then, the novel nanotechnology and bioengineering approaches that can improve the potency of MSC for tumor targeting and overcoming challenges related to their low localization at the tumor sites are discussed.

Type X collagen knockdown inactivate ITGB1/PI3K/AKT to suppress chronic unpredictable mild stress-stimulated triple-negative breast cancer progression

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most malignant subtype of breast cancer, has a poor prognosis and limited access to efficient targeted treatments. Chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) is highly risk factor for TNBC occurrence and development. Type X collagen (COL10A1), a crucial protein component of the extracellular matrix, ranks second among all aberrantly expressed genes in TNBC, and it is significantly up-regulated under CUMS. Nevertheless, the impact of CUMS and COL10A1 on TNBC, along with the underlying mechanisms are still unclear. In this research, we studied the effect of CUMS-induced norepinephrine (NE) elevation on TNBC, and uncovered that it notably enhanced TNBC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in vitro, and also fostering tumor growth and lung metastasis in vivo. Additionally, our investigation found that COL10A1 directly interacted with integrin subunit beta 1 (ITGB1), then activates the downstream PI3K/AKT signaling pathway, thereby promoting TNBC growth and metastasis, while it was reversed by knocking down of COL10A1 or ITGB1. Our study demonstrated that the TNBC could respond to CUMS, and advocate for COL10A1 as a pivotal therapeutic target in TNBC treatment.

Role of exosomes in the communication and treatment between OSCC and normal cells

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent cancer that needs new therapeutic targets due to the poor postoperative prognosis in patients. Exosomes are currently one of important research areas owing to their unique properties. Exosomes are capable of acting as drug transporters, as well as facilitating interactions between OSCC and normal cells. Exosomes can be detected in body fluids such as blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and bile. When exosomes are released from donor cells, they can carry various bioactive molecules to recipient cells, where these molecules participate in biological processes. This review highlights the mechanisms of exosome transfer between normal and OSCC cells. Exosomes isolated from donor OSCC cells can carry circular RNAs (circRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs) and play a role in signaling processes in the recipient OSCC cells, human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and macrophages. Exosomes secreted by carcinoma-associated fibroblasts, macrophages, and stem cells can also enter the recipient OSCC cells and modulate signaling events in these cells. Exosomes isolated from OSCC plasma, serum, and saliva are also associated with OSCC prognosis. Furthermore, while exosomes were shown to be associated with chemotherapy resistance in OSCC, they can also be used for drug delivery during OSCC treatment. In this paper, we reviewed the molecular mechanisms and functions of exosomes from different cell sources in OSCC cells, providing a basis for diagnosis and prognosis prediction in OSCC patients, and offering guidance for the design of molecular targets carried by exosomes in OSCC.

Emerging roles of exosomes in oral diseases progression

Oral diseases, such as periodontitis, salivary gland diseases, and oral cancers, significantly challenge health conditions due to their detrimental effects on patient's digestive functions, pronunciation, and esthetic demands. Delayed diagnosis and non-targeted treatment profoundly influence patients' prognosis and quality of life. The exploration of innovative approaches for early detection and precise treatment represents a promising frontier in oral medicine. Exosomes, which are characterized as nanometer-sized extracellular vesicles, are secreted by virtually all types of cells. As the research continues, the complex roles of these intracellular-derived extracellular vesicles in biological processes have gradually unfolded. Exosomes have attracted attention as valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tools for their ability to transfer abundant biological cargos and their intricate involvement in multiple cellular functions. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent applications of exosomes within the field of oral diseases, focusing on inflammation-related bone diseases and oral squamous cell carcinomas. We characterize the exosome alterations and demonstrate their potential applications as biomarkers for early diagnosis, highlighting their roles as indicators in multiple oral diseases. We also summarize the promising applications of exosomes in targeted therapy and proposed future directions for the use of exosomes in clinical treatment.

The potential applications of artificially modified exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells in tumor therapy

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have tumor-homing ability and play critical roles in tumor treatment, but their dual influences on tumor progression limit their therapeutic applications. Exosomes derived from MSCs (MSC-exosomes) exhibit great potential in targeted tumor treatment due to their advantages of high stability, low immunogenicity, good biocompatibility, long circulation time and homing characteristics. Furthermore, the artificial modification of MSC-exosomes could amplify their advantages and their inhibitory effect on tumors and could overcome the limit of tumor-promoting effect. In this review, we summarize the latest therapeutic strategies involving artificially modified MSC-exosomes in tumor treatment, including employing these exosomes as nanomaterials to carry noncoding RNAs or their inhibitors and anticancer drugs, and genetic engineering modification of MSC-exosomes. We also discuss the feasibility of utilizing artificially modified MSC-exosomes as an emerging cell-free method for tumor treatment and related challenges.

The Therapeutic Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cells and their Secretome on Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral cancers are prevalent in the human population, particularly in unindustrialized countries. In 90 % of oral cancers, the tumors arise from squamous cells, which is called oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Despite new treatment strategies, the morbidity and mortality rates are still high. Current treatment options including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are not effective in the treatment of the tumor. Cell therapy with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is considered one of the leading strategies in cancer treatment. However, the field of MSC therapy in OSCC is immature and ongoing studies are being conducted in experimental and pre-clinical studies. Here, we reviewed these studies to figure out whether the use of MSCs could be worthwhile in OSCC therapy or not. Both native and engineered MSCs as well as their secretome have been used in the treatment of OSCC. It seems that genetically modified MSCs or their secretome could inhibit the tumorigenesis of OSCC. However, further pre-clinical studies are required to come to a conclusion.

Unraveling the role of miRNAs in the diagnosis, progression, and drug resistance of oral cancer

Oral cancer (OC) is a widely observed neoplasm on a global scale. Over time, there has been an increase in both its fatality and incidence rates. Oral cancer metastasis is a complex process that involves a number of cellular mechanisms, including invasion, migration, proliferation, and escaping from malignant tissue through either lymphatic or vascular channels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a crucial class of short non-coding RNAs recognized as significant modulators of diverse cellular processes and exert a pivotal influence on the carcinogenesis pathway, functioning either as tumor suppressors or as oncogenes. It has been shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) have a role in metastasis at several stages, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, and colonization. This regulation is achieved by targeting key genes involved in these pathways by miRNAs. This paper aims to give a contemporary analysis of OC, focusing on its molecular genetics. The current literature and emerging advancements in miRNA dysregulation in OC are thoroughly examined. This project would advance OC diagnosis, prognosis, therapy, and therapeutic implications.

Nano-Drug Delivery Systems in Oral Cancer Therapy: Recent Developments and Prospective

Oral cancer (OC), characterized by malignant tumors in the mouth, is one of the most prevalent malignancies worldwide. Chemotherapy is a commonly used treatment for OC; however, it often leads to severe side effects on human bodies. In recent years, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution for managing OC using nanomaterials and nanoparticles (NPs). Nano-drug delivery systems (nano-DDSs) that employ various NPs as nanocarriers have been extensively developed to enhance current OC therapies by achieving controlled drug release and targeted drug delivery. Through searching and analyzing relevant research literature, it was found that certain nano-DDSs can improve the therapeutic effect of drugs by enhancing drug accumulation in tumor tissues. Furthermore, they can achieve targeted delivery and controlled release of drugs through adjustments in particle size, surface functionalization, and drug encapsulation technology of nano-DDSs. The application of nano-DDSs provides a new tool and strategy for OC therapy, offering personalized treatment options for OC patients by enhancing drug delivery, reducing toxic side effects, and improving therapeutic outcomes. However, the use of nano-DDSs in OC therapy still faces challenges such as toxicity, precise targeting, biodegradability, and satisfying drug-release kinetics. Overall, this review evaluates the potential and limitations of different nano-DDSs in OC therapy, focusing on their components, mechanisms of action, and laboratory therapeutic effects, aiming to provide insights into understanding, designing, and developing more effective and safer nano-DDSs. Future studies should focus on addressing these issues to further advance the application and development of nano-DDSs in OC therapy.

Dual impacts of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on cancer cells: unravelling complex interactions

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent, self-renewing stromal cells found in a variety of adult tissues. MSCs possess a remarkable ability to migrate towards tumor sites, known as homing. This homing process is mediated by various factors, including chemokines, growth factors, and extracellular matrix components present in the tumor microenvironment. MSCs release extracellular vesicles known as exosomes (MSC-Exos), which have been suggested to serve a key role in mediating a wide variety of MSC activities. Through cell-cell communication, MSC-Exos have been shown to alter recipient cell phenotype or function and play as a novel cell-free alternative for MSC-based cell therapy. However, MSC recruitment to tumors allows for their interaction with cancer cells and subsequent regulation of tumor behavior. MSC-Exos act as tumor niche modulators via transferring exosomal contents, such as specific proteins or genetic materials, to the nearby cancer cells, leading to either promotion or suppression of tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis, depending on the specific microenvironmental cues and recipient cell characteristics. Consequently, there is still a debate about the precise relationship between tumor cells and MSC-Exos, and it is unclear how MSC-Exos impacts tumor cells. Although the dysregulation of miRNAs is caused by the progression of cancer, they also play a direct role in either promoting or inhibiting tumor growth as they act as either oncogenes or tumor suppressors. The utilization of MSC-Exos may prove to be an effective method for restoring miRNA as a means of treating cancer. This review aimed to present the existing understanding of the impact that MSC-Exos could have on cancer. To begin with, we presented a brief explanation of exosomes, MSCs, and MSC-Exos. Following this, we delved into the impact of MSC-Exos on cancer growth, EMT, metastasis, angiogenesis, resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and modulation of the immune system. Opposing effects of mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes on cancer cells.

Exosomes as cutting-edge therapeutics in various biomedical applications: An update on engineering, delivery, and preclinical studies

Exosomes are cell-derived nanovesicles, circulating in different body fluids, and acting as an intercellular mechanism. They can be purified from culture media of different cell types and carry an enriched content of various protein and nucleic acid molecules originating from their parental cells. It was indicated that the exosomal cargo can mediate immune responses via many signaling pathways. Over recent years, the therapeutic effects of various exosome types were broadly investigated in many preclinical studies. Herein, we present an update on recent preclinical studies on exosomes as therapeutic and/or delivery agents for various applications. The exosome origin, structural modifications, natural or loaded active ingredients, size, and research outcomes were summarized for various diseases. Overall, the present article provides an overview of the latest exosome research interests and developments to clear the way for the clinical study design and application.

MiRNA-related metastasis in oral cancer: moving and shaking

Across the world, oral cancer is a prevalent tumor. Over the years, both its mortality and incidence have grown. Oral cancer metastasis is a complex process involving cell invasion, migration, proliferation, and egress from cancer tissue either by lymphatic vessels or blood vessels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are essential short non-coding RNAs, which can act either as tumor suppressors or as oncogenes to control cancer development. Cancer metastasis is a multi-step process, in which miRNAs can inhibit or stimulate metastasis at all stages, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition, migration, invasion, and colonization, by targeting critical genes in these pathways. On the other hand, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), two different types of non-coding RNAs, can regulate cancer metastasis by affecting gene expression through cross-talk with miRNAs. We reviewed the scientific literature (Google Scholar, Scopus, and PubMed) for the period 2000-2023 to find reports concerning miRNAs and lncRNA/circRNA-miRNA-mRNA networks, which control the spread of oral cancer cells by affecting invasion, migration, and metastasis. According to these reports, miRNAs are involved in the regulation of metastasis pathways either by directly or indirectly targeting genes associated with metastasis. Moreover, circRNAs and lncRNAs can induce or suppress oral cancer metastasis by acting as competing endogenous RNAs to inhibit the effect of miRNA suppression on specific mRNAs. Overall, non-coding RNAs (especially miRNAs) could help to create innovative therapeutic methods for the control of oral cancer metastases.

Extracellular vesicles in oral squamous cell carcinoma: current progress and future prospect

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most aggressive oral and maxillofacial malignancy with a high incidence and low survival rate. OSCC is mainly diagnosed by tissue biopsy, which is a highly traumatic procedure with poor timeliness. Although there are various options for treating OSCC, most of them are invasive and have unpredictable therapeutic outcomes. Generally, early diagnosis and noninvasive treatment cannot be always satisfied simultaneously in OSCC. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in intercellular communication. EVs facilitate disease progression and reflect the location and status of the lesions. Therefore, EVs are relatively less invasive diagnostic tools for OSCC. Furthermore, the mechanisms by which EVs are involved in tumorigenesis and tumor treatment have been well studied. This article dissects the involvement of EVs in the diagnosis, development, and treatment of OSCC, providing new insight into the treatment of OSCC by EVs. Different mechanisms, such as inhibiting EV internalization by OSCC cells and constructing engineered vesicles, with potential applications for treating OSCC will be discussed in this review article.

Emerging Roles of Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal-Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Therapy

Despite the tremendous efforts of many researchers and clinicians, cancer remains the second leading cause of mortality worldwide. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells residing in numerous human tissues and presenting unique biological properties, such as low immunogenicity, powerful immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive capabilities, and, in particular, homing abilities. Therapeutic functions of MSCs are mediated mostly by the paracrine effect of released functional molecules and other variable components, and among them the MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) seem to be one of the central mediators of the therapeutic functions of MSCs. MSC-EVs are membrane structures secreted by the MSCs, rich in specific proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Amongst these, microRNAs have achieved the most attention currently. Unmodified MSC-EVs can promote or inhibit tumor growth, while modified MSC-EVs are involved in the suppression of cancer progression via the delivery of therapeutic molecules, including miRNAs, specific siRNAs, or suicide RNAs, as well as chemotherapeutic drugs. Here, we present an overview of the characteristics of the MSCs-EVs and describe the current methods for their isolation and analysis, the content of their cargo, and modalities for the modification of MSC-EVs in order for them to be used as drug delivery vehicles. Finally, we describe different roles of MSC-EVs in the tumor microenvironment and summarize current advances of MCS-EVs in cancer research and therapy. MSC-EVs are expected to be a novel and promising cell-free therapeutic drug delivery vehicle for the treatment of cancer.

Salivary Exosomes in Health and Disease: Future Prospects in the Eye

Exosomes are a group of vesicles that package and transport DNA, RNA, proteins, and lipids to recipient cells. They can be derived from blood, saliva, urine, and/or other biological tissues. Their impact on several diseases, such as neurodegenerative, autoimmune, and ocular diseases, have been reported, but not fully unraveled. The exosomes that are derived from saliva are less studied, but offer significant advantages over exosomes from other sources, due to their accessibility and ease of collection. Thus, their role in the pathophysiology of diseases is largely unknown. In the context of ocular diseases, salivary exosomes have been under-utilized, thus creating an enormous gap in the literature. The current review discusses the state of exosomes research on systemic and ocular diseases and highlights the role and potential of salivary exosomes as future ocular therapeutic vehicles.

Extracellular Vesicles as Biomarkers in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: From Diagnosis to Disease-Free Survival

Head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs) arising from different anatomical sites present with different incidences and characteristics, which requires a personalized treatment strategy. Despite the extensive research that has conducted on this malignancy, HNSCC still has a poor overall survival rate. Many attempts have been made to improve the outcomes, but one of the bottlenecks is thought to be the lack of an effective biomarker with high sensitivity and specificity. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are secreted by various cells and participate in a great number of intercellular communications. Based on liquid biopsy, EV detection in several biofluids, such as blood, saliva, and urine, has been applied to identify the existence and progression of a variety of cancers. In HNSCC, tumor-derived EVs exhibit many functionalities by transporting diverse cargoes, which highlights their importance in tumor screening, the determination of multidisciplinary therapy, prediction of prognosis, and evaluation of therapeutic effects. This review illustrates the classification and formation of EV subtypes, the cargoes conveyed by these vesicles, and their respective functions in HNSCC cancer biology, and discloses their potential as biomarkers during the whole process of tumor diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up.

Recent advancements to engineer mesenchymal stem cells and their extracellular vesicles for targeting and destroying tumors

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability to migrate into tumor sites and release growth factors to modulate the tumor microenvironment. MSC therapy have shown a dual role in cancers, promoting or inhibiting. However, MSCs could be used as a carrier of anticancer agents for targeted tumor therapy. Recent technical improvements also allow engineering MSCs to improve tumor-targeting properties, protect anticancer agents, and decrease the cytotoxicity of drugs. While some of MSC functions are mediated through their secretome, MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are also proposed as a possible viechle for cancer therapy. EVs allow efficient loading of anticancer agents and have an intrinsic ability to target tumor cells, making them suitable for targeted therapy of tumors. In addition, the specificity and selectivity of EVs to the tumor sites could be enhanced by surface modification. In this review, we addressed the current approaches used for engineering MSCs and EVs to effectively target tumor sites and deliver anticancer agents.

Insight on nano drug delivery systems with targeted therapy in treatment of oral cancer

Oral cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the mouth and is one of the deadliest malignancies in the world. Currently surgical, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy are most common treatments. Better treatment and early detection strategies are required. Chemotherapeutic drugs fail frequently due to toxicity and poor tumor targeting. There are high chances of failure of chemotherapeutic drugs due to toxicity. Active, passive, and immunity-targeting techniques are devised for tumor-specific activity. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems are the best available solution and important for precise targeting. Nanoparticles, liposomes, exosomes, and cyclodextrins are nano-based carriers for drug delivery. Nanotechnology is being used to develop new techniques such as intratumoral injections, microbubble mediated ultrasonic therapy, phototherapies, and site-specific delivery. This systematic review delves into the details of such targeted and nano-based drug delivery systems in order to improve patient health and survival rates in oral cancer.

Modulating Effects of Cancer-Derived Exosomal miRNAs and Exosomal Processing by Natural Products

Cancer-derived exosomes exhibit sophisticated functions, such as proliferation, apoptosis, migration, resistance, and tumor microenvironment changes. Several clinical drugs modulate these exosome functions, but the impacts of natural products are not well understood. Exosome functions are regulated by exosome processing, such as secretion and assembly. The modulation of these exosome-processing genes can exert the anticancer and precancer effects of cancer-derived exosomes. This review focuses on the cancer-derived exosomal miRNAs that regulate exosome processing, acting on the natural-product-modulating cell functions of cancer cells. However, the role of exosomal processing has been overlooked in several studies of exosomal miRNAs and natural products. In this study, utilizing the bioinformatics database (miRDB), the exosome-processing genes of natural-product-modulated exosomal miRNAs were predicted. Consequently, several natural drugs that modulate exosome processing and exosomal miRNAs and regulate cancer cell functions are described here. This review sheds light on and improves our understanding of the modulating effects of exosomal miRNAs and their potential exosomal processing targets on anticancer treatments based on the use of natural products.

The Emerging Role of Exosomal miRNAs as Biomarkers for Early Cancer Detection: A Comprehensive Literature Review

A significant number of cancer-related deaths are recorded globally each year, despite attempts to cure this illness. Medical science is working to develop new medication therapies as well as to find ways to identify this illness as early as possible, even using noninvasive techniques. Early detection of cancer can greatly aid its treatment. Studies into cancer diagnosis and therapy have recently shifted their focus to exosome (EXO) biomarkers, which comprise numerous RNA and proteins. EXOs are minuscule goblet vesicles that have a width of 30 to 140 nm and are released by a variety of cells, including immune, stem, and tumor cells, as well as bodily fluids. According to a growing body of research, EXOs, and cancer appear to be related. EXOs from tumors play a role in the genetic information transfer between tumor and basal cells, which controls angiogenesis and fosters tumor development and spread. To identify malignant activities early on, microRNAs (miRNAs) from cancers can be extracted from circulatory system EXOs. Specific markers can be used to identify cancer-derived EXOs containing miRNAs, which may be more reliable and precise for early detection. Conventional solid biopsy has become increasingly limited as precision and personalized medicine has advanced, while liquid biopsy offers a viable platform for noninvasive diagnosis and prognosis. Therefore, the use of body fluids such as serum, plasma, urine, and salivary secretions can help find cancer biomarkers using technologies related to EXOs.

The role of extracellular vesicles in osteoarthritis treatment via microenvironment regulation

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease that is common among the middle-aged and older populations, causes patients to experience recurrent pain in their joints and negatively affects their quality of life. Currently, therapeutic options for patients with OA consist of medications to alleviate pain and treat the symptoms; however, due to typically poor outcomes, patients with advanced OA are unlikely to avoid joint replacement. In recent years, several studies have linked disrupted homeostasis of the joint cavity microenvironment to the development of OA. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) have received increasing attention in the field of OA. EVs are natural nano-microcarrier materials with unique biological activity that are produced by cells through paracrine action. They are composed of lipid bilayers that contain physiologically active molecules, such as nucleic acids and proteins. Moreover, EVs may participate in local and distal intercellular and intracellular communication. EVs have also recently been shown to influence OA development by regulating biochemical factors in the OA microenvironmental. In this article, we first describe the microenvironment of OA. Then, we provide an overview of EVs, summarize the main types used for the treatment of OA, and describe their mechanisms. Next, we review clinical studies using EVs for OA treatment. Finally, the specific mechanism underlying the application of miRNA-enriched EVs in OA therapy is described.

Nanomedicines in oral cancer: inspiration comes from extracellular vesicles and biomimetic nanoparticles

Oral cancer is a common life-threatening malignancy having high mortality and morbidity rates. During the treatment process, individuals unavoidably experience severe side effects. It is essential to develop safer and more effective strategies. Currently, extracellular vesicles (EVs) and biomimetic nanoparticles are nanomedicines with long-term blood circulation and lower off-target toxicity that orchestrate immune responses and accumulate specifically in tumor sites. EVs create a synergetic effect by encapsulating drugs and collaborating with naturally loaded elements in the EVs. Biomimetic nanoparticles retain the characteristic features of the synthetic nanocarriers and inherit the intrinsic cell membrane functionalities. This review outlines the properties, applications, challenges, pros and cons of EVs and biomimetic nanoparticles, providing novel perspectives on oral cancer.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as new tools for delivery of miRNAs in the treatment of cancer

Although ongoing medical research is working to find a cure for a variety of cancers, it continues to be one of the major causes of death worldwide. Chemotherapy and immunotherapy, as well as surgical intervention and radiation therapy, are critical components of cancer treatment. Most anti-cancer drugs are given systemically and distribute not just to tumor tissues but also to normal tissues, where they may cause side effects. Furthermore, because anti-cancer drugs have a low delivery efficiency, some tumors do not respond to them. As a result, tumor-targeted drug delivery is critical for improving the safety and efficacy of anti-cancer treatment. Exosomes are microscopic extracellular vesicles that cells produce to communicate with one another. MicroRNA (miRNA), long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), DNA, protein, and lipids are among the therapeutic cargos found in exosomes. Recently, several studies have focused on miRNAs as a potential therapeutic element for the treatment of cancer. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) have been known to have angiogenic, anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. Exosomes derived from MSCs are gaining popularity as a non-cellular alternative to MSC-based therapy, as this method avoids unwanted lineage differentiation. Therefore more research have focused on transferring miRNAs to mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and targeting miRNA-loaded exosomes to cancer cells. Here, we initially gave an overview of the characteristics and potentials of MSC as well as the use of MSC-derived exosomes in cancer therapy. Finally, we emphasized the utilization of MSC-derived exosomes for miRNA delivery in the treatment of cancer.

Exosomal non-coding RNAs have a significant effect on tumor metastasis

Exosomes are produced by the majority of eukaryotic cells and are capable of transporting a variety of substances, including non-coding RNAs, between cells. Metastasis is a significant cause of death from cancer. Numerous studies have established an important role for exosomal non-coding RNAs in tumor metastasis. Exosomal non-coding RNAs from a variety of cells have been shown to affect tumor metastasis via several mechanisms. Exosomes transmit non-coding RNAs between tumor cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune cells within the tumor microenvironment. Exosomal non-coding RNAs also have an effect on epithelial-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. Exosomes derived from tumor cells have the ability to transport non-coding RNAs to distant organs, thereby facilitating the formation of the metastatic niche. Due to their role in tumor metastasis, exosomal non-coding RNAs have the potential to serve as diagnostic or prognostic markers as well as therapeutic targets for tumors. The purpose of this paper is to review and discuss the mechanisms of exosomal non-coding RNAs, their role in tumor metastasis, and their clinical utility, aiming to establish new directions for tumor metastasis, diagnosis, and treatment research.

Exosomics in oral cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutics - An emergent and imperative non-invasive natural nanoparticle-based approach

Exosomes- the natural nanoparticles belonging to heterogeneous vesicles are released via nearly all sorts of cells, including tumour cells, to oprate intercellular communication. Selective packaging of exosomes amid nucleic acids, phospholipids, and proteins makes them ideal for intercellular communications occurring among different cells. The existence of exosomes has been validated in various biofluids, including saliva. Being non-invasive and in direct contact with oral malignant cells, saliva establishes itself as a preeminent source of early cancer biomarkers. In context, the role and providence of both recipient and donor secreting cells are persuaded through exosomal cargo.Several studies have emphasized the influence of exosomal contents in different stages of cancer development, reconciling interactions between tumour cells and their surrounding niche. More explicitly, a transformation of exosomal contents such as nucleic acids, lipids, and proteins can endorse tumour progression and help ascertain a secluded pre-metastatic niche crammed with substances that errand cancer cell proliferation,angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. The blooming field of exosomes has directed the evolution of high-end isolation and characterization techniques along with the development of an entirely new field- exosomics that comprises complete analysis of exosomal cargo in various physiological conditions, including oral cancer. Researchers have discovered multiple pathways involved in exosome biogenesis to understand numerous events associated with cancer progression. Tissue-specific packaging of exosomes makes them a novel source of prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. The extent of the current review confers the contemporary perception of the versatile task of exosomes, especially salivary exosomes, as potential biomarkers in the progression and diagnosis as well as therapeutics of oral cancers and their potential employment in clinical applications.

Tumor suppressive role of microRNA-139-5p in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles in bladder cancer through regulation of the KIF3A/p21 axis

The emerging roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in bladder cancer have recently been identified. This study aims to elucidate the role of microRNA-139-5p (miR-139-5p) shuttled by bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs)-derived EVs (BMSCs-EVs) in bladder cancer, with the possible mechanism explored. Expression of miR-139-5p and KIF3A was tested, followed by an analysis of their correlation. EVs were isolated from BMSCs and co-cultured with T24 or BOY-12E cells with miR-139-5p mimic/inhibitor, oe-KIF3A, and/or si-p21 transfected to study the roles of miR-139-5p/KIF3A/p21 in bladder cancer cell functions. A nude mouse model of subcutaneous xenograft tumor was constructed to detect the effect of miR-139-5p in BMSCs-EVs on the tumorigenesis and lung metastasis of bladder cancer cells in vivo. It was identified that miR-139-5p was highly expressed in BMSCs-EVs, but poorly expressed in bladder cancer. BMSCs-EVs transferred miR-139-5p into bladder cancer cells where miR-139-5p inhibited the malignant features of bladder cancer cells in vitro. miR-139-5p in BMSCs-EVs targeted KIF3A and inhibited the expression of KIF3A, thereby activating p21. miR-139-5p in BMSCs-EVs arrested the tumorigenesis and lung metastasis of bladder cancer cells in vivo by modulation of the KIF3A/p21 axis. Altogether, BMSCs-EVs carried miR-139-5p targeted KIF3A to activate p21, thus delaying the occurrence of bladder cancer.

The Effects of Mesenchymal Stem Cells on Oral Cancer and Possible Therapy Regime

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are characterized by self-renewal, rapid proliferation, multipotent differentiation, and low immunogenicity. In addition, the tropism of MSCs towards injured tissues and tumor lesions makes them attractive candidates as cell carriers for therapeutic agent delivery and genetic material transfer. The interaction between tumor cells and MSCs in the tumor microenvironment plays an important role in tumor progression. Oral cancer is one of the most common malignant diseases in the head and neck. Although considerable improvements in the treatment of oral cancer were achieved, more effective and safer novel agents and treatments are still needed, and deeper studies on the etiology, pathology, and treatment of the oral cancer are desirable. In the past decades, many studies have reported the beneficial effects of MSCs-based therapies in the treatment of various diseases, including oral cancers. Meanwhile, other studies demonstrated that MSCs may enhance the growth and metastasis of oral cancer. In this paper, we reviewed the research progress of the effects of MSCs on oral cancers, the underlying mechanisms, and their potential applications in the treatment of oral cancers.

Current Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Exosomes in Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Oral cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world, with more than 300,000 cases diagnosed each year, of which oral squamous cell carcinoma accounts for more than 90%, with a 5-year survival rate of only 40–60%, and poor prognosis. Exploring new strategies for the early diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer is key to improving the survival rate. Exosomes are nanoscale lipid bilayer membrane vesicles that are secreted by almost all cell types. During the development of oral cancer, exosomes can transport their contents (DNA, RNA, proteins, etc) to target cells and promote or inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of oral cancer cells by influencing the host immune response, drug-resistant metastasis, and tumour angiogenesis. Therefore, exosomes have great potential and advantages as biomarkers for oral cancer diagnosis, and as drug delivery vehicles or targets for oral cancer therapy. In this review, we first describe the biogenesis, biological functions, and isolation methods of exosomes, followed by their relationship with oral cancer. Here, we focused on the potential of exosomes as oral cancer biomarkers, drug carriers, and therapeutic targets. Finally, we provide an insightful discussion of the opportunities and challenges of exosome application in oral cancer diagnosis and treatment, intending to offer new ideas for the clinical management of oral cancer.

Research progress and clinical application prospects of miRNAs in oral cancer

Oral cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide, and it is also one of the most important and difficult clinical problems to be solved. Due to the regional differences in diet culture, some areas have taken the 'hardest hit' of oral cancer cases. However, the existing clinical treatment methods (surgery as the main treatment method, radiotherapy and chemotherapy as the auxiliary ones) do not have satisfactory treatment effects; therefore, new diagnosis and treatment methods need to be developed and utilized. Micro RNAs (miRNAs), as a class of substances that play an important regulatory role in the development of tumors, have an important value in the diagnosis and treatment of various tumors. At the same time, many miRNAs have obvious expression differences in oral cancer tissues compared to normal tissues. Therefore, they may have diagnostic and therapeutic effects on oral cancer. In this review, we evaluate the miRNAs that play a regulatory role in the development of oral cancer and those that are expected to be applied in the diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer. At the same time, we summarize the important challenges that need to be addressed, aiming to provide evidence and suggestions for the application of miRNAs in the diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer.

Functional Properties of Cancer Epithelium and Stroma-Derived Exosomes in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Stroma–cancer cell crosstalk involves a complex signaling network that contributes to tumor progression, including carcinogenesis, angiogenesis, migration, invasion, and therapy resistance in cancers. Exosomes, as extracellular membranous nanovesicles released by almost all types of cells, including tumor cells and stromal cells, play a critical role in signal delivery and material communication, in which the characteristics of their parent cells are reflected. The tumor or stroma-derived exosomes mediate cell–cell communication in the tumor microenvironment by transporting DNA, RNA, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. Recent studies on head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) have demonstrated that tumor-derived exosomes support various tumor biological behaviors, whereas the functional roles of stroma-derived exosomes remain largely unknown. Although these exosomes are emerging as promising targets in early diagnosis, prognostic prediction, and pharmaceutical carriers for antitumor therapy, there are still multiple hurdles to be overcome before they can be used in clinical applications. Herein, we systematically summarize the promotive roles of the epithelium and stroma-derived exosomes in HNSCC and highlight the potential clinical applications of exosomes in the treatment of HNSCC.

More than a Bubble: Extracellular Vesicle microRNAs in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Simple Summary

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an aggressive and lethal disease. Despite diagnostic and therapeutic advances, the overall survival of patients with advanced HNSCC remains poor. Recently, microRNAs in extracellular vesicles (EV-miRNAs) have been proposed as essential regulatory molecules involved in HNSCC. EV-miRNAs may serve as disease biomarkers and represent a novel therapeutic target. This review summarizes the current understanding of the role of EV-miRNAs in HNSCC as well as their potential future clinical applications.

Abstract

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNA molecules that play a pivotal regulatory role in a broad variety of biological processes. Dysregulation of miRNAs is associated with several human diseases, particularly cancer. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are crucial components in intercellular communication. As part of the cargo of EVs, miRNAs are involved in EV-mediated cell-to-cell interactions, including promotion or suppression of tumor development. The knowledge on the molecular mechanisms and clinical importance of EV-miRNAs in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) has rapidly grown over the past years. In the present review, the current understanding regarding the effect of EV-miRNAs on HNSCC tumorigenesis is summarized, which includes effects on tumor proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion and metastasis, the tumor microenvironment, immune modulation, and treatment resistance. EV-miRNA-based biomarkers in liquid biopsies such as blood and saliva may open up new possibilities for employing EV-miRNAs for screening and early diagnostics as well as disease monitoring. Future perspectives include the promise of EV-miRNAs as a novel therapeutic target.

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes as novel vehicles for delivery of miRNAs in cancer therapy

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are known as promising sources for cancer therapy and can be utilized as vehicles in cancer gene therapy. MSC-derived exosomes are central mediators in the therapeutic functions of MSCs, known as the novel cell-free alternatives to MSC-based cell therapy. MSC-derived exosomes show advantages including higher safety as well as more stability and convenience for storage, transport and administration compared to MSCs transplant therapy. Unmodified MSC-derived exosomes can promote or inhibit tumors while modified MSC-derived exosomes are involved in the suppression of cancer development and progression via the delivery of several therapeutics molecules including chemotherapeutic drugs, miRNAs, anti-miRNAs, specific siRNAs, and suicide gene mRNAs. In most malignancies, dysregulation of miRNAs not only occurs as a consequence of cancer progression but also is directly involved during tumor initiation and development due to their roles as oncogenes (oncomiRs) or tumor suppressors (TS-miRNAs). MiRNA restoration is usually achieved by overexpression of TS-miRNAs using synthetic miRNA mimics and viral vectors or even downregulation of oncomiRs using anti-miRNAs. Similar to other therapeutic molecules, the efficacy of miRNAs restoration in cancer therapy depends on the effectiveness of the delivery system. In the present review, we first provided an overview of the properties and potentials of MSCs in cancer therapy as well as the application of MSC-derived exosomes in cancer therapy. Finally, we specifically focused on harnessing the MSC-derived exosomes for the aim of miRNA delivery in cancer therapy.

Engineered exosome as targeted lncRNA MEG3 delivery vehicles for osteosarcoma therapy

Exosomes as nanosized membrane vesicles, could targeted deliver therapeutic agents by modification with target ligands. Exosome-derived non-coding RNAs play a vital role in the development of tumors. Previous evidences reveal that long non-coding RNA maternally expressed gene 3 (lncRNA MEG3) has anti-tumor properties. Whereas, the inhibitory effects of exosome-derived lncRNA MEG3 in osteosarcoma (OS) remain largely unknown. In this study, we utilize the engineering technology to combine exosome and lncRNA for tumor-targeting therapy of OS. We elucidated the anti-OS effects of lncRNA MEG3, and then prepared the c(RGDyK)-modified and MEG3-loaded exosomes (cRGD-Exo-MEG3). The engineered exosomes cRGD-Exo-MEG3 could deliver more efficiently to OS cells both in vitro and in vivo. In this way, cRGD-Exo-MEG3 facilitate the anti-OS effects of MEG3 significantly, with the help of enhanced tumor-targeting therapy. This study elucidates that engineered exosomes as targeted lncRNA MEG3 delivery vehicles have potentially therapeutic effects for OS.

Biomaterials-assisted exosomes therapy in osteoarthritis

Due to the avascular characteristic of articular cartilage, its self-repair capacity is limited. When cartilage is damaged or forms osteoarthritis, clinical treatment is necessary. However, conventional treatments, including joint replacement, microfracture, cell and drug therapies, have certain limits. Lately, the exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs-EXO), which consist of complex transcription factors, proteins and targeting ligand components, have shown great therapeutic potentials. With recent advancements in various biomaterials to extend MSCs-EXO's retention time and control the release properties in vivo, biomaterials-assisted exosomes therapy has been soon becoming a practically powerful tool in treating OA. This review analyzes the effects of MSCs-EXO on osteoarthritis inflammation, metabolism, ageing and apoptosis, and introduces the combinational systems of MSCs-EXO with biomaterials to enhance the repair, anti-inflammatory, and homeostasis regulation functions. Moreover, different types of natural or synthetic biomaterials and their applications with MSCs-EXO were also described and discussed. And finally, we presage the future perspective in the development of biomaterial-assisted exosome therapies, as well as the potential to incorporate with other treatments to enhance their therapeutic effects in osteoarthritis.

Lipid-Based Nanovesicular Drug Delivery Systems

In designing a new drug, considering the preferred route of administration, various requirements must be fulfilled. Active molecules pharmacokinetics should be reliable with a valuable drug profile as well as well-tolerated. Over the past 20 years, nanotechnologies have provided alternative and complementary solutions to those of an exclusively pharmaceutical chemical nature since scientists and clinicians invested in the optimization of materials and methods capable of regulating effective drug delivery at the nanometer scale. Among the many drug delivery carriers, lipid nano vesicular ones successfully support clinical candidates approaching such problems as insolubility, biodegradation, and difficulty in overcoming the skin and biological barriers such as the blood-brain one. In this review, the authors discussed the structure, the biochemical composition, and the drug delivery applications of lipid nanovesicular carriers, namely, niosomes, proniosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, pharmacosomes, ufasomes, phytosomes, catanionic vesicles, and extracellular vesicles.

Extracellular vesicles derived from radioresistant oral squamous cell carcinoma cells contribute to the acquisition of radioresistance via the miR-503-3p-BAK axis

Despite advancements in treatments, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has not significantly improved in prognosis or survival rate primarily due to the presence of treatment-resistant OSCC. The intercellular communication between tumour cells is a molecular mechanism involved in acquiring OSCC treatment resistance. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) and encapsulated miRNAs are important mediators of intercellular communication. Here, we focused on EVs released from clinically relevant radioresistant (CRR) OSCC cells. Additionally, we evaluated the correlation between miRNA expression in the serum samples of patients who showed resistance to radiotherapy and in EVs released from CRR OSCC cells. We found that EVs released from CRR OSCC cells conferred radioresistance to radiosensitive OSCC cells via miR-503-3p contained in EVs. This miR-503-3p inhibited BAK and impaired the caspase cascade to suppress radiation-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, OSCC cells with BAK knockdown had increased radioresistance. Additionally, the expression of circulating miR-503-3p in patients with OSCC was correlated with a poor treatment response and prognosis of radiotherapy. Our results provide new insights into the relationship between EVs and the radioresistance of OSCC and suggest that the miR-503-3p-BAK axis may be a therapeutic target and that circulating miR-503-3p is a useful prognostic biomarker in the radiotherapy of OSCC.

Role of MicroRNA-101 on Proliferation and Migration of Prostate Cancer Cells

Background: MicroRNA-101 is a tumor inhibitor that stimulates tumor progression by reducing or inhibiting the expression of certain oncogenes. Some studies presented that cox-2 is target of MicroRNA 101 in prostate cancer process. Methods: MicroRNA-101 expression was detected by RT-PCR in PC3 cell lines. A and to determine cell proliferation we used MTT assays. Cell would heal and Flow cytometry assays were also used to detect cellular migratory ability and apoptosis, respectively. To assess cox-2 protein expression, Immunohistochemistry was used and data analyzed by data analysis by SPSS 20. Results: PC3 cells treated by MicroRNA-101 mimics displayed a 24% elevation in growth rate compared with blank (P < 0.01) at 48 h, and a 12% increase (P < 0.01) at 72 h. On the other hand, at 48 and 72 h after the MicroRNA-101 inhibitor transfection, proliferation of PC3 cell was decreased significantly. The early apoptosis rate in transfected PC3 cells with MicroRNA-101 mimic (74.4%) and inhibitor (22.8%) were significantly different at 72 h after transfection (P < 0.05), MicroRNA-101 mimics inhibited cell migration, adhesion, and spread was wider relative to the group of control and inhibitor for the PC3 cells. Expression of Cox-2 in transfected PC3 with the MicroRNA-101 inhibitor was higher than the mimic and control groups significantly (P < 0.01). Conclusion: MicroRNA-101 by Cox-2 can play key roles in the prostate cancer pathogenesis.

Comparing the Therapeutic Potential of Stem Cells and their Secretory Products in Regenerative Medicine

Cell therapy involves the transplantation of human cells to replace or repair the damaged tissues and modulate the mechanisms underlying disease initiation and progression in the body. Nowadays, many different types of cell-based therapy are developed and used to treat a variety of diseases. In the past decade, cell-free therapy has emerged as a novel approach in regenerative medicine after the discovery that the transplanted cells exerted their therapeutic effect mainly through the secretion of paracrine factors. More and more evidence showed that stem cell-derived secretome, i.e., growth factors, cytokines, and extracellular vesicles, can repair the injured tissues as effectively as the cells. This finding has spurred a new idea to employ secretome in regenerative medicine. Despite that, will cell-free therapy slowly replace cell therapy in the future? Or are these two modes of treatment still needed to address different diseases and conditions? This review provides an indepth discussion about the values of stem cells and secretome in regenerative medicine. In addition, the safety, efficacy, advantages, and disadvantages of using these two modes of treatment in regenerative medicine are also critically reviewed.

LncRNA LINC00963 promotes osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs and alleviates osteoporosis progression by targeting miRNA-760/ETS1 axis

Although long non-coding RNA LINC00963 has been reported to play a crucial regulatory role in osteoporosis (OP), its specific mechanism has not been well studied. Cell viability of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) transfected with short hairpin RNA targeting LINC00963 (sh-LINC00963) and negative control (sh-NC) was analysed by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity in hBMSCs transfected with sh-LINC00963 and sh-NC after induction by osteogenic medium (OM) on day 7 was detected. The protein expression levels of osteocalcin (OCN) and osteopontin (OPN) in hBMSCs transfected with sh-LINC00963 and sh-NC during OM induction on day 3 were detected by western blot. The relationship among LINC00963, miR-760, and E26 transformation specific-1 (ETS1) was determined by bioinformatics analysis, luciferase reporter assay, and RNA-binding protein immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay. A rat model with OP was established to confirm the role of LINC00963 in vivo. The expression level of LINC00963 was much lower in hBMSCs isolated from the discarded femoral head tissues of OP patients compared with that in health patients. Meanwhile, the expression level of LINC00963 was significantly increased and the expression level of miR-760 was decreased in hBMSCs during osteogenic induction. LINC00963 could bind to the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of miR-760 and negatively regulate the expression of miR-760, then promote the osteogenic differentiation in hBMSCs. ETS1 was identified as a target of miR-760. Moreover, overexpression of LINC00963 obviously reduced bone mineral density (BMD) of the left femur in OP rats and alleviated OP progression in vivo. Our results demonstrated that LINC00963 positively regulated the expression of ETS1 by directly targeting miR-760, and then promoted osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs in vitro, and also attenuated OP progression in vivo, suggesting that LINC00963 might be a potential therapeutic target for OP.

Cell-derived biomimetic nanocarriers for targeted cancer therapy: cell membranes and extracellular vesicles

Nanotechnology provides synthetic carriers for cancer drug delivery that protect cargos from degradation, control drug release and increase local accumulation at tumors. However, these non-natural vehicles display poor tumor targeting and potential toxicity and are eliminated by the immune system. Recently, biomimetic nanocarriers have been widely developed based on the concept of ‘mimicking nature.’ Among them, cell-derived biomimetic vehicles have become the focus of bionics research because of their multiple natural functions, such as low immunogenicity, long circulation time and targeting ability. Cell membrane-coated carriers and extracellular vesicles are two widely used cell-based biomimetic materials. Here, this review summarizes the latest progress in the application of these two biomimetic carriers in targeted cancer therapy. Their properties and performance are compared, and their future challenges and development prospects are discussed.

Anti-inflammatory and M2 macrophage polarization-promoting effect of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells beneficial in regenerative medicine and tissue repair. The therapeutic potential of MSCs for inflammatory diseases and conditions is partly due to secreted exosomes. Exosomes are one group of extracellular vesicles with 50-150 nm in diameter. They can carry numerous molecules and introduce them to the recipient cells to produce various biological effects. Macrophages are classified into M1 and M2 subtypes based on their activation states. M1 macrophages release pro-inflammatory factors like tumor necrosis factoralfa (TNF-α), interleukin1alfa (IL-1α), interleukin1beta (IL-1β), interleukin6 (IL-6), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), while M2 macrophages secrete anti-inflammatory mediators including interleukin10 (IL-10), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), C-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CCL1), C-C motif chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17), C-C motif chemokine ligand 18 (CCL18), and C-C motif chemokine ligand 22 (CCL22). This review summarizes the effect of MSC-derived exosomes in the polarization of M2 macrophages, which their anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties are potentially effective in inflammation diseases and conditions such as central nervous system (CNS) diseases, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory bowel disease, cardiomyopathy, graftversushost disease, kidney, liver, lung, and skin injuries.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia-derived exosome inhibits cytotoxicity of natural killer cells by TGF-β signaling pathway

This study was conducted to explore whether acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)-derived exosomes affect natural killer (NK) cells. Exosomes were isolated and identified from Jurkat cells and co-cultured with NK cells. Then, the cytotoxicity, viability, and release of perforin and granzyme B in NK92-MI cells were measured. PCR arrays were used to detect gene expression alterations in the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β pathway of NK92-MI cells treated or not treated with exosomes. The morphology and size of the exosomes isolated from Jurkat cells showed typical characteristics of exosomes, and the expression of cluster of differentiation 63 was detected. Jurkat-derived exosomes were internalized by NK92-MI cells, further inhibiting the proliferation and cytotoxicity of NK92-MI cells. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay revealed that the release of perforin and granzyme B from NK92-MI cells decreased after co-culture with exosomes. Similarly, western blot and immunofluorescence staining verified that Jurkat-derived exosomes inhibited the expression of granzyme B and perforin. Furthermore, Jurkat-derived exosomes enhanced the signaling of the TGF-β pathway in NK92-MI cells via the MDS1 and EVI1 complex loci and homeodomain interacting protein kinase 2. In conclusion, we found that ALL-derived exosomes inhibit the biological function of NK cells and provide support for the immunotherapy of ALL.

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-derived exosomes in regenerative medicine and cancer; overview of development, challenges, and opportunities

Recently, mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) and their widespread biomedical applications have attracted great consideration from the scientific community around the world. However, reports have shown that the main populations of the transplanted MSCs are trapped in the liver, spleen, and lung upon administration, highlighting the importance of the development of cell-free therapies. Concerning rising evidence suggesting that the beneficial effects of MSC therapy are closely linked to MSC-released components, predominantly MSC-derived exosomes, the development of an MSC-based cell-free approach is of paramount importance. The exosomes are nano-sized (30100nm) lipid bilayer membrane vesicles, which are typically released by MSCs and are found in different body fluids. They include various bioactive molecules, such as messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNAs, proteins, and bioactive lipids, thus showing pronounced therapeutic competence for tissues recovery through the maintenance of their endogenous stem cells, the enhancement of regenerative phenotypic traits, inhibition of apoptosis concomitant with immune modulation, and stimulation of the angiogenesis. Conversely, the specific roles of MSC exosomes in the treatment of various tumors remain challenging. The development and clinical application of novel MSC-based cell-free strategies can be supported by better understanding their mechanisms, classifying the subpopulation of exosomes, enhancing the conditions of cell culture and isolation, and increasing the production of exosomes along with engineering exosomes to deliver drugs and therapeutic molecules to the target sites. In the current review, we deliver a brief overview of MSC-derived exosome biogenesis, composition, and isolation methods and discuss recent investigation regarding the therapeutic potential of MSC exosomes in regenerative medicine accompanied by their double-edged sword role in cancer.

The emerging role of miRNA in the perturbation of tumor immune microenvironment in chemoresistance: Therapeutic implications

Chemoresistance is a major hindrance in cancer chemotherapies, a leading cause of tumor recurrence and cancer-related deaths. Cancer cells develop numerous strategies to elude immune attacks and are regulated by immunological factors. Cancer cells can alter the expression of several immune modulators to upregulate the activities of immune checkpoint pathways. Targeting the immune checkpoint inhibitors is a part of the cancer immunotherapy altered during carcinogenesis. These immune modulators have the capability to reprogram the tumor microenvironment, thereby change the efficacy of chemotherapeutics. In general, the sensitivity of drugs is reduced in the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, resulting in chemoresistance and tumor relapse. The regulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) is well established in cancer initiation, progression, and therapy. Intriguingly, miRNA affects cancer immune surveillance and immune response by targeting immune checkpoint inhibitors in the tumor microenvironment. miRNAs alter the gene expression at the post-transcriptional level, which modulates both innate and adaptive immune systems. Alteration of tumor immune microenvironment influences drug sensitivity towards cancer cells. Besides, the expression profile of immune-modulatory miRNAs can be used as a potential biomarker to predict the response and clinical outcomes in cancer immunotherapy and chemotherapy. Recent evidences have revealed that cancer-derived immune-modulatory miRNAs might be promising targets to counteract cancer immune escape, thereby increasing drug efficacy. In this review, we have compiled the role of miRNAs in overcoming the chemoresistance by modulating tumor microenvironment and discussed their preclinical and clinical implications.

[microRNA-1 gene delivery mediated by exosomes suppresses CAL-27 cell proliferation]

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to construct endogenous exosomes abundantly loaded with miR-1 and investigate the role of exosome-mediated microRNA-1 (miR-1) delivery on CAL-27 cell proliferation.

METHODS

Exosomes secreted by miR-1-overexpressing HEK293 cells (miR1-EXO) were purified via ultracentrifugation and subjected to transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle analysis, Western blot analysis, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). CAL-27 cells were cocultured with exosomes secreted by HEK293 cells (CON-EXO) and miR1-EXO and equivalent phosphate buffer saline. The intracellular transport of exosomes was measured by using immunofluorescence, the expression of miR-1 and its target gene MET were investigated via qPCR, CAL-27 cell proliferation was measured through MTT assay, and cell cycle state was determined by applying flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Electron microscopy revealed that miR1-EXO and CON-EXO were spherical or cup-shaped with an average diameter of approximately 110 nm. The well-known exosome markers CD9, Tsg101, and Alix were enriched. The expression of miR-1 in miR1-EXO was higher than that in CON-EXO (285.80±14.33 vs 1.00±0.06, P<0.000 1). After coculture with CAL-27 cells, miR1-EXO was internalized and unloaded miR-1 into CAL-27 cells. After coculture with miR1-EXO, the expression of miR-1 in CAL-27 cells was upregulated, whereas that of MET, the target gene of miR-1, was suppressed and the proliferation of CAL-27 cells was inhibited significantly. Normal oral keratinocyte cell proliferation was negligibly affected after coculture with miR1-EXO.

CONCLUSIONS

Exosomes secreted from miR1-EXO cells could load abundant miR-1. Exosomal miR-1 delivered into CAL-27 cells by using miR1-EXO suppressed the expression of MET mRNA and inhibited cell proliferation.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes reduce apoptosis and inflammatory response during spinal cord injury by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the most common destructive injuries, which may lead to permanent neurological dysfunction. Currently, transplantation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in experimental models of SCI shows promise as effective therapies. BMSCs secrete various factors that can regulate the microenvironment, which is called paracrine effect. Among these paracrine substances, exosomes are considered to be the most valuable therapeutic factors. Our study found that BMSCs-derived exosomes therapy attenuated cell apoptosis and inflammation response in the injured spinal cord tissues. In in vitro studies, BMSCs-derived exosomes significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced PC12 cell apoptosis, reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory factors including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and IL (interleukin)-1β and promoted the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors including IL-10 and IL-4. Moreover, we found that LPS-induced protein expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) was significantly downregulated after treatment with BMSCs-derived exosomes. In in vivo studies, we found that hindlimb motor function was significantly improved in SCI rats with systemic administration of BMSCs-derived exosomes. We also observed that the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins and pro-inflammatory factors was significantly decreased, while the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins and anti-inflammatory factors were upregulated in SCI rats after exosome treatment. In conclusion, BMSCs-derived exosomes can inhibit apoptosis and inflammation response induced by injury and promote motor function recovery by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway, which suggests that BMSCs-derived exosomes are expected to become a new therapeutic strategy for SCI.

MicroRNAs as Modulators of Oral Tumorigenesis-A Focused Review

Oral cancers constitute the majority of head and neck tumors, with a relatively high incidence and poor survival rate in developing countries. While the five-year survival rates of the oral cancer patients have increased to 65%, the overall survival for advanced stages has been at 27% for the past ten years, emphasizing the necessity for further understanding the etiology of the disease, diagnosis, and formulating possible novel treatment regimens. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a family of small non-coding RNA, have emerged as master modulators of gene expression in various cellular and biological process. Aberrant expression of these dynamic molecules has been associated with many human diseases, including oral cancers. The deregulated miRNAs have been shown to control various oncogenic processes, including sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death activating invasion and metastasis, and inducing angiogenesis. Hence, the aberrant expression of miRNAs associated with oral cancers, makes them potential candidates for the investigation of functional markers, which will aid in the differential diagnosis, prognosis, and development of novel therapeutic regimens. This review presents a holistic insight into our understanding of the role of miRNAs in regulating various hallmarks of oral tumorigenesis.

The Emerging Role of Exosomes in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral cancer constitutes approximately 2% of all cancers, while the most common type, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) represents 90% of oral cancers. Although the treatment of OSCC has improved recently, it still has a high rate of local recurrence and poor prognosis, with a 5-year survival rate of only 50%. Advanced stage OSCC tends to metastasize to lymph nodes. Thus, exploring new therapeutic strategies for OSCC is therefore an urgent priority. Exosomes, the small membrane vesicles derived from endosomes, have been detected in a wide array of bodily fluids. Exosomes contain a diversity of proteins, mRNAs, and non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, piRNAs, circular RNAs, tsRNAs, and ribosomal RNAs, which are delivered to neighboring cells or even transported to distant sites. Exosomes have been associated with the tumorigenesis of OSCC, promote the proliferation, colonization, and metastasis of OSCC by transferring their contents to the target cells. Furthermore, exosomes are involved in the regulation of the tumor microenvironment to transform conditions favoring cancer progression in vivo. In this review, we summarize the crucial role of exosomes in the tumorigenesis and progression of OSCC and discuss the potential clinical application of exosomes in OSCC treatment.