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Nizami ZN, Aburawi HE, Semlali A, Muhammad K, Iratni R. Oxidative Stress Inducers in Cancer Therapy: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1159. [PMID: 37371889 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are metabolic byproducts that regulate various cellular processes. However, at high levels, ROS induce oxidative stress, which in turn can trigger cell death. Cancer cells alter the redox homeostasis to facilitate protumorigenic processes; however, this leaves them vulnerable to further increases in ROS levels. This paradox has been exploited as a cancer therapeutic strategy with the use of pro-oxidative drugs. Many chemotherapeutic drugs presently in clinical use, such as cisplatin and doxorubicin, induce ROS as one of their mechanisms of action. Further, various drugs, including phytochemicals and small molecules, that are presently being investigated in preclinical and clinical studies attribute their anticancer activity to ROS induction. Consistently, this review aims to highlight selected pro-oxidative drugs whose anticancer potential has been characterized with specific focus on phytochemicals, mechanisms of ROS induction, and anticancer effects downstream of ROS induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohra Nausheen Nizami
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain PO Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hanan E Aburawi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain PO Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Abdelhabib Semlali
- Groupe de Recherche en Écologie Buccale, Faculté de Médecine Dentaire-Université Laval, Quebec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Khalid Muhammad
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain PO Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Rabah Iratni
- Department of Biology, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain PO Box 15551, United Arab Emirates
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Korbecki J, Rębacz-Maron E, Kupnicka P, Chlubek D, Baranowska-Bosiacka I. Synthesis and Significance of Arachidonic Acid, a Substrate for Cyclooxygenases, Lipoxygenases, and Cytochrome P450 Pathways in the Tumorigenesis of Glioblastoma Multiforme, Including a Pan-Cancer Comparative Analysis. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15030946. [PMID: 36765904 PMCID: PMC9913267 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15030946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive gliomas. New and more effective therapeutic approaches are being sought based on studies of the various mechanisms of GBM tumorigenesis, including the synthesis and metabolism of arachidonic acid (ARA), an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). PubMed, GEPIA, and the transcriptomics analysis carried out by Seifert et al. were used in writing this paper. In this paper, we discuss in detail the biosynthesis of this acid in GBM tumors, with a special focus on certain enzymes: fatty acid desaturase (FADS)1, FADS2, and elongation of long-chain fatty acids family member 5 (ELOVL5). We also discuss ARA metabolism, particularly its release from cell membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A2 (cPLA2, iPLA2, and sPLA2) and its processing by cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2), lipoxygenases (5-LOX, 12-LOX, 15-LOX-1, and 15-LOX-2), and cytochrome P450. Next, we discuss the significance of lipid mediators synthesized from ARA in GBM cancer processes, including prostaglandins (PGE2, PGD2, and 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-PGJ2 (15d-PGJ2)), thromboxane A2 (TxA2), oxo-eicosatetraenoic acids, leukotrienes (LTB4, LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4), lipoxins, and many others. These lipid mediators can increase the proliferation of GBM cancer cells, cause angiogenesis, inhibit the anti-tumor response of the immune system, and be responsible for resistance to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Korbecki
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Ewa Rębacz-Maron
- Department of Ecology and Anthropology, Institute of Biology, University of Szczecin, Wąska 13, 71-415 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Patrycja Kupnicka
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Dariusz Chlubek
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland
| | - Irena Baranowska-Bosiacka
- Department of Biochemistry and Medical Chemistry, Pomeranian Medical University in Szczecin, Powstańców Wlkp. 72, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-914-661-515
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A review on mPGES-1 inhibitors: From preclinical studies to clinical applications. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2019; 147:106383. [PMID: 31698145 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2019.106383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a lipid mediator of inflammation and cancer progression. It is mainly formed via metabolism of arachidonic acid by cyclooxygenases (COX) and the terminal enzyme microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1). Widely used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit COX activity, resulting in decreased PGE2 production and symptomatic relief. However, NSAIDs block the production of many other lipid mediators that have important physiological and resolving actions, and these drugs cause gastrointestinal bleeding and/or increase the risk for severe cardiovascular events. Selective inhibition of downstream mPGES-1 for reduction in only PGE2 biosynthesis is suggested as a safer therapeutic strategy. This review covers the recent advances in characterization of new mPGES-1 inhibitors in preclinical models and their future clinical applications.
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Biringer RG. The Role of Eicosanoids in Alzheimer's Disease. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16142560. [PMID: 31323750 PMCID: PMC6678666 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16142560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders known. Estimates from the Alzheimer's Association suggest that there are currently 5.8 million Americans living with the disease and that this will rise to 14 million by 2050. Research over the decades has revealed that AD pathology is complex and involves a number of cellular processes. In addition to the well-studied amyloid-β and tau pathology, oxidative damage to lipids and inflammation are also intimately involved. One aspect all these processes share is eicosanoid signaling. Eicosanoids are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids by enzymatic or non-enzymatic means and serve as short-lived autocrine or paracrine agents. Some of these eicosanoids serve to exacerbate AD pathology while others serve to remediate AD pathology. A thorough understanding of eicosanoid signaling is paramount for understanding the underlying mechanisms and developing potential treatments for AD. In this review, eicosanoid metabolism is examined in terms of in vivo production, sites of production, receptor signaling, non-AD biological functions, and known participation in AD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger G Biringer
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, 5000 Lakewood Ranch Blvd., Bradenton, FL 34211, USA.
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Tae IH, Park EY, Dey P, Son JY, Lee SY, Jung JH, Saloni S, Kim MH, Kim HS. Novel SIRT1 inhibitor 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 and its derivatives exhibit anticancer activity through apoptotic or autophagic cell death pathways in SKOV3 cells. Int J Oncol 2018; 53:2518-2530. [PMID: 30221742 PMCID: PMC6203160 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2018.4561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinically relevant sirtuin (SIRT) inhibitors may possess antitumor activities. A previous study indicated that 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) exhibited potent anticancer activity by SIRT1 inhibition. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether its derivatives (J11-C1 and J19) exhibited anticancer activity against ovarian cancer SKOV3 cells. Cell viability was determined using an MTT assay. Cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy were determined using flow cytometry or western blot analysis. J11-Cl and J19 were less cytotoxic to SKOV3 cells compared with 15d-PGJ2. Molecular docking studies supported the interactions of 15d-PGJ2, J11-Cl and J19 with various amino acids in SIRT1 proteins. Similar to 15d-PGJ2, J11-C1 and J19 inhibited SIRT1 enzymatic activity and decreased SIRT1 expression levels in a concentration-dependent manner. J11-C1 induced apoptotic cell death more effectively compared with J19, which was associated with markedly decreased expression of the anti-apoptotic molecule B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). Furthermore, the levels of light chain 3-II (LC3-II) and beclin-1 were clearly induced in SKOV3 cells treated with J11-Cl. Thus, 15d-PGJ2 and its derivatives exhibited anticancer activity possibly by inducing apoptotic or autophagic cell death pathways. Collectively, the results of the present study suggest that 15d-PGJ2 and its derivatives exerted antitumor activity by selectively modulating the expression of genes associated with cell cycle arrest, apoptosis and autophagy. Notably, J11-C1 is a novel candidate SIRT1 inhibitor with anticancer activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Hwan Tae
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun Young Park
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Prasanta Dey
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Yeon Son
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok-Yong Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee H Jung
- College of Pharmacy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Saloni Saloni
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Hyun Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyung Sik Kim
- School of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi 16419, Republic of Korea
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Physiological and Pathological Roles of 15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-Prostaglandin J2 in the Central Nervous System and Neurological Diseases. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:2227-2248. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-017-0435-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Riahi-Chebbi I, Haoues M, Essafi M, Zakraoui O, Fattouch S, Karoui H, Essafi-Benkhadir K. Quince peel polyphenolic extract blocks human colon adenocarcinoma LS174 cell growth and potentiates 5-fluorouracil efficacy. Cancer Cell Int 2016; 16:1. [PMID: 26839513 PMCID: PMC4736700 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-016-0276-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Development of alternative cancer-specific drugs would be of paramount importance to overcome toxicity toward normal tissues and tumor resistance. Here, we investigated the potential anti-tumoral effect of peel (Peph) and pulp polyphenolic extracts from the Tunisian quince Cydonia oblonga Miller on both no-tumorigenic cells NIH 3T3 Fibroblasts and HEK 293 cells and human colon adenocarcinoma LS174 cells. Methods Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity were measured with MTT and LDH assays respectively. Cell cycle distribution and the apoptosis levels were assessed by flow cytometry. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were determined using the fluorescent probe CM-H2DCFDA. Western blot was used to further characterize cell death and analyze the signaling pathways affected by Peph treatment. The expression level of VEGF-A was evaluated by real time quantitative PCR and further verified by quantifying the secreted cytokines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Results We found that Peph extract displayed the highest anti-proliferative effect specifically on LS174 cells. However, each Peph phenolic compound alone did not exhibit any anti-proliferative activity, suggesting a synergistic effect of phenolic molecules. Such effect was associated with a cell cycle arrest in the G1/S phase, a caspase-independent apoptosis and an increase of the ROS production. Peph extract inhibited the pro-survival signaling pathway NFκB and suppressed the expression of various cellular markers known to be involved in cell cycling (cyclin D1) and angiogenesis (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor, VEGF). Interestingly, the combination Peph extract and 5-FU exerted synergistic inhibitory effect on cell viability. Conclusion These data propose the quince Peph extract as a promising cost effective non toxic drug to employ alone or in combination with conventional anti-colorectal cancer. Moreover, quince rich regimen may prevent the development and the progress of colon cancer. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12935-016-0276-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ichrak Riahi-Chebbi
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire et de Pathologie Expérimentale Appliquée Aux Maladies Infectieuses (LR11IPT04), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 13 Place Pasteur, BP 74, 1002 Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Meriam Haoues
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur la Transmission, le Contrôle et l'Immunobiologie des Infections (LR11IPT02), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Makram Essafi
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur la Transmission, le Contrôle et l'Immunobiologie des Infections (LR11IPT02), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 1002 Tunis, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Ons Zakraoui
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire et de Pathologie Expérimentale Appliquée Aux Maladies Infectieuses (LR11IPT04), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 13 Place Pasteur, BP 74, 1002 Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Sami Fattouch
- Institut National des Sciences Appliquées et de Technologie (INSAT), Université de Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Habib Karoui
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire et de Pathologie Expérimentale Appliquée Aux Maladies Infectieuses (LR11IPT04), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 13 Place Pasteur, BP 74, 1002 Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Khadija Essafi-Benkhadir
- Laboratoire d'Epidémiologie Moléculaire et de Pathologie Expérimentale Appliquée Aux Maladies Infectieuses (LR11IPT04), Institut Pasteur de Tunis, 13 Place Pasteur, BP 74, 1002 Tunis-Belvédère, Tunisia ; Université de Tunis El Manar, 1068 Tunis, Tunisia
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Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) has emerged as an important signaling molecule with beneficial effects on various cellular processes affecting, for example, cardiovascular and neurological functions. The physiological importance of H₂S is motivating efforts to develop strategies for modulating its levels. However, advancement in the field of H₂S-based therapeutics is hampered by fundamental gaps in our knowledge of how H₂S is regulated, its mechanism of action, and its molecular targets. This review provides an overview of sulfur metabolism; describes recent progress that has shed light on the mechanism of H₂S as a signaling molecule; and examines nutritional regulation of sulfur metabolism, which pertains to health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Kabil
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0600;
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Kabil O, Motl N, Banerjee R. H2S and its role in redox signaling. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2014; 1844:1355-66. [PMID: 24418393 PMCID: PMC4048824 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2014.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2013] [Revised: 12/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has emerged as an important gaseous signaling molecule that is produced endogenously by enzymes in the sulfur metabolic network. H2S exerts its effects on multiple physiological processes important under both normal and pathological conditions. These functions include neuromodulation, regulation of blood pressure and cardiac function, inflammation, cellular energetics and apoptosis. Despite the recognition of its biological importance and its beneficial effects, the mechanism of H2S action and the regulation of its tissue levels remain unclear in part owing to its chemical and physical properties that render handling and analysis challenging. Furthermore, the multitude of potential H2S effects has made it difficult to dissect its signaling mechanism and to identify specific targets. In this review, we focus on H2S metabolism and provide an overview of the recent literature that sheds some light on its mechanism of action in cellular redox signaling in health and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Thiol-Based Redox Processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Kabil
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0600, USA
| | - Nicole Motl
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0600, USA
| | - Ruma Banerjee
- University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0600, USA.
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Sakaba Y, Awata H, Morisugi T, Kawakami T, Sakudo A, Tanaka Y. 15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 induces PPARγ- and p53-independent apoptosis in rabbit synovial cells. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2014; 109-111:1-13. [PMID: 24680891 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
A ligand of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14)-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) induces apoptosis in various cells. However, the mechanism appears to be complex and cell-type specific. We investigated the mechanism of 15d-PGJ2-induced apoptosis of rabbit synovial cells. Exposure to 15d-PGJ2 resulted in DNA fragmentation accompanied by caspase-3 and -9 activations in the cells, suggesting occurrence of mitochondria-mediated apoptosis. Although the exposure also induced remarkable increase in p53 protein, its transcriptional activity was rather reduced, suggesting non-necessity of p53 in 15d-PGJ2-induced apoptosis. Covalent binding of 15d-PGJ2 to cellular proteins including p53 resulted in their insolubilization. N-acetylcysteine inhibited not only the 15d-PGJ2-induced apoptotic events but also the protein insolubilizations via its interaction with 15d-PGJ2. The studies using a PPARγ-agonist and -antagonist showed noninvolvement of PPARγ in 15d-PGJ2-induced apoptosis. The pre-exposure to pro-inflammatory cytokines did not affect the cytotoxicity of 15d-PGJ2 in synovial cells. Taken together, these results show that 15d-PGJ2 induces a mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway in p53- and PPARγ-independent manners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukiko Sakaba
- Department of Biometabolic Chemistry, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of The Ryukyus, Uehara 207, Nishihara-Cho, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Hisataka Awata
- Department of Clinical Physiology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of The Ryukyus, Uehara 207, Nishihara-Cho, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Toshiaki Morisugi
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Medicine, Nara Medical University, Shijo-Cho 840, Kashihara, Nara 634-8521, Japan
| | - Tetsuji Kawakami
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, School of Medicine, Nara Medical University, Shijo-Cho 840, Kashihara, Nara 634-8521, Japan
| | - Akikazu Sakudo
- Department of Biometabolic Chemistry, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of The Ryukyus, Uehara 207, Nishihara-Cho, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan
| | - Yasuharu Tanaka
- Department of Biometabolic Chemistry, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of The Ryukyus, Uehara 207, Nishihara-Cho, Okinawa 903-0215, Japan.
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Nicholson JD, Puche AC, Guo Y, Weinreich D, Slater BJ, Bernstein SL. PGJ(2) provides prolonged CNS stroke protection by reducing white matter edema. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50021. [PMID: 23284631 PMCID: PMC3527449 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Few clinically effective approaches reduce CNS-white matter injury. After early in-vivo white matter infarct, NFκB-driven pro-inflammatory signals can amplify a relatively small amount of vascular damage, resulting in progressive endothelial dysfunction to create a severe ischemic lesion. This process can be minimized by 15-deoxy-Δ(12,14)-prostaglandin J2 (PGJ(2)), an analog of the metabolically active PGD(2) metabolite. We evaluated PGJ(2)'s effects and mechanisms using rodent anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (rAION); an in vivo white matter ischemia model. PGJ(2) administration systemically administered either acutely or 5 hours post-insult results in significant neuroprotection, with stereologic evaluation showing improved neuronal survival 30 days post-infarct. Quantitative capillary vascular analysis reveals that PGJ(2) improves perfusion at 1 day post-infarct by reducing tissue edema. Our results suggest that PGJ(2) acts by reducing NFκB signaling through preventing p65 nuclear localization and inhibiting inflammatory gene expression. Importantly, PGJ(2) showed no in vivo toxicity structurally as measured by optic nerve (ON) myelin thickness, functionally by ON-compound action potentials, on a cellular basis by oligodendrocyte precursor survival or changes in ON-myelin gene expression. PGJ(2) may be a clinically useful neuroprotective agent for ON and other CNS infarcts involving white matter, with mechanisms of action enabling effective treatment beyond the currently considered maximal time for intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D. Nicholson
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adam C. Puche
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yan Guo
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Weinreich
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bernard J. Slater
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Steven L. Bernstein
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland-Baltimore School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Targeting PPARγ Signaling Cascade for the Prevention and Treatment of Prostate Cancer. PPAR Res 2012; 2012:968040. [PMID: 23213321 PMCID: PMC3504464 DOI: 10.1155/2012/968040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2012] [Revised: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) is a member of the hormone-activated nuclear receptor superfamily. PPARγ can be activated by a diverse group of agents, such as endogenous polyunsaturated fatty acids, 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2), and thiazolidinedione (TZD) drugs. PPARγ induces antiproliferative, antiangiogenic, and prodifferentiation pathways in several tissue types, thus making it a highly useful target for downregulation of carcinogenesis. These TZD-derived novel therapeutic agents, alone or in combination with other anticancer drugs, have translational relevance in fostering effective strategies for cancer treatment. TZDs have been proven for antitumor activity in a wide variety of experimental cancer models, both in vitro and in vivo, by affecting the cell cycle, inducing cell differentiation and apoptosis, as well as by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis. Angiogenesis inhibition mechanisms of TZDs include direct inhibition of endothelial cell proliferation and migration, as well as reduction in tumor cell vascular endothelial growth factor production. In prostate cancer, PPARγ ligands such as troglitazone and 15d-PGJ2 have also shown to inhibit tumor growth. This paper will focus on current discoveries in PPARγ activation, targeting prostate carcinogenesis as well as the role of PPARγ as a possible anticancer therapeutic option. Here, we review PPARγ as an antitumor agent and summarize the antineoplastic effects of PPARγ agonists in prostate cancer.
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Lee MW, Kim DS, Kim HR, Kim HJ, Yang JM, Ryu S, Noh YH, Lee SH, Son MH, Jung HL, Yoo KH, Koo HH, Sung KW. Cell death is induced by ciglitazone, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) agonist, independently of PPARγ in human glioma cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 417:552-7. [PMID: 22177955 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 12/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) regulates multiple signaling pathways, and its agonists induce apoptosis in various cancer cells. However, their role in cell death is unclear. In this study, the relationship between ciglitazone (CGZ) and PPARγ in CGZ-induced cell death was examined. At concentrations of greater than 30 μM, CGZ, a synthetic PPARγ agonist, activated caspase-3 and induced apoptosis in T98G cells. Treatment of T98G cells with less than 30 μM CGZ effectively induced cell death after pretreatment with 30 μM of the PPARγ antagonist GW9662, although GW9662 alone did not induce cell death. This cell death was also observed when cells were co-treated with CGZ and GW9662, but was not observed when cells were treated with CGZ prior to GW9662. In cells in which PPARγ was down-regulated cells by siRNA, lower concentrations of CGZ (<30 μM) were sufficient to induce cell death, although higher concentrations of CGZ (≥30 μM) were required to induce cell death in control T98G cells, indicating that CGZ effectively induces cell death in T98G cells independently of PPARγ. Treatment with GW9662 followed by CGZ resulted in a down-regulation of Akt activity and the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), which was accompanied by a decrease in Bcl-2 expression and an increase in Bid cleavage. These data suggest that CGZ is capable of inducing apoptotic cell death independently of PPARγ in glioma cells, by down-regulating Akt activity and inducing MMP collapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myoung Woo Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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14
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de Jong E, Winkel P, Poelstra K, Prakash J. Anticancer effects of 15d-prostaglandin-J2 in wild-type and doxorubicin-resistant ovarian cancer cells: novel actions on SIRT1 and HDAC. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25192. [PMID: 21957481 PMCID: PMC3177888 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
15-deoxy-delta-12,14-prostaglandin-J2 (15d-PGJ2), an arachidonic metabolite and a natural PPARγ agonist, is known to induce apoptosis in tumor cells. In this study, we investigated new therapeutic potentials of 15d-PGJ2 by determining its anticancer effects in wild-type and doxorubicin-resistant ovarian carcinoma cells. Despite high expression of resistance-inducing genes like MDR1, Bcl2 and Bcl-xl, 15d-PGJ2 strongly induced apoptosis in doxorubicin-resistant (A2780/AD) cells similar to the wild-type (A2780). This was found to be related to caspase-3/7- and NF-κB pathways but not to its PPARγ agonistic activity. 15d-PGJ2 also was able to reduce the doxorubicin resistance of A2780/AD cells at low doses as confirmed by the inhibition of gene expression of MDR1 (p-glycoprotein) and SIRT1 (a drug senescence gene). We also investigated effects of 15d-PGJ2 on cell migration and transformation using a wound-healing assay and morphological analyses, respectively. We found that 15d-PGJ2 inhibited migration most likely due to NF-κB inhibition and induced transformation of the round-shape A2780/AD cells into elongated epithelial cells due to HDAC1 inhibition. Using a 15d-PGJ2 analog, we found the mechanism of action of these new activities of 15d-PGJ2 on SIRT1 and HDAC1 gene expressions and enzyme activities. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that 15d-PGJ2 has a high therapeutic potential to kill drug-resistant tumor cells and, the newly described inhibitory effects of this cyclo-oxygenase product on SIRT1 and HDAC will provide new opportunities for cancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin de Jong
- Department of Pharmacokinetics, Toxicology and Targeting, Groningen Research Institute for Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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15
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Kitz K, Windischhofer W, Leis HJ, Huber E, Kollroser M, Malle E. 15-Deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin J2 induces Cox-2 expression in human osteosarcoma cells through MAPK and EGFR activation involving reactive oxygen species. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:854-65. [PMID: 21236332 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2010] [Revised: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 12/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prostaglandins (PGs), important modulators in bone biology, may also contribute to tumor formation and progression in human osteosarcoma. 15-Deoxy-Δ(12,14)-PGJ(2) (15d-PGJ(2)), a metabolite of PGD(2) and PPARγ-ligand, exerts a panel of biological activities via receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms. As inducible cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) is a candidate inflammatory marker in human osteosarcoma and a rate-limiting enzyme in PG biosynthesis, this study aimed at investigating intracellular redox status and signaling cascades leading to Cox-2 induction in human MG-63 osteosarcoma cells. 15d-PGJ(2) induced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that in turn may lead to upregulation of Cox-2 via two different routes in a PPARγ-independent manner. First, phosphorylation of p38 MAPK directly enhances Cox-2 expression by promoting mRNA stability. Second, 15d-PGJ(2) induces activation of epidermal growth factor receptors and downstream activation of Cox-2 via phosphorylation of p42/44 MAPK. Glutathione precursor molecules reversed enhanced ROS levels and Cox-2 expression. Functional activity of Cox-2 expression was tested by measurement of PGE(2) and PGF(2α). The synthetic compound 9,10-dihydro-15d-PGJ(2) lacking the α,β-unsaturated carbonyl group in the cyclopentenone ring did not exhibit the cellular responses observed with 15d-PGJ(2). We conclude that the electrophilic carbon atom of 15d-PGJ(2) is responsible for alterations in intracellular redox status and Cox-2 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Kitz
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescence Medicine, Research Unit of Osteological Research and Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Medical University of Graz, A-8036 Graz, Austria
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16
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Modulation of mammary cancer cell migration by 15-deoxy-delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2): implications for anti-metastatic therapy. Biochem J 2010; 430:69-78. [PMID: 20536428 DOI: 10.1042/bj20091193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recently, a number of steps in the progression of metastatic disease have been shown to be regulated by redox signalling. Electrophilic lipids affect redox signalling through the post-translational modification of critical cysteine residues in proteins. However, the therapeutic potential as well as the precise mechanisms of action of electrophilic lipids in cancer cells is poorly understood. In the present study, we investigate the effect of the electrophilic prostaglandin 15d-PGJ2 (15-deoxy-Delta12,14-prostaglandin J2) on metastatic properties of breast cancer cells. 15d-PGJ2 was shown to decrease migration, stimulate focal-adhesion disassembly and cause extensive F-actin (filamentous actin) reorganization at low concentrations (0.03-0.3 microM). Importantly, these effects seem to be independent of PPARgamma (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma) and modification of actin or Keap1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1), which are known protein targets of 15d-PGJ2 at higher concentrations. Interestingly, the p38 inhibitor SB203580 was able to prevent both 15d-PGJ2-induced F-actin reorganization and focal-adhesion disassembly. Taken together, the results of the present study suggest that electrophiles such as 15d-PGJ2 are potential anti-metastatic agents which exhibit specificity for migration and adhesion pathways at low concentrations where there are no observed effects on Keap1 or cytotoxicity.
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17
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Abstract
Thiol reactive cyclopentenone prostaglandin, 15-deoxy-Δ12, 14-Prostaglandin J2, induced a novel, non-apoptotic and Map1 LC3 dependent but non-autophagic form of cell death in colon, breast and prostate cancer cell lines, characterized by extensive cytoplasmic vacuolation with dilatation of endoplasmic reticulum. Disruption of sulfhydryl homeostasis, which resulted in ER stress, accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and subsequent ER dilation, contributed to PPARγ independent cell death by 15d-PGJ2. Absence of intracellular organelles in these vacuoles, shown by Electron Microscopy and unique fragmentation of Lamin B, suggested this form of cell death to be different from autophagy and apoptosis. Cell death induced by 15d-PGJ2 is prevented by cycloheximide and actinomycin D, suggesting a requirement of new protein synthesis for death with cytoplasmic vacuolation. Here, we report for the first time that upregulation and processing of autophagy marker LC3 is an important event in non-autophagic cytoplasmic vacuolation and cell death. Notably, knockdown of LC3 conferred significant protection against 15d-PGJ2 induced cytoplasmic vacuolation and cell death suggesting a novel role of LC3 in a death process other than autophagy.
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18
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Lee DR, Kwon CH, Park JY, Kim YK, Woo JS. 15-Deoxy-Delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) induces mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis through inhibition of PKA/NF-kappaB in renal proximal epithelial cells. Toxicology 2009; 258:17-24. [PMID: 19167456 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Accepted: 01/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We have previously reported the cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15-deoxy-Delta(12,14)-prostaglandin J(2) (15d-PGJ(2)) induces renal proximal epithelial cell death through NF-kappaB inhibition. However, the upstream and down-stream signaling pathways that NF-kappaB inhibition mediates 15d-PGJ(2)-induced apoptosis remain to be defined. In the present study, we determined whether NF-kappaB inhibition induces cell death through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and whether protein kinase A (PKA) functions upstream of NF-kappaB inhibition by 15d-PGJ(2). The role of NF-kappaB inhibition in this apoptotic pathway was evaluated using NF-kappaB p65 transfected cells. 15d-PGJ(2) induced cell death by a PPARgamma-independent mechanism and the cell death was prevented by NF-kappaB p65 transfection. 15d-PGJ(2) treatment caused disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and caspase-3 activation, suggesting that 15d-PGJ(2) induces cell death through a mitochondria-dependent apoptotic mechanism. These changes by 15d-PGJ(2) were attenuated by NF-kappaB p65 transfection. 15d-PGJ(2) treatment resulted in an increase in Bax expression, which were blocked by NF-kappaB p65 transfection. 15d-PGJ(2) treatment caused PKA inhibition and 15d-PGJ(2)-induced cell death was enhanced by the PKA specific inhibitor H89. Inhibition of NF-kappaB by 15d-PGJ(2) was prevented by addition of forskolin, a PKA activator. Taken together, these results suggest that PKA-dependent NF-kappaB inhibition stimulates 15d-PGJ(2)-mediated mitochondrial apoptotic pathway through alterations in expression of the NF-kappaB target genes Bax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Ryeol Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, Pusan 602-739, Republic of Korea
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19
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Millan A, Huerta S. Apoptosis-Inducing Factor and Colon Cancer. J Surg Res 2009; 151:163-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2007.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2007] [Revised: 04/23/2007] [Accepted: 05/01/2007] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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20
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Choi CH, Kwon CH, Kim YK. The PPARγ Agonist Rosiglitazone Inhibits Glioma Cell Proliferation and Migrationin vitroand Glioma Tumor Growthin vivo. Exp Neurobiol 2009. [DOI: 10.5607/en.2009.18.2.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Chang Hwa Choi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Busan 602-739, Korea
| | - Chae Hwa Kwon
- Department of Physiology, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Busan 602-739, Korea
| | - Yong Keun Kim
- Department of Physiology, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Busan 602-739, Korea
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21
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In vitro and in vivo sensitization of SW620 metastatic colon cancer cells to CDDP-induced apoptosis by the nitric oxide donor DETANONOate: Involvement of AIF. Nitric Oxide 2008; 20:182-94. [PMID: 19105980 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2008.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2008] [Revised: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/26/2008] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor cells develop mechanisms that dysregulate apoptotic pathways resulting in resistance to cytotoxic stimuli. Primary SW480 and metastatic SW620 colon cancer cells are resistant to CDDP-induced apoptosis. Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) was significantly downregulated in SW620 compared to SW480 cells; while apoptotic mediators such as Bax, Bcl-2, and Bcl(XL) were not altered in these cell lines. Examination of tumor tissues from patients with colon cancer demonstrated a significant downregulation of AIF in patients with advanced disease. The role of AIF expression in resistance was examined. Several lines of evidence suggest the involvement of AIF expression level in the sensitivity of SW620 to CDDP-induced apoptosis: (1) sensitization of SW620 by the NO donor DETANONOate to CDDP-induced apoptosis correlated with the induction of AIF as assessed by RT-PCR and Western blot analysis, (2) treatment of SW620 cells with siRNA AIF, but not with control siRNAs, inhibited DETANONOate-induced sensitization to CDDP apoptosis, (3) sensitization by DETANONOate observed in vitro was corroborated in vivo in nude mice bearing SW620 tumor xenografts and treated with the combination of DETANONOate and CDDP, and (4) tumor tissues derived from the SW620 xenografts revealed significant upregulation of AIF and increased apoptosis by DETANONOate and CDDP combination treatment. Altogether, these findings underscore the potential therapeutic application of NO donors and subtoxic chemotherapeutic drugs in the treatment of advanced colon cancer resistant to conventional chemotherapeutic agents.
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22
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Lee SJ, Kim MS, Park JY, Woo JS, Kim YK. 15-Deoxy-delta 12,14-prostaglandin J2 induces apoptosis via JNK-mediated mitochondrial pathway in osteoblastic cells. Toxicology 2008; 248:121-9. [PMID: 18450357 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2008.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Revised: 03/17/2008] [Accepted: 03/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The cyclopentenone prostaglandin 15-deoxy-delta 12,14-prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2) induces apoptosis in various cell types. However, the underlying mechanism of 15d-PGJ2-induced apoptosis is not fully understood. The present study was undertaken to determine the molecular mechanism by which 15d-PGJ2 induces apoptosis in MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblastic cells. 15d-PGJ2 caused a concentration- and time-dependent apoptotic cell death. 15d-PGJ2 induced a transient activation of ERK1/2 and sustained activation of JNK. 15d-PGJ2-induced cell death was prevented by the JNK inhibitor SP6001, but not by inhibitors of ERK1/2 and p38. JNK activation by 15d-PGJ2 was blocked by antioxidants N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and GSH. 15d-PGJ2 caused ROS generation and 15d-PGJ2-induced cell death was prevented by antioxidants, suggesting involvement of ROS generation in 15d-PGJ2-induced cell death. 15d-PGJ2 triggered the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway indicated by enhanced Bax expression, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, and caspase-3 activation. The JNK inhibitor blocked these events induced by 15d-PGJ2. Taken together, these results suggest that the 15d-PGJ2 induces cell death through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway dependent of ROS and JNK activation in osteoblastic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Ju Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, Pusan 602-739, Republic of Korea
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23
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Kim EJ, Choi CH, Park JY, Kang SK, Kim YK. Underlying mechanism of quercetin-induced cell death in human glioma cells. Neurochem Res 2008; 33:971-9. [PMID: 18322795 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9416-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
There has been considerable interest in recent years in the anti-tumor activities of flavonoids. Quercetin, a ubiquitous bioactive flavonoid, can inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells. However, the precise molecular mechanism by which quercetin induces apoptosis in cancer cells is poorly understood. The present study was undertaken to examine the effect of quercetin on cell viability and to determine its underlying mechanism in human glioma cells. Quercetin resulted in loss of cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner and the decrease in cell viability was mainly attributed to cell death. Quercetin did not increase reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and the quercetin-induced cell death was also not affected by antioxidants, suggesting that ROS generation is not involved in loss of cell viability. Western blot analysis showed that quercetin treatment caused rapid reduction in phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt. Transient transfection with constitutively active forms of MEK and Akt protected against the quercetin-induced loss of cell viability. Quercetin-induced depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential. Caspase activity was stimulated by quercetin and caspase inhibitors prevented the quercetin-induced loss of cell viability. Quercetin resulted in a decrease in expression of survivin, antiapoptotic proteins. Taken together, these findings suggest that quercetin results in human glioma cell death through caspase-dependent mechanisms involving down-regulation of ERK, Akt, and survivin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eui Joong Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, College of Medicine, Pusan National University, Pusan 602-739, South Korea
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24
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Ciglitazone induces caspase-independent apoptosis via p38-dependent AIF nuclear translocation in renal epithelial cells. Toxicology 2008; 244:13-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2007.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2007] [Revised: 10/02/2007] [Accepted: 10/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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