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Wyss MT, Heuer C, Herwerth M. The bumpy road of purinergic inhibitors to clinical application in immune-mediated diseases. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1206-1211. [PMID: 37905866 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.386405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Purinergic signaling plays important roles throughout the body in the regulation of organ functions during and following the disruption of homeostasis. This is also reflected by the widespread expression of two families of purinergic receptors (P1 and P2) with numerous subtypes. In the last few decades, there has been increasing evidence that purinergic signaling plays an important role in the regulation of immune functions. Mainly, signals mediated by P2 receptors have been shown to contribute to immune system-mediated pathologies. Thus, interference with P2 receptors may be a promising strategy for the modulation of immune responses. Although only a few clinical studies have been conducted in isolated entities with limited success, preclinical work suggests that the use of P2 receptor inhibitors may bear some promise in various autoimmune diseases. Despite the association of P2 receptors with several disorders from this field, the use of P2 receptor antagonists in clinical therapy is still very scarce. In this narrative review, we briefly review the involvement of the purinergic system in immunological responses and clinical studies on the effect of purinergic inhibition on autoimmune processes. We then open the aperture a bit and show some preclinical studies demonstrating a potential effect of purinergic blockade on autoimmune events. Using suramin, a non-specific purinergic inhibitor, as an example, we further show that off-target effects could be responsible for observed effects in immunological settings, which may have interesting implications. Overall, we believe that it is worthwhile to further investigate this hitherto underexplored area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias T Wyss
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich (ZNZ), University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Christine Heuer
- Neurology Department, University Hospital of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marina Herwerth
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Center Zurich (ZNZ), University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- Neurology Department, University Hospital of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
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Kanamaru H, Zhu S, Dong S, Takemoto Y, Huang L, Sherchan P, Suzuki H, Tang J, Zhang JH. UDP-Glucose/P2Y14 Receptor Signaling Exacerbates Neuronal Apoptosis After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage in Rats. Stroke 2024; 55:1381-1392. [PMID: 38525592 PMCID: PMC11039370 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.123.044422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a severe subtype of stroke with poor outcomes. Abnormal glucose metabolism often occurs after SAH, but the strict control of blood glucose levels is not always beneficial. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-G), an intermediate of glucose/glycogen metabolism, and its receptor P2Y14 (P2Y purinoceptor 14) to SAH pathology and explored the potential targeted treatments in rats. METHODS A total of 218 Sprague-Dawley male rats were used. SAH was induced by endovascular perforation. Brain expressions of P2Y14, uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP-G), and its converting enzyme UGP2 (UDP-G pyrophosphorylase-2) were evaluated. Exogenous UDP-G or selective P2Y14 inhibitor was administered intranasally at 1 hour after SAH to explore their potential effects. Intranasal Ugp2 or P2ry14 siRNA was delivered 24 hours before SAH for mechanistic evaluation. Primary neuron culture and hemoglobin stimulation were used as in vitro model of SAH. Post-SAH evaluation included liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry measurement of brain endogenous UDP-G level, neurobehavioral assessments, Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, TUNEL staining, and Nissl staining. RESULTS There was an acute elevation of endogenous brain UDP-G and UGP2 after SAH, and P2Y14 was expressed in neurons. Although P2Y14 inhibitor decreased neurological dysfunction, neuronal apoptosis, and proapoptotic molecules, exogenous UDP-G exacerbated these outcomes at 24 hours after SAH. Early inhibition of P2Y14 preserved long-term neuronal survival in the hippocampus, amygdala, and cortex with improved neurocognition and depressive-like behavior. In addition, in vivo knockdown of Ugp2- and P2ry14-reduced neurological deficits and proapoptotic molecules at 24 hours after SAH, and furthermore in vitro knockdown of P2ry14-reduced apoptosis in hemoglobin stimulated primary neuron. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest a detrimental role of brain UDP-G/P2Y14 signaling in SAH, as a part of glucose metabolic pathology at the tissue level. P2Y14 inhibitor 4-[4-(4-piperidinyl)phenyl]-7-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-naphthalenecarboxylic acid hydrochloride may serve as a potential therapeutic target in treating patients with SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Kanamaru
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan (H.K., H.S.)
| | - Shiyi Zhu
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
| | - Siyuan Dong
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
| | - Yushin Takemoto
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Kumamoto University School of Medicine, Japan (Y.T.)
| | - Lei Huang
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
- Neurosurgery, (L.H., J.H.Z.), Loma Linda University, CA
| | - Prativa Sherchan
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
| | - Hidenori Suzuki
- Department of Neurosurgery, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Japan (H.K., H.S.)
| | - Jiping Tang
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
| | - John H Zhang
- Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology (H.K., S.Z., S.D., Y.T., L.H., P.S., J.T., J.H.Z.,), Loma Linda University, CA
- Neurosurgery, (L.H., J.H.Z.), Loma Linda University, CA
- Anesthesiology (J.H.Z.), Loma Linda University, CA
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von Kügelgen I. Pharmacological characterization of P2Y receptor subtypes - an update. Purinergic Signal 2024; 20:99-108. [PMID: 37697211 PMCID: PMC10997570 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-023-09963-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023] Open
Abstract
P2Y receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for extracellular nucleotides. There are eight mammalian P2Y receptor subtypes (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14). The widely expressed P2Y receptors play important roles in physiology and pathophysiology. This review summarizes the use of pharmacological tools to characterize the P2Y receptor subtypes involved in these responses. MRS2500 is a potent and selective antagonist acting at the P2Y1 receptor. AR-C118925 is useful for the selective antagonism of the P2Y2 receptor. PSB16133 blocks the P2Y4 receptor, MRS2578 is an antagonist at the P2Y6 receptor and NF157 as well as NF340 block the P2Y11 receptor. ADP-induced platelet aggregation is mediated by P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors. A number of compounds or their active metabolites reduce ADP-induced platelet aggregation by blocking the P2Y12 receptor. These include the active metabolites of the thienopyridine compounds clopidogrel and prasugrel, the nucleoside analogue ticagrelor and the nucleotide analogue cangrelor. PSB0739 is also a potent antagonist at the P2Y12 receptor useful for both in vitro and in vivo studies. MRS2211 and MRS2603 inhibit P2Y13 mediated responses. PPTN is a very potent antagonist at the P2Y14 receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivar von Kügelgen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharma Center, University of Bonn, D-53127, Bonn, Germany.
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4
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Wang MJ, Jing XY, Wang YZ, Yang BR, Lu Q, Hu H, Kang L. Exercise, Spinal Microglia and Neuropathic Pain: Potential Molecular Mechanisms. Neurochem Res 2024; 49:29-37. [PMID: 37725293 PMCID: PMC10776684 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-023-04025-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
As one of the most common neuropathic disorders, neuropathic pain often has a negative impact on patients with persistent pain, mood disorders and sleep disturbances. Currently, neuropathic pain is not treated with any specific drug, instead, drugs for other diseases are used as replacements in clinics, but most have adverse effects. In recent years, the role of spinal cord microglia in the pathogenesis of neuropathic pain has been widely recognized, and they are being explored as potential therapeutic targets. Spinal microglia are known to be involved in the pathogenic mechanisms of neuropathic pain through purine signaling, fractalkine signaling, and p38 MAPK signaling. Exercise is a safe and effective treatment, and numerous studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in improving neurological symptoms. Nevertheless, it remains unclear what the exact molecular mechanism is. This review summarized the specific molecular mechanisms of exercise in alleviating neuropathic pain by mediating the activity of spinal microglia and maintaining the phenotypic homeostasis of spinal microglia through purine signaling, fractalkine signaling and p38 MAPK signaling. In addition, it has been proposed that different intensities and types of exercise affect the regulation of the above-mentioned signaling pathways differently, providing a theoretical basis for the improvement of neuropathic pain through exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Jia Wang
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sports University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xin-Yu Jing
- Department of Postpartum Rehabilitation, Sichuan Jinxin Women and Children Hospital, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yao-Zheng Wang
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sports University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Bi-Ru Yang
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sports University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qu Lu
- School of Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hao Hu
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sports University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Liang Kang
- Institute of Sports Medicine and Health, Chengdu Sports University, Chengdu, 610041, China.
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Tao JC, Yu D, Shao W, Zhou DR, Wang Y, Hou SQ, Deng K, Lin N. Interactions between microglia and glioma in tumor microenvironment. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1236268. [PMID: 37700840 PMCID: PMC10493873 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1236268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas, the most prevalent primary tumors in the central nervous system, are marked by their immunosuppressive properties and consequent poor patient prognosis. Current evidence emphasizes the pivotal role of the tumor microenvironment in the progression of gliomas, largely attributed to tumor-associated macrophages (brain-resident microglia and bone marrow-derived macrophages) that create a tumor microenvironment conducive to the growth and invasion of tumor cells. Yet, distinguishing between these two cell subgroups remains a challenge. Thus, our review starts by analyzing the heterogeneity between these two cell subsets, then places emphasis on elucidating the complex interactions between microglia and glioma cells. Finally, we conclude with a summary of current attempts at immunotherapy that target microglia. However, given that independent research on microglia is still in its initial stages and has many shortcomings at the present time, we express our related concerns and hope that further research will be carried out to address these issues in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Cheng Tao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dong Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Wei Shao
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Dong-Rui Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Shi-Qiang Hou
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
| | - Ke Deng
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ning Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Chuzhou Hospital of Anhui Medical University, The First People’s Hospital of Chuzhou, Chuzhou, Anhui, China
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Zhang JZ, Shi NR, Wu JS, Wang X, Illes P, Tang Y. UDP-glucose sensing P2Y 14R: A novel target for inflammation. Neuropharmacology 2023; 238:109655. [PMID: 37423482 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Uridine 5'-diphosphoglucose (UDP-G) as a preferential agonist, but also other UDP-sugars, such as UDP galactose, function as extracellular signaling molecules under conditions of cell injury and apoptosis. Consequently, UDP-G is regarded to function as a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP), regulating immune responses. UDP-G promotes neutrophil recruitment, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory chemokines. As a potent endogenous agonist with the highest affinity for the P2Y14 receptor (R), it accomplishes an exclusive relationship between P2Y14Rs in regulating inflammation via cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) pathways. In this review, we initially present a brief introduction into the expression and function of P2Y14Rs in combination with UDP-G. Subsequently, we summarize emerging roles of UDP-G/P2Y14R signaling pathways that modulate inflammatory responses in diverse systems, and discuss the underlying mechanisms of P2Y14R activation in inflammation-related diseases. Moreover, we also refer to the applications as well as effects of novel agonists/antagonists of P2Y14Rs in inflammatory conditions. In conclusion, due to the role of the P2Y14R in the immune system and inflammatory pathways, it may represent a novel target for anti-inflammatory therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Zhou Zhang
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Nan-Rui Shi
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Jia-Si Wu
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Xin Wang
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China
| | - Peter Illes
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China; Rudolf Boehm Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Leipzig, 04107, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Yong Tang
- International Joint Research Centre on Purinergic Signalling, School of Acupuncture and Tuina/Health and Rehabilitation, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 610075, China; Acupuncture and Chronobiology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, 610075, China.
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7
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Shu C, Liu L, Chen X, Xue J, Fei J, Wang J, Yang X, Peng Q, Yuan H. ncRNA-mediated low expression of P2RY14 correlates with poor prognosis and tumor immune infiltration in ovarian carcinoma. ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2023; 11:10. [PMID: 36760244 PMCID: PMC9906193 DOI: 10.21037/atm-22-6120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Background Ovarian cancer (OV) has been puzzling clinicians because of its poor prognosis. More and more evidence show that the G protein coupled receptor P2RY14 plays a key role in the initiation and progression of various types of human cancer. The purpose of our study is to explore the correlation between P2RY14 and the prognosis of ovarian cancer patients and the relevant mechanism. Methods First, the differentially expressed gene P2RY14 was screened from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Explored possible P2RY14 related miRNAs and lncRNAs through multiple public databases, predicted and analyzed the expression level of candidate miRNAs and candidate lncRNAs that can bind to candidate miRNAs in OV through StarBase database. The TIMER database was used to comprehensively analyze the expression of tumor infiltrating immune cells, and to analyze the correlation between the expression level of P2RY14 and the level of immune cell infiltration in OV or the expression level of immune checkpoints. Results Patients with P2RY14 overexpression had better overall survival (OS) and progression-free interval (PFI). In the Targetscan database, 22 upstream miRNAs that may bind to P2RY14 were predicted. According to the regulatory network constructed by the Cytoscape software, correlation analysis and the role of miRNAs in the prognosis of OV, we first determined that the candidate miRNAs were miR-34c-5p. Then, we predicted the upstream lncRNAs of miR-34c-5p in the StarBase database, the expression level of these lncRNAs in OV in the Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) database, and the role in prognosis. We determined that LINC00665 is the most potential lncRNA upstream of ovarian cancer miRNA (hsa-miR-34c-5p)-P2RY14. Then, we analyzed the results in the Timer database, suggesting that P2RY14 expression was positively correlated with CD8+T Cell, CD4+T Cell, Macrophage, Neutral and Dendritic cells, and negatively correlated with B cells. Meanwhile, P2RY14 was positively correlated with CD274 and PDCD1. Conclusions P2RY14 can be used as a new predictive biomarker of ovarian cancer. Intervention of P2RY14 can affect the prognosis of ovarian cancer by affecting LINC00665-miR-34c-5p-P2RY14 axis. These findings provide a potential target for the development of anti-cancer strategies for ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenggan Shu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yancheng First Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School & the First People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, China
| | - Lifen Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yancheng First Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School & the First People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, China
| | - Jinling Xue
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yancheng First Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School & the First People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, China
| | - Jiahong Fei
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yancheng First Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School & the First People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, China
| | - Jianqing Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Yancheng First Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School & the First People’s Hospital of Yancheng, Yancheng, China
| | - Xiaoyue Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Jiangsu University Affiliated People’s Hospital, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Qi Peng
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Yangzhou Jiangdu People’s Hospital, Yangzhou, China
| | - Huaqin Yuan
- Department of Oncology, Nanjing Gaochun People’s Hospital Affiliated to Yangzhou University, Nanjing, China
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Alberto AVP, Ferreira NCDS, Bonavita AGC, Nihei OK, de Farias FP, Bisaggio RDC, de Albuquerque C, Savino W, Coutinho‐Silva R, Persechini PM, Alves LA. Physiologic roles of P2 receptors in leukocytes. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 112:983-1012. [PMID: 35837975 PMCID: PMC9796137 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.2ru0421-226rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Since their discovery in the 1970s, purinergic receptors have been shown to play key roles in a wide variety of biologic systems and cell types. In the immune system, purinergic receptors participate in innate immunity and in the modulation of the adaptive immune response. In particular, P2 receptors, which respond to extracellular nucleotides, are widely expressed on leukocytes, causing the release of cytokines and chemokines and the formation of inflammatory mediators, and inducing phagocytosis, degranulation, and cell death. The activity of these receptors is regulated by ectonucleotidases-expressed in these same cell types-which regulate the availability of nucleotides in the extracellular environment. In this article, we review the characteristics of the main purinergic receptor subtypes present in the immune system, focusing on the P2 family. In addition, we describe the physiologic roles of the P2 receptors already identified in leukocytes and how they can positively or negatively modulate the development of infectious diseases, inflammation, and pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anael Viana Pinto Alberto
- Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Oswaldo Cruz InstituteOswaldo Cruz FoundationRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
| | | | | | - Oscar Kenji Nihei
- Center of Education and LetterState University of the West of ParanáFoz do IguaçuPRBrazil
| | | | - Rodrigo da Cunha Bisaggio
- Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Oswaldo Cruz InstituteOswaldo Cruz FoundationRio de JaneiroRJBrazil,Federal Institute of Education, Science, and Technology of Rio de JaneiroRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
| | | | - Wilson Savino
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz InstituteOswaldo Cruz FoundationRio de JaneiroRJBrazil,Brazilian National Institute of Science and Technology on NeuroimmunomodulationRio de Janeiro Research Network on NeuroinflammationRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
| | - Robson Coutinho‐Silva
- Laboratory of Immunophysiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics InstituteFederal University of Rio de JaneiroRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
| | - Pedro Muanis Persechini
- Laboratory of Immunobiophysics, Carlos Chagas Filho Biophysics InstituteFederal University of Rio de JaneiroRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
| | - Luiz Anastacio Alves
- Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Oswaldo Cruz InstituteOswaldo Cruz FoundationRio de JaneiroRJBrazil
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Mahmood A, Iqbal J. Purinergic receptors modulators: An emerging pharmacological tool for disease management. Med Res Rev 2022; 42:1661-1703. [PMID: 35561109 DOI: 10.1002/med.21888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Purinergic signaling is mediated through extracellular nucleotides (adenosine 5'-triphosphate, uridine-5'-triphosphate, adenosine diphosphate, uridine-5'-diphosphate, and adenosine) that serve as signaling molecules. In the early 1990s, purines and pyrimidine receptors were cloned and characterized drawing the attention of scientists toward this aspect of cellular signaling. This signaling pathway is comprised of four subtypes of adenosine receptors (P1), eight subtypes of G-coupled protein receptors (P2YRs), and seven subtypes of ligand-gated ionotropic receptors (P2XRs). In current studies, the pathophysiology and therapeutic potentials of these receptors have been focused on. Various ligands, modulating the functions of purinergic receptors, are in current clinical practices for the treatment of various neurodegenerative disorders and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, several purinergic receptors ligands are in advanced phases of clinical trials as a remedy for depression, epilepsy, autism, osteoporosis, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, diabetes, irritable bowel syndrome, and cancers. In the present study, agonists and antagonists of purinergic receptors have been summarized that may serve as pharmacological tools for drug design and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abid Mahmood
- Centre for Advanced Drug Research, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad, Pakistan
| | - Jamshed Iqbal
- Centre for Advanced Drug Research, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad, Pakistan
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10
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Tang G, Pi L, Guo H, Hu Z, Zhou C, Hu Q, Peng H, Xiao Z, Zhang Z, Wang M, Peng T, Huang J, Liang S, Li G. Naringin Relieves Diabetic Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy Mediated by P2Y14 Receptor in Superior Cervical Ganglion. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:873090. [PMID: 35529431 PMCID: PMC9068893 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.873090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM), an emerging chronic epidemic, contributes to mortality and morbidity around the world. Diabetic cardiac autonomic neuropathy (DCAN) is one of the most common complications associated with DM. Previous studies have shown that satellite glial cells (SGCs) in the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) play an indispensable role in DCAN progression. In addition, it has been shown that purinergic neurotransmitters, as well as metabotropic GPCRs, are involved in the pathophysiological process of DCAN. Furthermore, one traditional Chinese medicine, naringin may potently alleviate the effects of DCAN. Ferroptosis may be involved in DCAN progression. However, the role of naringin in DCAN as well as its detailed mechanism requires further investigation. In this research, we attempted to identify the effect and relevant mechanism of naringin in DCAN mitigation. We observed that compared with those of normal subjects, there were significantly elevated expression levels of P2Y14 and IL-1β in diabetic rats, both of which were remarkably diminished by treatment with either P2Y14 shRNA or naringin. In addition, abnormalities in blood pressure (BP), heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), sympathetic nerve discharge (SND), and cardiac structure in the diabetic model can also be partially returned to normal through the use of those treatments. Furthermore, a reduced expression of NRF2 and GPX4, as well as an elevated level of ROS, were detected in diabetic cases, which can also be improved with those treatments. Our results showed that naringin can effectively relieve DCAN mediated by the P2Y14 receptor of SGCs in the SCG. Moreover, the NRF2/GPX4 pathway involved in ferroptosis may become one of the principal mechanisms participating in DCAN progression, which can be modulated by P2Y14-targeted naringin and thus relieve DCAN. Hopefully, our research can supply one novel therapeutic target and provide a brilliant perspective for the treatment of DCAN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gan Tang
- Queen Mary School, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Lingzhi Pi
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Hongmin Guo
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Zihui Hu
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Congfa Zhou
- Department of Anatomy, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Qixing Hu
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Hao Peng
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Zehao Xiao
- Queen Mary School, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Zhihua Zhang
- Queen Mary School, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Miaomiao Wang
- Queen Mary School, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Taotao Peng
- School of Basic Medicine, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jiaqi Huang
- Queen Mary School, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Shangdong Liang
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Guilin Li
- Department of Physiology, Medical School of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
- *Correspondence: Guilin Li,
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11
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Wang M, Kang L, Wang Y, Yang B, Zhang C, Lu Y, Kang L. Microglia in motor neuron disease: Signaling evidence from last 10 years. Dev Neurobiol 2022; 82:625-638. [PMID: 36309345 PMCID: PMC9828749 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Motor neuron disease (MND), including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal muscular atrophy and others, involved the upper or lower motor neurons selective loss, is characterized by neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation, in conjunction with microglia. We summarized that pathways and key mediators are associated with microglia, such as fractalkine signaling, purinergic signaling, NF-κB signaling, p38 MAPK signaling, TREM2-APOE signaling, ROCK signaling, C1q signaling, and Ion channel, which are involved in the activation, proliferation, and inflammation of microglia. This review aims to identify the microglia-related molecular target and explore potential treatment strategies for MND based on that target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min‐Jia Wang
- School of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
| | - Lu Kang
- School of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
| | - Yao‐Zheng Wang
- School of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
| | - Bi‐Ru Yang
- Department of Postpartum RehabilitationSichuan Jinxin Women & Children HospitalChengduChina
| | - Chun Zhang
- School of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
| | - Yu‐Feng Lu
- School of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
| | - Liang Kang
- Institute of Sports Medicine and HealthChengdu Sports UniversityChengduChina
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12
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Microglial Cytokines Induce Invasiveness and Proliferation of Human Glioblastoma through Pyk2 and FAK Activation. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13246160. [PMID: 34944779 PMCID: PMC8699228 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Microglia infiltrate most gliomas and have been demonstrated to promote tumor growth, invasion, and treatment resistance. To develop improved treatment methods, that take into consideration the supporting role of microglia in tumor progression, the functional and mechanistic pathways of glioma–microglia interactions need to be identified and experimentally dissected. Our recent studies and literature reports revealed the overexpression of Pyk2 and FAK in glioblastomas. Pyk2 and FAK signaling pathways have been shown to regulate migration and proliferation in glioma cells, including microglia-promoted glioma cell migration. However, the specific factors released by microglia that modulate Pyk2 and FAK to promote glioma invasiveness and proliferation are poorly understood. The aim of this study was to identify key microglia-derived signaling molecules that induce the activation of Pyk2- and FAK-dependent glioma cell proliferation and invasiveness. Abstract Glioblastoma is the most aggressive brain tumor in adults. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that microglia create a microenvironment favoring glioma invasion and proliferation. Our previous studies and literature reports indicated the involvement of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and proline-rich tyrosine kinase 2 (Pyk2) in glioma cell proliferation and invasion, stimulated by tumor-infiltrating microglia. However, the specific microglia-released factors that modulate Pyk2 and FAK signaling in glioma cells are unknown. In this study, 20 human glioblastoma specimens were evaluated with the use of RT-PCR and western blotting. A Pierson correlation test demonstrated a correlation (0.6–1.0) between the gene expression levels for platelet-derived growth factor β(PDGFβ), stromal-derived factor 1α (SDF-1α), IL-6, IL-8, and epidermal growth factor (EGF) in tumor-purified microglia and levels of p-Pyk2 (Y579/Y580) and p-FAK(Y925) in glioma cells. siRNA knockdown against Pyk2 or FAK in three primary glioblastoma cell lines, developed from the investigated specimens, in combination with the cytokine receptor inhibitors gefitinib (1 μM), DMPQ (200 nM), and burixafor (1 μM) identified EGF, PDGFβ, and SDF-1α as key extracellular factors in the Pyk2- and FAK-dependent activation of invadopodia formation and the migration of glioma cells. EGF and IL-6 were identified as regulators of the Pyk2- and FAK-dependent activation of cell viability and mitosis.
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13
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Klaver D, Thurnher M. Control of Macrophage Inflammation by P2Y Purinergic Receptors. Cells 2021; 10:1098. [PMID: 34064383 PMCID: PMC8147772 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages comprise a phenotypically and functionally diverse group of hematopoietic cells. Versatile macrophage subsets engage to ensure maintenance of tissue integrity. To perform tissue stress surveillance, macrophages express many different stress-sensing receptors, including purinergic P2X and P2Y receptors that respond to extracellular nucleotides and their sugar derivatives. Activation of G protein-coupled P2Y receptors can be both pro- and anti-inflammatory. Current examples include the observation that P2Y14 receptor promotes STAT1-mediated inflammation in pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages as well as the demonstration that P2Y11 receptor suppresses the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and concomitantly promotes the release of soluble TNF receptors from anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. Here, we review macrophage regulation by P2Y purinergic receptors, both in physiological and disease-associated inflammation. Therapeutic targeting of anti-inflammatory P2Y receptor signaling is desirable to attenuate excessive inflammation in infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Conversely, anti-inflammatory P2Y receptor signaling must be suppressed during cancer therapy to preserve its efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Thurnher
- Immunotherapy Unit, Department of Urology, Medical University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
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14
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Tang M, Rich JN, Chen S. Biomaterials and 3D Bioprinting Strategies to Model Glioblastoma and the Blood-Brain Barrier. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2004776. [PMID: 33326131 PMCID: PMC7854518 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202004776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent and lethal adult primary central nervous system cancer. An immunosuppresive and highly heterogeneous tumor microenvironment, restricted delivery of chemotherapy or immunotherapy through the blood-brain barrier (BBB), together with the brain's unique biochemical and anatomical features result in its universal recurrence and poor prognosis. As conventional models fail to predict therapeutic efficacy in GBM, in vitro 3D models of GBM and BBB leveraging patient- or healthy-individual-derived cells and biomaterials through 3D bioprinting technologies potentially mimic essential physiological and pathological features of GBM and BBB. 3D-bioprinted constructs enable investigation of cellular and cell-extracellular matrix interactions in a species-matched, high-throughput, and reproducible manner, serving as screening or drug delivery platforms. Here, an overview of current 3D-bioprinted GBM and BBB models is provided, elaborating on the microenvironmental compositions of GBM and BBB, relevant biomaterials to mimic the native tissues, and bioprinting strategies to implement the model fabrication. Collectively, 3D-bioprinted GBM and BBB models are promising systems and biomimetic alternatives to traditional models for more reliable mechanistic studies and preclinical drug screenings that may eventually accelerate the drug development process for GBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tang
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Jeremy N. Rich
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Sanford Consortium for Regenerative Medicine, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Shaochen Chen
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Materials Science and Engineering Program, Chemical Engineering Program, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
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15
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Molecular pharmacology of P2Y receptor subtypes. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 187:114361. [PMID: 33309519 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.114361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Revised: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Professor Geoffrey Burnstock proposed the concept of purinergic signaling via P1 and P2 receptors. P2Y receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for extracellular adenine and uracil nucleotides. Eight mammalian P2Y receptor subtypes have been identified. They are divided into two subgroups (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, and P2Y11) and (P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14). P2Y receptors are found in almost all cells and mediate responses in physiology and pathophysiology including pain and inflammation. The antagonism of platelet P2Y12 receptors by cangrelor, ticagrelor or active metabolites of the thienopyridine compounds ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel reduces the ADP-induced platelet aggregation in patients with thrombotic complications of vascular diseases. The nucleotide agonist diquafosol acting at P2Y2 receptors is used for the treatment of the dry eye syndrome. Structural information obtained by crystallography of the human P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptor proteins, site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling will facilitate the rational design of novel selective drugs.
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16
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Liu J, Liu C, Zhang X, Yu L, Gong X, Wang P. Anticancer sulfonamide hybrids that inhibit bladder cancer cells growth and migration as tubulin polymerisation inhibitors. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2019; 34:1380-1387. [PMID: 31401884 PMCID: PMC6713100 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2019.1639696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Novel sulfonamide-dithiocarbamate hybrids were designed and synthesised via the molecular hybridisation strategy. Among them, compound 13d displayed a potent activity with IC50 values of 0.9, 0.7, 1.9 and 2.6 µM against UM-UC-3, RT-112, RT4 and T24. Compound 13d inhibited the migration and regulated the migration-related markers (E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Vimentin, Snail and Slung) against RT-112 cells in a concentration dependent manner. By the tubulin polymerisation assay in vitro and immunostaining assay, compound 13d was identified as a novel tubulin polymerisation inhibitor. Intragastric administration of compound 13d could inhibit the growth of RT-112 cells in vivo in a xenograft mouse model with the low toxicity, indicating that it may be a leading candidate with antitumor properties to treat bladder cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Liu
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
| | - Chunlai Liu
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
| | - Xiling Zhang
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
| | - Liu Yu
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
| | - Xue Gong
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
| | - Ping Wang
- a Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang , China
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17
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von Kügelgen I. Pharmacology of P2Y receptors. Brain Res Bull 2019; 151:12-24. [PMID: 30922852 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
P2Y receptors are G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) for extracellular nucleotides. There are eight mammalian P2Y receptor subtypes divided into two subgroups (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, and P2Y11) and (P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14). The P2Y receptors are expressed in various cell types and play important roles in physiology and pathophysiology including inflammatory responses and neuropathic pain. The antagonism of P2Y12 receptors is used in pharmacotherapy for the prevention and therapy of cardiovascular events. The nucleoside analogue ticagrelor and active metabolites of the thienopyridine compounds ticlopidine, clopidogrel and prasugrel inhibit platelet P2Y12 receptors and reduce thereby platelet aggregation. The P2Y2 receptor agonist diquafosol is used for the treatment of the dry eye syndrome. The P2Y receptor subtypes differ in their amino acid sequences, their pharmacological profiles and their signaling transduction pathways. Recently, selective receptor ligands have been developed for all subtypes. The published crystal structures of the human P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors as well as receptor models will facilitate the development of novel drugs for pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivar von Kügelgen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharma Center, University of Bonn, D-53127, Bonn, Germany.
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18
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Magni G, Ceruti S. The role of adenosine and P2Y receptors expressed by multiple cell types in pain transmission. Brain Res Bull 2019; 151:132-143. [PMID: 30797817 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The role of extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides as signaling molecules in cell-to-cell communication has now been clearly established. This is particularly true in the central and peripheral nervous system, where purines and pyrimidines are involved in both physiological and pathological interactions between neurons and surrounding glial cells. It can be thus foreseen that the purinergic system could represent a new potential target for the development of effective analgesics, also through the normalization of neuronal functions and the inhibition of glial cell activation. Research in the last 15 years has progressively confirmed this hypothesis, but no purinergic-based analgesics have reach the market so far; in the present review we have collected the more recent discoveries on the role of G protein-coupled P2Y nucleotide and of adenosine receptors expressed by both neurons and glial cells under painful conditions, and we have highlighted some of the challenges that must be faced to translate basic and preclinical studies to clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Magni
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti, 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Ceruti
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology of Purinergic Transmission, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti, 9, 20133, Milan, Italy.
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19
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Calovi S, Mut-Arbona P, Sperlágh B. Microglia and the Purinergic Signaling System. Neuroscience 2018; 405:137-147. [PMID: 30582977 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microglia are the main resident immune-competent cell type of the central nervous system (CNS); these cells are highly sensitive to subtle changes in the chemical environment of the brain. Microglia are activated during diverse conditions, such as apoptosis, trauma, inflammation, and infection. The specific activities of microglia result from the confluence of environmental stimuli and the cellular state. It is likely that several signaling systems with different biological functions operate in competition and/or synergy, thus regulating similar microglial behaviors. The purinergic system is one of the fundamental signaling systems that establish microglial behavior in a wide spectrum of conditions. Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) belongs to the purinergic signaling system, which includes P2X, P2Y, and P1 receptors, as well as other proteins participating in ATP secretion and extracellular ATP degradation, and molecules that recognize purines as a ligand. In this review, we focus on the latest pre-clinical and basic purinergic system and microglial research, with particular attention to data collected in vivo and ex vivo. This chapter is divided into sections related to microglial ATP release, ATP degradation, and ATP-related actions mediated by P2X and P2Y receptor activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Calovi
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary; János Szentágothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University School of PhD Studies, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Paula Mut-Arbona
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary; János Szentágothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University School of PhD Studies, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Beáta Sperlágh
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.
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