Aspartame and Soft Drink-Mediated Neurotoxicity in Rats: Implication of Oxidative Stress, Apoptotic Signaling Pathways, Electrolytes and Hormonal Levels

Aspartame use and Parkinson's disease: review of associated effects on neurotransmitters, oxidative stress, and cognition

Objective: The purpose of this review was to assess the current evidence regarding the associated physiological and cognitive effects of aspartame (APM) consumption and Parkinson's Disease (PD).

METHODS

A total of 32 studies demonstrating effects of APM on monoamine deficiencies, oxidative stress, and cognitive changes were reviewed.

RESULTS

Multiple studies demonstrated decreased brain dopamine, decreased brain norepinephrine, increased oxidative stress, increased lipid peroxidation, and decreased memory function in rodents after APM use. In addition, PD animal models have been found to be more sensitive to the effects of APM.

DISCUSSION

Overall, studies of APM use over time yielded more consistent results; however, no study has examined long-term effects on APM in human PD patients. Based on the current evidence, long-term human based observational research is needed to further investigate the potential effect of APM on PD.

Relationship between Aspartame-Induced Cerebral Cortex Injury and Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, and Apoptosis in Sprague Dawley Rats

There are emerging concerns about the potential cerebral cortex injury from aspartame due to the accumulation of the various neurotoxic metabolic components in the central nervous system after long-term dietary exposure. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of oral aspartame consumption on cerebral cortex injury in the rat brain, and further evaluate the various underlying molecular mechanisms, with a special focus on oxidative stress, inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis pathways. Sprague Dawley rats (nineteen, female) were randomly sub-divided into three groups: (i) normal diet with vehicle: control group (five rats), (ii) low dose of aspartame group (LA): seven rats received 30 mg/kg body weight (bw) daily doses of aspartame, (iii) high dose of aspartame group (HA): seven rats received 60 mg/kg bw daily doses of aspartame. After 8 weeks, the LA and HA groups showed lower expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD2, CAT), antioxidant marker (Nrf2), inflammatory response (IκB), mitochondrial biogenesis (Sirt1, PGC1α, Nrf1, TFAM), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number, and apoptosis-related proteins (Bax, Caspase-3) expressions. Aspartame administration also elevated oxidative stress levels (Malondialdehyde, MDA), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxy guanosine (8-OHdG), PGE2 and COX-2 expressions, pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL6, IL1β), antioxidant marker expression (Keap1), inflammatory responses (iNOS, NFκB), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels in the cerebral cortex of the rats, thereby contributing to the reduced survival of pyramidal cells and astrocyte glial cells of the cerebral cortex. Therefore, these findings imply that aspartame-induced neurotoxicity in rats' cerebral cortex could be regulated through four mechanisms: inflammation, enhanced oxidant stress, decreased mitochondrial biogenesis, and apoptosis pathways.

Updated systematic assessment of human, animal and mechanistic evidence demonstrates lack of human carcinogenicity with consumption of aspartame

Aspartame has been studied extensively and evaluated for its safety in foods and beverages yet concerns for its potential carcinogenicity have persisted, driven primarily by animal studies conducted at the Ramazzini Institute (RI). To address this controversy, an updated systematic review of available human, animal, and mechanistic data was conducted leveraging critical assessment tools to consider the quality and reliability of data. The evidence base includes 12 animal studies and >40 epidemiological studies reviewed by the World Health Organization which collectively demonstrate a lack of carcinogenic effect. Assessment of >1360 mechanistic endpoints, including many guideline-based genotoxicity studies, demonstrate a lack of activity associated with endpoints grouped to key characteristics of carcinogens. Other non-specific mechanistic data (e.g., mixed findings of oxidative stress across study models, tissues, and species) do not provide evidence of a biologically plausible carcinogenic pathway associated with aspartame. Taken together, available evidence supports that aspartame consumption is not carcinogenic in humans and that the inconsistent findings of the RI studies may be explained by flaws in study design and conduct (despite additional analyses to address study limitations), as acknowledged by authoritative bodies.

Sugary beverages and genetic risk in relation to brain structure and incident dementia: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The relation of intake of sugary beverages and genetic predisposition to the long-term risk of dementia and brain structure remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the associations of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), artificially-sweetened beverages (ASBs), and natural juices (NJs) and the genetic predisposition with dementia risk and brain structure.

METHODS

We included 177,926 UK Biobank participants without dementia at baseline and followed them until March 2021. Intake of SSBs, ASBs, and NJs was assessed using repeated web-based 24-h dietary recalls from 2009 to 2012. We calculated a polygenic risk score (PRS) to indicate genetic predisposition of dementia for each individual. We estimated the HRs and 95% CIs using Cox proportional hazard models for dementia risk and β coefficients and 95% CIs using linear models for brain imaging markers.

RESULTS

During study follow-up (mean = 9.5 years), 1293 participants developed dementia (69.1 cases/100,000 person-years) excluding dementia cases within the first 2 years. Higher intake of SSBs and ASBs (>2 units/d compared with none) was each associated with a higher risk of dementia (HR: 1.34; 95% CI: 1.01, 1.77; P-trend = 0.040 for SSBs and 1.20; 95% CI: 0.84, 1.72; P-trend = 0.004 for ASBs). In contrast, moderate intake of NJs (>0-1 unit/d compared with none) was related to a lower dementia risk (HR: 0.77; 95% CI: 0.68, 0.87), a larger volume of brain gray matter (β = 0.05; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.08), and a lower volume of white matter hyperintensities (β = -0.07; 95% CI: -0.11, -0.03). The associations were not significantly modified by genetic risk (P-interactions = 0.839 for SSB × PRS, 0.732 for ASB × PRS, and 0.950 for NJ × PRS).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher SSB and ASB intake was associated with higher risk of dementia, and moderate NJ intake was associated with a lower risk of dementia. Am J Clin Nutr 20XX;xx:xx-xx.

Long-term intake of aspartame-induced cardiovascular toxicity is reflected in altered histochemical parameters, evokes oxidative stress, and trigger P53-dependent apoptosis in a mouse model

Aspartame (ASP) is probably the best known artificial sugar substitute that is used widely in food. Many experimental studies have reported the toxicity of long-term administration of ASP in various organ tissues. However, there is little evidence available about the nature and mechanisms of the adverse effects of long-term consumption of ASP on the cardiovascular system. This study was conducted to evaluate the possible effects of ASP on heart tissue. For this study 36 mature male mice were divided into one control group and three groups which received respectively 40 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg and 160 mg/kg ASP orally, for 90 days. ASP at the doses of 80 and 160 mg/kg increased the serum content of malondialdehyde (MDA), but decreased serum nitric oxide (NO), creatine kinase (CK) and CK-MB, as well as blood superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels. Serum level of total anti-oxidant capacity (TAC) in blood was also reduced in serum at the dose of 80 mg/kg. Histochemical staining, including Periodic acid-Schiff, Masson's trichrome and Verhoeff-van Gieson staining, indicated that ASP at doses of 80 and 160 mg/kg reduced glycogen deposition and decreased the number of collagen and elastic fibres in the cardiac tissue. The cardiac expression of pro-apoptotic genes, including P53, Bax, Bcl-2 and Caspase-3, was modulated at the dose of 160 mg/kg. Moreover, transcription of Caspase-3 was up-regulated at the dose of 80 mg/kg. In conclusion, long-term consumption of ASP any higher than the acceptable daily intake (40 mg/kg) appears to act by promoting oxidative stress, has the potential to alter both histopathological and biochemical parameters, and induces P53-dependent apoptosis in cardiac tissue.

Long-term administration of soft drink causes memory impairment and oxidative damage in adult and middle-aged rats

INTRODUCTION

The consumption of soft drinks has increased considerably in recent decades, mainly cola soft drinks. Excessive consumption of cola-based soft drinks is associated with several diseases and cognitive decline, particularly memory impairment. Furthermore, diets with high sugar can promote insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and dyslipidemia.

AIM

Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of cola soft drink intake on behavioral alterations and oxidative damage in 2-, 8- and 14- month-old male Wistar rats.

METHODS

The soft drink groups drank soft drink and/or water ad libitum during 67 days, the control groups ingested only water. Radial-arm maze and Y-maze were used to evaluate spatial memory, open-field to evaluate the habituation memory, and inhibitory avoidance to evaluate aversive memory. The behavioral tests started at the day 57 and finished at day 67 of treatment. At 68th day, the rats were killed; frontal cortex and hippocampus were dissected to the analysis of antioxidants enzymes catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD); and the oxidative markers thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) and dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH) were measured in the hippocampus.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The cola-based soft drink intake caused memory impairment in the radial-arm maze, Y-maze task, and open-field in the 2- and 8-month-old rat, but not in the 14-month-old. There were no difference among groups in the inhibitory avoidance test. In the frontal cortex, soft drink intake reduced CAT activity in the 8-month-old rats and SOD activity in the 8- and 14-month-old rats. In the hippocampus, the soft drink increased CAT activity in 8-month-old rats, increased DCFH levels at all ages, and increased TBARs levels in 2-month-rats. Therefore, the results show that long-term soft drink intake leads to memory impairment and oxidative stress. The younger seems to be more susceptible to the soft drink alterations on behavior; however, soft drink caused alterations in the oxidative system at all ages evaluated.

The possible role of the seaweed Sargassum vulgare as a promising functional food ingredient minimizing aspartame-associated toxicity in rats

Thirty-two male Wistar albino rats were chosen to test the possible protective role of antioxidants of the edible seaweed Sargassum vulgare as a functional food additive to alleviate oxidative stress and toxicity associated with consumption of the artificial sweetener 'aspartame (ASP)'. Biochemical and spleen histopathological analyses of the orally ASP-administrated rats, at a dose of 500 mg/kg for one week daily, showed different apoptotic and inflammatory patterns. Rats treated with ASP and then supplemented orally with the S. vulgare-MeOH extract, at a dose of 150 mg/kg for three consecutive weeks daily, showed significant positive reactions in all investigated assays related to ASP consumption. The protective and immune-stimulant efficacy of S. vulgare-MeOH extract, inferred from combating oxidative stress-induced lipid peroxidation, modulating the low levels of the endogenous antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) and of the thyroid hormones T3 and T4, attenuating the elevated levels of apoptotic CASP-3 and inflammatory biomarkers TNF-α and IL-6, as well as heat shock proteins (Hsp70), can be most likely ascribed to the synergistic effect of its potent antioxidant phenolics (mainly gallic, ferulic, salicylic, and chlorogenic, and p-coumaric acids) and flavonoids (rutin, kaempferol, and hesperidin). Mechanism of action of these natural antioxidants was discussed.

Zebrafish Behavioral Phenomics Links Artificial Sweetener Aspartame to Behavioral Toxicity and Neurotransmitter Homeostasis

Artificial sweeteners (ASs) are extensively used as food additives in drinks and beverages to lower calorie intake and prevent lifestyle diseases such as obesity. Although clinical and epidemiological data revealed the link between the chronic overconsumption of ASs and adverse health effects, there still exist controversies over the potential adverse neural toxic effect of ASs such as aspartame (APM), with acceptable daily intake (ADI) for a long time, on human health. In addition, whether APM and its metabolites are neurotoxic remains debatable due to a lack of data from an animal experiment or clinical investigation. Herein, to fully describe the potential neurological effect of APM, adult zebrafish served as the animal model to assess neurophysiological alteration induced by APM exposure within the range of the ADI (1, 10, and 100 mg/L) for 2 months. A cohort of standardized neurobehavioral phenotyping assays was conducted, including light/dark preference tests (LDP), novel tank diving tests, novel object recognition tests, social interaction tests, and color preference tests. For instance, in the LDP test, saccharin remarkably decreased the swimming time of zebrafish in the DARK part from 111 ± 10.8 (control group) to 72.2 ± 11.4 (100 mg/L groups). Besides, brain chemistry involved in the alteration of total neurotransmitters was determined by LC-MS/MS to confirm the behavioral results. Overall, current research studies revealed that APM within the range of the ADI altered the total behavioral profiles of zebrafish and disturbed the homeostasis of neurotransmitters in the brain. The present study has established a set of experimental paradigms, revealing the standardized procedure of using adult zebrafish to determine the neural activity or toxicity of AS molecules phenotypically. Zebrafish behavioral phenotyping methods, which were characterized by a cohort of behavioral fingerprints, can link the phenotypical alteration to changes in neurotransmitters in the brain, so as to provide a predictive reference for the further exploration of the molecular mechanism of phenotypic changes induced by ASs.

Doxorubicin nanomedicine based on ginsenoside Rg1 with alleviated cardiotoxicity and enhanced antitumor activity

Aim: The authors aimed to develop Dox@Rg1 nanoparticles with decreased cardiotoxicity to expand their application in cancer. Materials & methods: Dox@Rg1 nanoparticles were developed by encapsulating doxorubicin (Dox) in a self-assembled Rg1. The antitumor effect of the nanoparticles was estimated using 4T1 tumor-bearing mice and the protective effect on the heart was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Results: Different from Dox, the Dox@Rg1 nanoparticles induced increased cytotoxicity to tumor cells, which was decreased in cardiomyocytes by the inhibition of apoptosis. The study in vivo revealed that the Dox@Rg1 nanoparticles presented a perfect tumor-targeting ability and improved antitumor effects. Conclusion: Dox@Rg1 nanoparticles could enhance the antitumor effects and decrease the cardiotoxicity of Dox.

Aspartame and sucralose extend the lifespan and improve the health status of C. elegans

Aspartame (ASP) and sucralose (SUC) are non-nutritive sweeteners which are widely consumed worldwide. They are considered safe for human consumption, but their effects on certain physiological aspects, such as the lifespan or health status, of the organism have not yet been studied in depth and only limited data are available in the literature. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of ASP and SUC on the lifespan and health indexes using Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) as a model system. Interestingly, it was shown that at the concentrations tested, ASP (0.03-3 mg mL^-1) showed an increasing trend of the mean lifespan of C. elegans, with a significant increase of 27.6% compared to the control at 3 mg mL^-1. Similarly, SUC (ranging from 0.03 to 10 mg mL^-1) also significantly increased the mean lifespan by 20.3% and 22.3% at 0.03 and 0.3 mg mL^-1, respectively. However, 10 mg mL^-1 SUC had a negative effect on the lifespan, though it did not reach a statistically significant level. In addition, ASP and SUC decreased lipofuscin accumulation and transiently improved motility, indicating improved health status. Nonetheless, they had different effects on food intake and intestinal fat deposition (IFD) at different intervals of time. Taken together, our findings revealed that ASP and SUC can prolong the lifespan and improve the health status of C. elegans.

The in vitro cytotoxic, genotoxic, and oxidative damage potentials of the oral artificial sweetener aspartame on cultured human blood cells

Background/aim

Aspartame (APM, L-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine methylester) is a low-calorie, nonsaccharide artificial sweetener widely used in foods and beverages. When metabolized by the body, APM is broken down into aspartic acid, phenylalanine amino acids, and a third substance, methanol. Since the amino acid phenylalanine serves as a neurotransmitter building block affecting the brain, and methanol is converted into toxic formaldehyde, APM has deleterious effects on the body and brain. Thus, its safety and, toxicity have been the subjects of concern ever since it was first discovered. Although many studies have been performed on it, due to the presence of conflicting data in the literature, there are still numerous question marks concerning APM.Therefore, the safety of aspartame was tested using in vitro methods.

Materials and methods

We aimed to evaluate the in vitro cytotoxic effects by using 3-(4,5-dimetylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase release tests, genotoxic damage potential by using chromosome aberration (CA) assay, and antioxidant/oxidant activity by using total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and total oxidative stress (TOS) analysis in primary human whole blood cell cultures.

Results

The results of the MTT test showed that APM led to significant decreases in cell viability in a clear concentration-dependent manner. Moreover, an increase in CA frequency was found in the cells treated with APM. However, APM treatments did not cause any significant changes in TAC and TOS levels in whole blood cultures.

Conclusion

Overall, the obtained results showed that APM had genotoxicity potential and a concentration-dependent cytotoxic activity in human blood cells.

Evaluation of Qualitative Dietary Protocol (Diet4Hashi) Application in Dietary Counseling in Hashimoto Thyroiditis: Study Protocol of a Randomized Controlled Trial

The current state of knowledge related to diet in Hashimoto thyroiditis (HT) is far from satisfactory, as many HT subjects experience several disorders and report reduced quality of life. There are three aims of the study: (1) to develop a qualitative dietary protocol (QDP; 'Diet4Hashi') as a simple, graphic-text tool dedicated to TH subjects, (2) to evaluate the use of the QDP in dietetic counseling compared to conventional dietetic counseling (CDC) in HT women, and (3) to assess the impact of both the QDP and the CDC on the diet quality, quality of life, adiposity, and metabolic parameters of HT women. The QDP is based on subject self-monitoring supported with a graphic-text tool to help them in food selection and adequate food frequency consumption, while the CDC on oral explanation and printed sample menus were provided by a dietician. The QDP contains two lists: (A) foods recommended for consumption and (B) foods with limited consumption, along with indicated consumption frequency per day/week/month. Both approaches include the same dietary recommendations for HT extracted from the literature but differ in subject-dietician cooperation. To summarize the evidence regarding dietary recommendations in HT, the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases (to March 2019) and the bibliographies of key articles were searched. The study is designed as a dietary intervention lasting six months in two parallel groups: experimental and control. In the experimental group, the QDP will be applied, while in the control group, the CDC will be applied. In total, the study will include a baseline of 100 women with diagnosed HT. The subjects will be randomly allocated into the experimental/control groups (50/50). Data related to diet quality and other lifestyle factors, nutrition knowledge, quality of life, thyroid function, body composition, blood pressure, serum fasting glucose, and lipid profile at baseline and after a six-month follow-up will be collected. This study was conducted to develop a dietary protocol (Diet4Hashi) that is easy to follow for HT subjects, and it will contribute to providing valuable data that are useful to dieticians and physicians. It is anticipated that this graphic-text qualitative dietary protocol, by improving food selection and diet quality, may reduce adiposity and improve metabolic parameters and the quality of life of HT women.

Beware Energy Drinks: A Case of a Toxic Triad Syndrome in a Diabetic Patient With Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Energy drinks are widely used and very popular. They are touted as "harmless" energy boosters for use in professional, recreational and domestic settings. They are typically high in monosaccharides, and caffeine with other assorted products like ginseng. Careful study of the potential risks of their use is nonexistent while rigorous documentation of their touted energy boosting capacity is also meagre. We present the cautionary case of a 46-year-old Caucasian man with well-controlled type 2 diabetes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease who developed a toxic triad syndrome of gastritis, hepatitis and pancreatitis within 4 months of commencing daily consumption of 2-3 160z cans of the energy drink Monster Energy. His clinical symptoms and biochemical derangements promptly resolved with stopping the beverage. We discuss the potential risks inherent in unsupervised liberal consumption of energy drinks and the need for both caution and vigilance among clinicians and patients.

L-α-Phosphatidylcholine attenuates mercury-induced hepato-renal damage through suppressing oxidative stress and inflammation

The potential ameliorative effects of L-α-phosphatidylcholine (PC) against mercuric chloride (HgCl₂)-induced hematological and hepato-renal damage were investigated. Rats were randomly allocated into four groups (n = 12): control, PC (100 mg/kg bwt, intragastrically every other day for 30 consecutive days), HgCl₂ (5 mg/kg bwt, intragastrically daily), and PC plus HgCl₂. Hematological and hepato-renal dysfunctions were evaluated biochemically and histopathologically. Hepatic and renal oxidative/antioxidative indices were evaluated. The expression of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6) was also detected by ELISA. HgCl₂ significantly increased serum aminotransferases (ALT, AST), urea, and creatinine levels that are indicative of hepato-renal damage. HgCl₂ also induced a significant accumulation of malondialdehyde (+ 195%) with depletion of glutathione (- 43%) levels in the liver and renal tissues. The apparent hepato-renal oxidative damage was associated with obvious organ dysfunction that was confirmed by impairments in the liver and kidney histoarchitecture. Furthermore, HgCl₂ significantly attenuated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines named tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Conversely, PC treatment attenuated these effects, which improved the hematological and serum biochemical alternations, reduced the oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokine levels, and ameliorated the intensity of the histopathological alterations in livers and kidneys of HgCl₂-treated rats. It could be concluded that PC displayed potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities against HgCl₂-induced hepato-renal damage via suppression of proinflammatory cytokines and declining oxidative stress.

Sugar Beverages and Dietary Sodas Impact on Brain Health: A Mini Literature Review

Sugar-sweetened beverages containing caffeine are widely used among humans nowadays and can have negative consequences on the overall health. Our study aims to discuss the effects of these sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) and how they can impact the health in different ways particularly on the brain. Some of the mechanisms by which soft drinks can exert adverse effects include an increase in glutathione-6-dehydrogenase level, increased levels of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate and dopamine alteration in brain waves on electroencephalography (EEG) eventually leading to stroke and dementia. They can increase the oxidative stress by a decreasing monoamine oxidase and acetylcholine esterase and antioxidants such as glutathione and catalase. The sleep quality and duration of sleep is also significantly affected by their increased consumption. Also, the consumption of sodium benzoate (found in beverages) on impairing memory, motor coordination, affecting reduced glutathione (GSH), increasing the malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the brain and producing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children is emphasized. Finally, we will highlight how diet drinks can also be harmful and the maternal consumption of chocolate or soft drinks during pregnancy and postnatal period can be linked to cognitive impairment and child obesity.

Effect of developmental NMDAR antagonism with CGP 39551 on aspartame-induced hypothalamic and adrenal gene expression

Rationale

Aspartame (L-aspartyl phenylalanine methyl ester) is a non-nutritive sweetener (NNS) approved for use in more than 6000 dietary products and pharmaceuticals consumed by the general public including adults and children, pregnant and nursing mothers. However a recent prospective study reported a doubling of the risk of being overweight amongst 1-year old children whose mothers consumed NNS-sweetened beverages daily during pregnancy. We have previously shown that chronic aspartame (ASP) exposure commencing in utero may detrimentally affect adulthood adiposity status, glucose metabolism and aspects of behavior and spatial cognition, and that this can be modulated by developmental N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) blockade with the competitive antagonist CGP 39551 (CGP). Since glucose homeostasis and certain aspects of behavior and locomotion are regulated in part by the NMDAR-rich hypothalamus, which is part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal- (HPA) axis, we have elected to examine changes in hypothalamic and adrenal gene expression in response to ASP exposure in the presence or absence of developmental NMDAR antagonism with CGP, using Affymetrix microarray analysis.

Results

Using 2-factor ANOVA we identified 189 ASP-responsive differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the adult male hypothalamus and 2188 in the adrenals, and a further 23 hypothalamic and 232 adrenal genes significantly regulated by developmental treatment with CGP alone. ASP exposure robustly elevated the expression of a network of genes involved in hypothalamic neurosteroidogenesis, together with cell stress and inflammatory genes, consistent with previous reports of aspartame-induced CNS stress and oxidative damage. These genes were not differentially expressed in ASP mice with CGP antagonism. In the adrenal glands of ASP-exposed mice, GABA and Glutamate receptor subunit genes were amongst those most highly upregulated. Developmental NMDAR antagonism alone had less effect on adulthood gene expression and affected mainly hypothalamic neurogenesis and adrenal steroid metabolism. Combined ASP + CGP treatment mainly upregulated genes involved in adrenal drug and cholesterol metabolism.

Conclusion

ASP exposure increased the expression of functional networks of genes involved in hypothalamic neurosteroidogenesis and adrenal catecholamine synthesis, patterns of expression which were not present in ASP-exposed mice with developmental NMDAR antagonism.