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Raitasalo K, Järvinen-Tassopoulos J, Rask S, Skogberg N. Risk and Protective Factors for Gambling Among Youth by origin: Findings from the three waves of cross-sectional Finnish School Health Promotion Study among 238,939 Students. J Gambl Stud 2024:10.1007/s10899-024-10321-7. [PMID: 39069598 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-024-10321-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Gambling is a public health problem that can cause many kinds of harm. The aim of this study was to examine youth gambling by origin, and the risk and protective factors associated with it. The data was drawn from the School Health Promotion Study (n = 238,939) conducted in Finland, representative of the 14 to 16-year-old Finnish schoolchildren. Cross-tabulations and multivariate logistic regression were used in assessing the association between origin and weekly gambling. Interaction terms of origin and background variables related to substance use, peer and family relations and leisure time were then calculated to assess inter-group differences. The study showed that foreign-born, migrant origin and youth from mixed families were more likely to gamble weekly compared to youth with Finnish-born parents. The likelihood of gambling was particularly high among foreign-born and migrant-origin youth. Weekly gambling was significantly more common among boys than girls in all studied youth groups, and it was particularly common among foreign-born boys compared to other groups. Substance use was associated with weekly gambling and even more so among foreign-born youth. There were also differences by origin in the strength of association between other background factors and weekly gambling. Foreign-born boys appear to be especially vulnerable to multiple health and social risks including gambling, making them a particularly important group for targeted preventive programs. Preventive efforts are needed to enhance public awareness, boost parental supervision, and limit gambling-related risks. Special attention is needed to prevent migrant-origin boys from developing problems with gambling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsimarja Raitasalo
- Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland.
- University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Johanna Järvinen-Tassopoulos
- Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Centre for Research On Addiction, Control, and Governance, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Shadia Rask
- Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Centre for Research On Addiction, Control, and Governance, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Natalia Skogberg
- Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Centre for Research On Addiction, Control, and Governance, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Moñino-García M, Ballesta M, Huerta JM, Correa-Rodríguez JF, Cabrera-Castro N, Llorens N, Chirlaque-López MD. The Adolescent Problem Gambling Prevalence Associated with Leisure-Time Activities and Risky Behaviors in Southern Spain. Int J Ment Health Addict 2022:1-15. [PMID: 36440256 PMCID: PMC9676736 DOI: 10.1007/s11469-022-00950-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gambling addiction is increasing and is becoming a public health concern due to the rise of gambling-related harms affecting the youth. Previous studies suggest a strong link between problem gambling (PG) and substance use and psychosocial and familial factors. Our main objective was to analyze the association between PG and factors like sport, leisure-time activities, and risk-taking behaviors in adolescents. A survey on substance use and addictive behaviors was performed in 2019 on a representative sample of 2240 subjects (14-18 years) from the Southern Spain Region. Data variables like socio-demographic characteristics, sport, leisure and free time activities, family environment, PG (Lie-Bet Scale), compulsive internet use (CIUS Scale), and consumption of alcohol and cannabis were collected using a standardized questionnaire. Weighted PG prevalence was estimated in either sex, as well as the differences between various levels of PG using chi-square tests. Crude and adjusted weighted logistic regression models were used to identify predictors associated with PG. The prevalence of PG was associated with shopping frequency, compulsive internet use, cannabis use in the previous month, higher family economic status, and having a homemaker father which increased the likelihood of PG. On the contrary, cultural hobbies such as playing an instrument, painting, singing, and writing, and having a working mother were inversely associated with PG. Our results suggest that encouraging participation in creative activities along with supervised shopping and monitoring compulsive internet use and cannabis consumption may contribute some protection against adolescent PG. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11469-022-00950-7.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Moñino-García
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Division of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100 Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - M. Ballesta
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Division of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100 Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - JM. Huerta
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - JF. Correa-Rodríguez
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - N. Cabrera-Castro
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
| | - N. Llorens
- Spanish Observatory On Drugs, Government Delegation for the National Plan On Drugs, Ministry of Health, Plaza de España, 17, 28008 Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Valencian International University, C/Pintor Sorolla, 21, 46002 Valencia, Spain
| | - MD. Chirlaque-López
- Department of Epidemiology, Regional Health Council of Murcia, Ronda de Levante 11, 30008 Murcia, Spain
- Division of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Murcia, 30100 Espinardo, Murcia, Spain
- Institute for Biomedical Research of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30120 El Palmar, Murcia, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Risk Factors for Excessive Social Media Use Differ from Those of Gambling and Gaming in Finnish Youth. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19042406. [PMID: 35206593 PMCID: PMC8872066 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19042406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: Adolescents’ excessive social media use has characteristics similar to other addictive behaviours. This study aims to explore whether the same risk factors are associated with excessive social media use as with excessive gaming and gambling among Finnish adolescents. Methods: Multinomial logistic regression analyses were carried out using the European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs data, collected from Finnish adolescents aged 15–16 in 2019 (n = 4595). Results: Excessive use of social media was more common among girls (reported by 46% of respondents) than boys of the same age (28%), whereas boys reported both excessive gaming (23%) and gambling (6%) more often than girls (4% and 1%, respectively). All differences between genders were statistically significant (p < 0.0001). Daily smoking was associated with a high risk of excessive gambling (AOR = 3.23) and low risk of excessive gaming (AOR = 0.27) but had no significant effect on excessive social media use. Cannabis use in the past 12 months was positively associated only with excessive gambling (AOR = 2.39), while past 12 months alcohol consumption increased the risk for excessive social media use (AOR = 1.25). Conclusions: Adolescent girls are at greater risk of excessive social media use than boys, while boys are at greater risk of excessive gaming and gambling. The associations with known risk factors are somewhat different for excessive use of social media as compared to excessive gambling and gaming and should be acknowledged when developing preventive measures for adolescents.
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Canale N, Rubaltelli E, Calcagnì A, Vieno A, Giovannoni M, Devos G, Billieux J. The effects of induced sadness, stress sensitivity, negative urgency, and gender in laboratory gambling. INTERNATIONAL GAMBLING STUDIES 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/14459795.2021.2002385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Enrico Rubaltelli
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Antonio Calcagnì
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Alessio Vieno
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Marta Giovannoni
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Gaëtan Devos
- UCLouvain, Research institute for Psychological Sciences, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Joël Billieux
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre for Excessive Gambling, Lausanne University Hospitals (Chuv), Lausanne, Switzerland
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Castrén S, Järvinen-Tassopoulos J, Raitasalo K. Money used in gaming is associated with problem gambling: Results of the ESPAD 2019 Finland. J Behav Addict 2021; 10:932-940. [PMID: 34797777 PMCID: PMC8987419 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2021.00076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The convergence of gaming and gambling may pose a risk for adolescents. Thus, it is important to find out how these behaviours are associated with other addictive behaviours in order to develop efficient preventive measures for youth. The aim of this study was to examine 1) whether problematic gaming and money used for gaming activities are risk factors for gambling, and 2) what kind of impact adolescents' substance use along with other factors related to friends and parents have on this association. METHODS The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs data, 2019 of Finnish adolescents aged 15 to 16 (N = 4595). Cross-tabulations with Rao-Scott's chisquare tests were applied to study the associations of the background factors with gambling in the past 12 months. A multinomial logistic regression model was fitted for the outcome variable (gambling in the past 12 months) adjusted for all independent and background variables. RESULTS Problematic gaming alone was not associated with gambling participation, whereas using money for digital games increased the risk of gambling. Boys gamble more than girls. The use of alcohol and drugs increased the risk of gambling. Parental monitoring reduced the risk of gambling, whereas hanging around weekly with friends increased the risk. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Using money on gaming sites may put some adolescents at risk of developing problems with either gaming or gambling. The link between using money in digital games and gambling participation calls for preventive measures, intervention and regulatory acts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sari Castrén
- Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Social Sciences Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Johanna Järvinen-Tassopoulos
- Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Faculty of Social Sciences, Social and Public Policy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kirsimarja Raitasalo
- Department of Public Health and Welfare, Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Social Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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6
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Stevenson C, Wakefield JRH, Felsner I, Drury J, Costa S. Collectively coping with coronavirus: Local community identification predicts giving support and lockdown adherence during the COVID-19 pandemic. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 33969899 DOI: 10.31219/osf.io/2uyw7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The role of shared identity in predicting both ingroup helping behaviour and adherence to protective norms during COVID-19 has been extensively theorized, but remains largely under-investigated. We build upon previous Social Identity research into community resilience by testing the role of pre-existing local community (or 'neighbourhood') identity as a predictor of these outcomes, via the mediator of perceived social support. Community residents in the UK completed a longitudinal online survey four months before lockdown (T1; N = 253), one month before lockdown (T2; N = 217), and two months into lockdown (T3; N = 149). The cross-lagged panel analysis shows that T1 community identification predicts T3 giving and receiving of pandemic-related support, and that these effects occur via the perception of community support at the second time point (while the alternative pathway from T1 support via T2 identification is non-significant). Moreover, we show that T1 community identification also directly predicts lockdown adherence at T3. Our findings point to the pivotal role played by community identity in effective behavioural responses to the pandemic, and the need to support and foster community development to facilitate local community resilience as the crisis continues to unfold.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sebastiano Costa
- Università Degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
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7
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Walters GD. Parental Gambling as a Moderator of the Child Delinquency-Gambling Relationship: Does Having a Role Model in the Home Make a Difference? J Gambl Stud 2021; 37:27-41. [PMID: 32656746 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-020-09962-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The relationship between delinquency and gambling has drawn significant attention from researchers in the behavioral and social sciences, yet there are aspects of this relationship that remain largely unexplored. The role of "third variables" in moderating the connection between child delinquency and gambling involvement is one such aspect. Accordingly, the current study set out to examine the impact of parent gambling involvement on the child delinquency-gambling relationship in a sample of 3089 adolescents (1576 males, 1513 females) from Cohort K of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC-K). Using cross-sectional data from Wave 7 of the LSAC, the current study tested the possibility that gambling involvement in parents may moderate the relationship between delinquency and gambling in their offspring. Results obtained from a regression analysis revealed that the link between delinquency, conceptualized as an early marker of general deviance, and gambling variety, as measured across ten different forms of wagering (e.g., Casino gambling, sports betting, horse and dog racing, scratch tickets), changed as a function of parental involvement in these same ten behaviors. In seeking clarity on this relationship, it was noted that the association between child delinquency and gambling involvement grew in proportion to the strength of parental involvement in gaming activities. Hence, having a gambling role model in the home may increase opportunities and incentive for gambling in children predisposed to antisocial behavior or general deviance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn D Walters
- Department of Criminal Justice, Kutztown University, Kutztown, PA, 19530-0730, USA.
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8
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Stevenson C, Wakefield JRH, Felsner I, Drury J, Costa S. Collectively coping with coronavirus: Local community identification predicts giving support and lockdown adherence during the COVID-19 pandemic. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 60:1403-1418. [PMID: 33969899 PMCID: PMC8236966 DOI: 10.1111/bjso.12457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The role of shared identity in predicting both ingroup helping behaviour and adherence to protective norms during COVID-19 has been extensively theorized, but remains largely under-investigated. We build upon previous Social Identity research into community resilience by testing the role of pre-existing local community (or 'neighbourhood') identity as a predictor of these outcomes, via the mediator of perceived social support. Community residents in the UK completed a longitudinal online survey four months before lockdown (T1; N = 253), one month before lockdown (T2; N = 217), and two months into lockdown (T3; N = 149). The cross-lagged panel analysis shows that T1 community identification predicts T3 giving and receiving of pandemic-related support, and that these effects occur via the perception of community support at the second time point (while the alternative pathway from T1 support via T2 identification is non-significant). Moreover, we show that T1 community identification also directly predicts lockdown adherence at T3. Our findings point to the pivotal role played by community identity in effective behavioural responses to the pandemic, and the need to support and foster community development to facilitate local community resilience as the crisis continues to unfold.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sebastiano Costa
- Università Degli Studi della Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
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9
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Riley BJ, Oster C, Rahamathulla M, Lawn S. Attitudes, Risk Factors, and Behaviours of Gambling among Adolescents and Young People: A Literature Review and Gap Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:984. [PMID: 33499418 PMCID: PMC7908209 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18030984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Gambling is occurring in a rapidly changing landscape, with new trends and technologies affecting gambling behaviour and problem gambling across a range of populations. Gambling activity among adolescents and young people has received considerable research attention due to a high prevalence of gambling reported among these groups in recent years. Despite legislation worldwide to constrain gambling among adolescents and young people, modern technology, such as online gaming apps and online gambling venues, has significantly increased their exposure to the risks of problem gambling. It is important, therefore, to have up to date information about what is currently known about gambling and to explore gaps in our knowledge. This gap analysis presents the results of a systematic approach to reviewing the current literature on gambling behaviour, attitudes, and associated risk factors for gambling and problem gambling among adolescents and young adults (aged 10-25 years). The review included studies published between January 2015 and August 2020 and included 85 studies for final synthesis. Findings reveal further research is needed on the implications for young people of emerging technologies and new trends in gambling in the digital age. The current gap analysis reveals that this should include more research on the development and impact of both treatment and intervention strategies, and policy and regulatory frameworks from a public health perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben J. Riley
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; (B.J.R.); (C.O.)
| | - Candice Oster
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; (B.J.R.); (C.O.)
| | - Mubarak Rahamathulla
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Social Work, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA 6000, Australia;
| | - Sharon Lawn
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA 5042, Australia; (B.J.R.); (C.O.)
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10
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A Longitudinal Analysis of Gambling Predictors among Adolescents. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17249266. [PMID: 33322378 PMCID: PMC7763018 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Although gambling is forbidden for minors, the prevalence of gambling among adolescents is increasing. In order to improve preventive interventions, more evidence on predictors of gambling onset is needed. A longitudinal study was proposed to (1) establish the prevalence of gambling; (2) identify factors associated with gambling behavior the following year; and (3) adjust a model to predict gambling behavior. A cohort of 1074 students (13-18 years old) was followed for 12 months. The prevalence of gambling reached 42.0% in the second measure. Boys gambled 2.7 times more than girls, and the highest percentages of gambling onset showed up between 13 and 14 years old. Gambling onset and maintenance was associated with gender, age, sensation-seeking, risk perception, self-efficacy for not gambling, parents' attitude towards gambling, group pressure (friends), subjective norm, exposure to advertising, accessibility, normative perception, gambling in T1 and parents gambling behavior. Gender, gambling in T1 and risk perception were significant in all three logistic adjusted regression models, with the fourth variable being sensation seeking, peer pressure (friends) and accessibility, respectively. It is suggested that universal prevention should be aimed preferably at children under 15 years old and to alert regulators and public administrations to the directly proportional relationship between accessibility and gambling onset.
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11
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Wéry A, Canale N, Bell C, Duvivier B, Billieux J. Problematic online sexual activities in men: The role of self‐esteem, loneliness, and social anxiety. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/hbe2.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aline Wéry
- Psychological Sciences Research InstituteUniversité Catholique de Louvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
| | - Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social PsychologyUniversity of Padova Padova Italy
| | - Caroline Bell
- Institute for Health and Behaviour, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive SciencesUniversity of Luxembourg Esch‐sur‐Alzette Luxembourg
| | - Benoit Duvivier
- Psychological Sciences Research InstituteUniversité Catholique de Louvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
| | - Joël Billieux
- Psychological Sciences Research InstituteUniversité Catholique de Louvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
- Institute for Health and Behaviour, Department of Behavioural and Cognitive SciencesUniversity of Luxembourg Esch‐sur‐Alzette Luxembourg
- Institute of PsychologyUniversity of Lausanne Lausanne Switzerland
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12
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Livazović G, Bojčić K. Problem gambling in adolescents: what are the psychological, social and financial consequences? BMC Psychiatry 2019; 19:308. [PMID: 31640621 PMCID: PMC6878669 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-019-2293-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The paper examines the roles of sociodemographic traits, family quality and risk behaviour in adolescent problem gambling, with focus on the psychological, social and financial consequences from the socio-ecological model approach. This model emphasizes the most important risk-protective factors in the development and maintenance of problem gambling on an individual level, a relationship level, as well as a community and societal level. METHODS The research was done using the Canadian Adolescent Gambling Inventory with a sample of 366 participants, 239 females (65.3%) using descriptive statistics and t-test, ANOVA, correlation and hierarchical regression analysis. RESULTS Males reported significantly higher gambling consequences on all scales (p < .001) and significantly more risk behaviour (p < .05). Age was significant for psychological consequences (p < .01), problem gambling (p < .01) and risk behaviour (p < .001) with older participants scoring higher. Students with lower school success reported significantly higher psychological consequences of gambling (p < .01), higher risk behaviour activity (p < .001) and lower family life satisfaction (p < .001). The psychological, financial and social consequences were positively correlated with problem gambling (p < .001). Age (p < .05), gender (p < .001), school success (p < .01) and the father's education level (p. < 05) were significant predictors of problem gambling, with older male adolescents who struggle academically and have lower educated fathers being at greater risk. CONCLUSIONS Results indicate an important relation between adolescent gambling behaviour and very serious psychological, social and financial consequences. There is a constellation of risk factors that likely place certain individuals at high risk for problem gambling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goran Livazović
- Department for Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Lorenz Jaeger Street 9, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Karlo Bojčić
- Department for Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of J. J. Strossmayer in Osijek, Lorenz Jaeger Street 9, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
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13
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Sanscartier MD, Edgerton JD, Keough MT. Attitudes towards gambling in a Canadian university sample of young adults. INTERNATIONAL GAMBLING STUDIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/14459795.2019.1649448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason D. Edgerton
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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14
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Kang K, Ok JS, Kim H, Lee KS. The Gambling Factors Related with the Level of Adolescent Problem Gambler. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16122110. [PMID: 31207895 PMCID: PMC6617330 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16122110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the gambling factors related with the gambling problem level of adolescents to provide basic information for the prevention of adolescent gambling problems. The data was drawn from the 2015 Survey on Youth Gambling Problems of the Korea Center on Gambling Problems for Korean students in grades 7–11 (ages 13–17 years) and included 14,011 study subjects (average age 14.9 years, 52.5% male). The lifetime gambling behavior experience was 42.1%, and 24.2% had a gambling behavior experience within the past three months. The past three-month prevalence of problem gambling was 1.1%. The gambling factors related with the level of adolescent problem gambling include the presence of nearby gambling facilities, having personal relationships with people that gamble, a higher number of experienced gambling behaviors, male adolescents, and a greater amount of time spent gambling. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first report to identify gambling factors related with the level of adolescent problem gambling in Korean adolescents using national data. These findings suggest that gambling prevention efforts must consider not only access to individual adolescents as early intervention, but also environmental strategies such as accessibility regulations and alternative activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyonghwa Kang
- Department of Nursing, College of Health & Welfare & Nursing, ChungWoon University, Chungnam 32244, Korea.
| | - Jong Sun Ok
- Department of Nursing, College of Nursing, Konkuk University, Chungcheonbuk-do 27478, Korea.
| | - Hyeongsu Kim
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.
| | - Kun-Sei Lee
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.
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Canale N, Marino C, Griffiths MD, Scacchi L, Monaci MG, Vieno A. The association between problematic online gaming and perceived stress: The moderating effect of psychological resilience. J Behav Addict 2019; 8:174-180. [PMID: 30739461 PMCID: PMC7044594 DOI: 10.1556/2006.8.2019.01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Vulnerability to stress appears to be a potential predisposing factor for developing specific internet-use disorders, such as Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD). Studies investigating the protective effect of psychological resilience against the impact of perceived stress on IGD and weekly gameplay have yet to be reported in the existing literature. The aim of this study was to examine the potential moderating relationships between perceived stress and online gaming (more specifically operationalized as IGD and weekly gameplay) with psychological resilience. METHODS An online survey was administered to 605 participants (males = 82%, Mage = 24.01 years, SDage = 6.11). A multivariate multiple regression model was applied to test for the possible contribution of perceived stress and psychological resilience to weekly gameplay and IGD. RESULTS Perceived stress was associated with higher scores of IGD, whereas psychological resilience was related to lower scores of IGD. In addition, the combination of having higher perceived stress and lower level of psychological resilience was associated with a particularly high hours of gameplay per week. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS These findings further support the importance of personal traits (perceived stress and psychological resilience) in online gaming (IGD severity and weekly gameplay), and also emphasize the unique moderating relationship between perceived stress and weekly gameplay with lack of resilience. Enhancing psychological resilience to decrease the likelihood of online gamers who experience higher level of stress from spending more hours per week gaming is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy,Corresponding author: Natale Canale, PhD; Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Via Venezia, Padova 15-35121, Italy; Phone: +39 049 827 6524; Fax: +39 049 827 6547; E-mail:
| | - Claudia Marino
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Mark D. Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Luca Scacchi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Umane e Sociali, Università della Valle d’Aosta, Aosta, Italy
| | - Maria Grazia Monaci
- Dipartimento di Scienze Umane e Sociali, Università della Valle d’Aosta, Aosta, Italy
| | - Alessio Vieno
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Gambling disorder in adolescents: what do we know about this social problem and its consequences? Ital J Pediatr 2018; 44:146. [PMID: 30514334 PMCID: PMC6280468 DOI: 10.1186/s13052-018-0592-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Gambling disorder (GD) is a psychiatric condition and it is characterized by a maladaptive pattern of gambling behavior that persists despite negative consequences in major areas of life functioning. In Italy, CNR (National Research Council) underlined how over 17 million, 42.8% of the population aged 15-64 have a gambling behavior. Among them, there are over one million students, aged 15-19, equal to 44.2% of Italian students; the number of minors in Italy with GD in 2017 was 580,000, equal to 33.6%. Various psychosocial treatment models have been adapted for GD; on the other hand no drug has received regulatory approval in any jurisdiction as a specific psychopharmacological treatment for GD. Family therapy interventions for treatment of substance abuse problems have been adapted for adolescents GD. Given the increasing overall prevalence of adolescent gambling, it is imperative that Pediatricians appreciate that gambling problems can also afflict adolescents. In conclusion underage gambling appears to be associated positively with alcohol, tobacco and other substance use, as well as with other individual behaviors, therefore we need that collaborative efforts between scientific societies, government and stake holders can influence the uptake of research findings necessary to implement social policies and design effective public health intervention options. Educational-based problem gambling prevention programs are important avenues in targeting at-risk behaviors among adolescents to prevent an escalation of problematic behaviors into adulthood.
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Russell AMT, Langham E, Hing N. Social influences normalize gambling-related harm among higher risk gamblers. J Behav Addict 2018; 7:1100-1111. [PMID: 30596469 PMCID: PMC6376388 DOI: 10.1556/2006.7.2018.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Social influences are key drivers of gambling, and can begin in youth through parental modeling and facilitation. Over time, social influence from friends and colleagues also becomes important. Social network analysis provides a method to measure the combined nature of these social influences. This study aimed to compare social influences across gambling risk groups, by examining key characteristics of the social networks, among Australian adults. METHODS A total of 784 respondents (egos) reported their demographics, gambling behavior and gambling risk, as well as those of the 20 most influential people in their lives (alters). Egos also reported the strength of the connection between themselves and each of their alters, and between each pair of alters. Data were analyzed using egocentric social network analysis approaches. RESULTS Egos in higher risk groups reported more alters who gamble, including a higher proportion experiencing gambling-related harm. Relationship strength indicated that egos in higher risk groups tended to feel closer to their alters, regardless of whether the alter gambles or not. Network density (interconnectedness between alters) was greater for egos in higher risk groups. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that both gambling behavior and gambling-related harm are normalized through social connections. Greater interconnectedness in the networks of higher risk gamblers indicates difficulties in reducing or removing these influences. The findings indicate limitations of individualised interventions, and instead highlight the important role of changing norms within society, which can be transmitted throughout these networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex M. T. Russell
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Erika Langham
- Centre for Indigenous Health Equity Research, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Cairns, QLD, Australia
| | - Nerilee Hing
- Experimental Gambling Research Laboratory, School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQUniversity, Bundaberg, QLD, Australia
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18
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Molinaro S, Benedetti E, Scalese M, Bastiani L, Fortunato L, Cerrai S, Canale N, Chomynova P, Elekes Z, Feijão F, Fotiou A, Kokkevi A, Kraus L, Rupšienė L, Monshouwer K, Nociar A, Strizek J, Urdih Lazar T. Prevalence of youth gambling and potential influence of substance use and other risk factors throughout 33 European countries: first results from the 2015 ESPAD study. Addiction 2018; 113:1862-1873. [PMID: 29806197 DOI: 10.1111/add.14275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Although generally prohibited by national regulations, underage gambling has become popular in Europe, with relevant cross-country prevalence variability. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of underage gambling in Europe stratified by type of game and on-/off-line mode and to examine the association with individual and family characteristics and substance use. DESIGN Our study used data from the 2015 European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD) cross-sectional study, a survey using self-administered anonymous questionnaires. SETTING Thirty-three European countries. PARTICIPANTS Sixteen-year-old-year-old students (n = 93 875; F = 50.8%). MEASUREMENTS The primary outcome measure was prevalence of past-year gambling activity. Key predictors comprised individual behaviours, substance use and parenting (regulation, monitoring and caring). FINDINGS A total of 22.6% of 16-year-old students in Europe gambled in the past year: 16.2% on-line, 18.5% off-line. High prevalence variability was observed throughout countries both for mode and types of game. With the exception of cannabis, substance use shows a higher association with gambling, particularly binge drinking [odds ratio (OR) = 1.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.39-1.53), life-time use of inhalants (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.47-1.68) and other substances (OR = 1.78, 95% CI = 1.65-1.92)]. Among life habits, the following showed a positive association: truancy at school (OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.18-1.35), going out at night (OR = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.26-1.38), participating in sports (OR = 1.30, 95% CI = 1.24-1.37). A negative association was found with reading books for leisure (OR = 0.82%, 95% CI = 0.79-0.86), parents' monitoring of Saturday night activities (OR = 0.81, 95% CI = 0.77-0.86) and restrictions on money provided by parents as a gift (OR = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.84-0.94). CONCLUSIONS Underage gambling in Europe appears to be associated positively with alcohol, tobacco and other substance use (but not cannabis), as well as with other individual behaviours such as truancy, going out at night and active participation in sports, and is associated negatively with reading for pleasure, parental monitoring of evening activities and parental restriction of money.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Molinaro
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Elisa Benedetti
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Scalese
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Luca Bastiani
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Loredana Fortunato
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Sonia Cerrai
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, National Research Council, Pisa, Italy
| | - Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Pavla Chomynova
- Czech National Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Addiction, Prague, Czech Republic.,National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic.,Department of Addictology, 1st Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Fernanda Feijão
- General-Directorate for Intervention on Addictive Behaviours and Dependencies (SICAD), Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Anna Kokkevi
- University Mental Health Research Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Ludwig Kraus
- IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Munich, Germany.,Department of Public Health Sciences, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.,Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | - Alojz Nociar
- St Elisabeth University of Health and Social Work, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.,Research Institute for Child Psychology and Pathopsychology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | | | - Tanja Urdih Lazar
- Clinical Institute of Occupational, Traffic and Sports Medicine, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Abstract
Addictive disorders in youth represent a dynamic field characterized by shifting patterns of substance use and high rates of experimentation, while retaining the risky behaviors and negative outcomes associated with established drug classes. Youth/adolescents are also at the forefront of use of new technologies, and non-substance-related disorders are pertinent. These disorders present with similar pictures of impairment, and can be diagnosed following the same principles. An underlying mental disorder and the possibility of a dual diagnosis need to be assessed carefully, and optimal treatment includes psychosocial treatments with applicable pharmacologic management, the latter representing an expanding field.
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20
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Canale N, Vieno A, Lenzi M, Griffiths MD, Borraccino A, Lazzeri G, Lemma P, Scacchi L, Santinello M. Income Inequality and Adolescent Gambling Severity: Findings from a Large-Scale Italian Representative Survey. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1318. [PMID: 28824499 PMCID: PMC5541014 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Studies have shown that problems related to adult gambling have a geographical and social gradient. For instance, adults experiencing gambling-related harms live in areas of greater deprivation; are unemployed, and have lower income. However, little is known about the impact of socioeconomic inequalities on adolescent problem gambling. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the contextual influences of income inequality on at-risk or problem gambling (ARPG) in a large-scale nationally representative sample of Italian adolescents. A secondary aim was to analyze the association between perceived social support (from family, peers, teachers, and classmates) and ARPG. Methods: Data from the 2013-2014 Health Behavior in School-aged Children Survey (HBSC) Study was used for cross-sectional analyses of ARPG. A total of 20,791 15-year-old students completed self-administered questionnaires. Region-level data on income inequality (GINI index) and overall wealth (GDP per capita) were retrieved from the National Institute of Statistics (Istat). The data were analyzed using the multi-level logistic regression analysis, with students at the first level and regions at the second level. Results: The study demonstrated a North-South gradient for the prevalence of ARPG, with higher prevalence of ARPG in the Southern/Islands/Central Regions (e.g., 11% in Sicily) than in Northern Italy (e.g., 2% in Aosta Valley). Students in regions of high-income inequality were significantly more likely than those in regions of low-income inequality to be at-risk or problem gamblers (following adjustment for sex, family structure, family affluence, perceived social support, and regionale wealth). Additionally, perceived social support from parents and teachers were negatively related to ARPG. Conclusions: Income inequality may have a contextual influence on ARPG. More specifically, living in regions of highest income inequality appeared to be a potential factor that increases the likelihood of becoming an at-risk or problem gambler. Findings of the study suggest that wealth distribution within societies affected by economic policies may indirectly have an influence adolescent gambling behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Alessio Vieno
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Michela Lenzi
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
| | - Mark D. Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent UniversityNottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Alberto Borraccino
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of TurinTurin, Italy
| | - Giacomo Lazzeri
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, CREPS University of Siena – AOUSSiena, Italy
| | - Patrizia Lemma
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of TurinTurin, Italy
| | - Luca Scacchi
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, University of Valle d'AostaAosta, Italy
| | - Massimo Santinello
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of PadovaPadova, Italy
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21
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Canale N, Vieno A, Griffiths MD, Borraccino A, Lazzeri G, Charrier L, Lemma P, Dalmasso P, Santinello M. A large-scale national study of gambling severity among immigrant and non-immigrant adolescents: The role of the family. Addict Behav 2017; 66:125-131. [PMID: 27930902 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM The primary aim of the present study was to examine the association between immigrant generation, family sociodemographic characteristics, and problem gambling severity in a large-scale nationally representative sample of Italian youth. METHOD Data from the 2013-2014 Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) Survey were used for cross-sectional analyses of adolescent problem gambling. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by a representative sample of 20,791 15-year-old students. Respondents' problem gambling severity, immigrant status, family characteristics (family structure, family affluence, perceived family support) and socio-demographic characteristics were individually assessed. FINDINGS Rates of adolescent at-risk/problem gambling were twice as high among first generation immigrants than non-immigrant students; the odds of being at-risk/problem gamblers were higher among first-generation immigrants than adolescents of other immigrant generations or non-immigrant. Not living with two biological or adoptive parents appears to be a factor that increases the risk of becoming a problem gambler in first generation immigrants. CONCLUSIONS Immigrant status and family characteristics may play a key role in contributing to adolescent problem gambling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natale Canale
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Alessio Vieno
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, United Kingdom
| | | | - Giacomo Lazzeri
- Department of Molecular and Developmental Medicine, CREPS University of Siena - AOUS, Italy.
| | - Lorena Charrier
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Patrizia Lemma
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Paola Dalmasso
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Massimo Santinello
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
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"I Am Becoming More and More Like My Eldest Brother!": The Relationship Between Older Siblings, Adolescent Gambling Severity, and the Attenuating Role of Parents in a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Survey Study. J Gambl Stud 2016; 33:425-435. [PMID: 27718036 DOI: 10.1007/s10899-016-9643-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the association between having older siblings who gamble and adolescent at-risk/problem gambling and how parents (i.e., parental knowledge of their whereabouts) and peers might moderate such effects. Data were drawn from the ESPAD®Italia2012 survey (European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs) comprising a nationally representative Italian sample of adolescents. The analysis was carried out on a subsample of 10,063 Italian students aged 15-19 years (average age = 17.10; 55 % girls) who had at least one older sibling and who had gambled at some point in their lives. Respondents' problem gambling severity, older gambler sibling, gambler peers, parental knowledge, and socio-demographic characteristics were individually assessed. Multinomial logistic regression analyses including two- and three-way interactions were conducted. The odds of being an at-risk/problem gambler were higher among high school students with older siblings that gambled and those with peers who gambled. Higher parental knowledge (of who the adolescent was with and where they were in their leisure time) was associated with lower rates of at-risk/problem gambling. There was also an interaction between gamblers with older siblings and parental knowledge. The combination of having siblings who gambled and a greater level of parental knowledge was associated with lower levels of problem gambling. The present study confirmed the occurrence of social risk processes (older siblings and peers who gambled) and demonstrated that gambling among older siblings and peers represents an important contextual factor for increased at-risk/problem gambling. However, parental knowledge appears to be sufficient to counterbalance the influence of older siblings.
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