Predicting Rape Empathy Based on Victim, Perpetrator, and Participant Gender, and History of Sexual Aggression

Sexual victimization experience, acknowledgment labeling and rape empathy among college men and women

OBJECTIVE

Sexual victimization experience is a health concern among college students and rape empathy may help address it. Empathy with a rape victim was examined based on sexual victimization experience, acknowledgment (i.e., labeling experience "sexual assault," "rape"), and gender.

METHOD

Undergraduates (n = 531) completed measures of sexual victimization experience and rape empathy.

RESULTS

Acknowledged victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged victims and nonvictims, but the latter two groups did not differ. Unacknowledged female victims reported greater empathy than unacknowledged male victims, but no gender difference emerged for acknowledged victims or nonvictims. Victimized men were less likely than victimized women to acknowledge their experience.

CONCLUSIONS

The association found between acknowledgment and empathy may inform efforts to address sexual victimization (e.g., prevention, victim support), and men should not be overlooked. Unacknowledged victims and greater acknowledgment rates among women than men may have contributed to previously reported gender differences in rape empathy.

Attitudes Towards Rape and Their Determinants Among Men, Women and Non-Binary People in Poland

The aim of this paper is to present the results of research on attitudes towards rape conducted in a group of 850 adult Poles, including 505 women, 310 men and 35 non-binary people, and to analyze their selected correlates: rape myth acceptance, right-wing authoritarianism and rape empathy. Non-binary people have only recently been included in research as a distinct group and little information can be found in the literature on the characteristics of their attitudes towards social problems. Therefore particular attention was paid to comparing the attitudes towards rape of non-binary people with those of women and men. In analyzing the results, the authors took into account the current socio-political situation in Poland. The results indicate that attitudes toward sexual aggression are related to the type of gender identification. The most positive attitudes towards rape victims among the groups participating in the research are held by non-binary people. Furthermore, attitudes towards rape are determined by rape myths, right-wing authoritarianism and empathy for victims of rape.

No Less of a Man: Inducing Empathy to Reduce Male Rape Myth Acceptance

Male sexual assault is an understudied area. Interventions aimed at reducing negative attitudes toward male survivors have received relatively little attention in the field of sexual assault and violence. This may be related to underreported or insufficient data on male survivors or possibly the acceptance of male rape myths. The current research examines the effect of a hypothetical male sexual assault survivor story and empathy writing task on changes in male rape myth acceptance (MRMA) among U.S. men and women (N = 95). Further, the researchers sought to understand the differences between men and women in MRMA change scores and state emotional empathy for the hypothetical survivor after the empathy induction. Finally, the researchers examined whether state emotional empathy would predict reductions in MRMA and whether participant sex would predict state emotional empathy for the hypothetical survivor after accounting for knowing a male survivor and preinduction MRMA. The results indicated that both men and women experienced significant decreases in MRMA postinduction, and men and women experienced similar levels of change. Additionally, state emotional empathy and preinduction MRMA were the only significant predictors of change scores. Although women reported higher state emotional empathy for the hypothetical survivor, sex was not a significant predictor of state emotional empathy after accounting for personally knowing a male survivor and preinduction MRMA. This research fills a gap in the literature by identifying men's stories of sexual assault and empathy writing as potential methods to reduce MRMA.

An Experimental Investigation of Victim Blaming in Sexual Assault: The Roles of Victim Sexual Orientation, Coercion Type, and Stereotypes About Bisexual Women

Bisexual women are more likely to be sexually assaulted and to receive negative reactions to disclosures of sexual assault than heterosexual and lesbian women. However, few studies have examined the extent to which victim sexual orientation and related factors influence perceptions of sexual assault victims and perpetrators. To fill this gap, the current study used an experimental manipulation to examine the influence of victim sexual orientation and coercion type on perceptions of sexual assault victims and perpetrators. Participants (N = 826) were randomly assigned to read one of nine vignettes in which the sexual orientation of the female victim (bisexual, lesbian, heterosexual) and the type of coercion (verbal, physical, alcohol incapacitation) were varied. Then, participants were asked a series of questions about the victim and the perpetrator. Results indicated that bisexual and heterosexual female victims were both perceived as having wanted to have sex with the perpetrator more and as having "led the perpetrator on" more than lesbian victims. In contrast, victim sexual orientation was not associated with explicit ratings of victim or perpetrator responsibility or victim suffering. Bisexual female victims were also perceived as more promiscuous than both lesbian and heterosexual female victims. In turn, perceiving the victim as more promiscuous was associated with perceiving the victim as more responsible, having wanted to have sex with the perpetrator more, having "led the perpetrator on" more, and suffering less, and with perceiving the perpetrator as less responsible. In sum, our findings suggest that efforts to reduce sexual violence toward bisexual women should attend to negative attitudes toward bisexual women, especially the perception of bisexual women as promiscuous.

Perception of Faces and Elaboration of Gender and Victim/Aggressor Stereotypes: The Influence of Internet Use and of the Perceiver's Personality

The use of social media, particularly among youngsters, is characterized by simple and fast image exploration, mostly of people, particularly faces. The study presented here was conducted in order to investigate stereotypical judgments about men and women concerning past events of aggression—perpetrated or suffered—expressed on the basis of their faces, and gender-related differences in the judgments. To this aim, 185 participants answered a structured questionnaire online. The questionnaire contained 30 photos of young people’s faces, 15 men and 15 women (Ma et al., 2015), selected on the basis of the neutrality of their expression, and participants were asked to rate each face with respect to masculinity/femininity, strength/weakness, and having a past of aggression, as a victim or as a perpetrator. Information about the empathic abilities and personality traits of participants were also collected. The results indicate that the stereotypes—both of gender and those of victims and perpetrators—emerge as a consequence of the visual exploration of faces that present no facial emotion. Some characteristics of the personality of the observers, such as neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and affective empathy, have a role in facilitating or hindering stereotype processing, in different ways for male and female faces by male and female observers. In particular, both genders attribute their positive stereotypical attributes to same-gender faces: men see male faces as stronger, masculine, and more aggressive than women do, and women see female faces as more feminine, less weak, and less as victims than men do. Intensive use of social media emerges as a factor that could facilitate the expression of some stereotypes of violent experiences and considering female subjects as more aggressive. Findings in this study can contribute to research on aggressive behavior on the Internet and improve our understanding of the multiple factors involved in the elaboration of gender stereotypes relative to violent or victim behavior.

Blame Avoidance and Transgender Individuals' Attributions About Rape: Unpacking Gendered Assumptions in Defensive Attribution Research

This research examines how binary gender (male or female) interacts with trans status (cis or trans) to determine rape myth acceptance (RMA), perceived similarity, victim empathy, and victim blaming. Utilizing vignette methodology with an acquaintance rape scenario with a heterosexual female victim, we analyze these variables using multivariate ordinary least squares (OLS) and ordered logit regression. We find support for the argument that both harm avoidance and blame avoidance are operating to predict similarity, empathy, and victim blaming experienced by cisgender and transgender individuals. We argue that this is based on in-group identification from both gender identity and perceived likelihood of future victimization. Specifically, we find that cisgender men have the lowest rates of perceived similarity. Transgender women have the highest rates of empathy whereas cisgender women and trans men have lower rates of victim blaming than cisgender men. Results suggest that the interaction between binary gender and trans status influence perceptions of rape myths and victimization.

Exploring the association between anticipated and actual responses to disclosures of intimate partner violence and sexual assault

Victims of intimate partner violence (IPV) and sexual assault (SA) commonly disclose their experiences to friends or family members, or within other personal relationships. Disclosure recipients' responses to these disclosures are associated with victims' mental health. Previous research has separately measured both actual responses to IPV/SA and anticipated responses to IPV/SA (e.g., response to a hypothetical scenario) from the perspective of disclosure recipients. Yet, little research has described the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses. The aim of the current paper was to use a prospective design to examine the association between disclosure recipients' anticipated and actual responses to IPV/SA, including positive and negative social reactions, perceptions of victim responsibility, empathy, and confusion and ineffectiveness about how to respond. Participants (N = 126 college students aged 18-23; 70.6% women) answered questions about their anticipated responses to a hypothetical IPV/SA disclosure scenario, and then six months later answered the same questions about their actual responses to an actual disclosure of IPV/SA. Although most anticipated and actual responses were significantly associated, associations were moderate in size. Some associations were stronger for participants with a closer relationship to the victim, for participants who had their own victimization history, for women, and for men. Individuals can predict their responses to some degree, but are not totally accurate in doing so.

Valid for who? A preliminary investigation of the validity of two sexual victimization questionnaires in men and sexual minorities

The #MeToo movement illuminated vast numbers of people who experienced sexual violence, but the exact scope and impact, especially among under-studied populations (e.g., men and sexual minorities) is unclear, due in part to measurement issues. Our objective was to compare the validity of two measures of sexual violence victimization: The Sexual Experiences Survey - Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV) and The Post-Refusal Sexual Persistence Scale - Victimization (PRSPS-V). Participants were 673 college students who first completed the Rape Empathy for Victims (REM-V) and then the SES-SFV and PRSPS-V (counter-balanced). We found strong evidence of convergent validity for the PRSPS-V with correlations ranging from r = .57 - 88. Convergent validity correlations were strongest for sexual minority women (r = .88) and weakest for heterosexual men (r = .57). We also found evidence of differential validity for the SES-SFV and PRSPS-V. For heterosexual women, rape empathy was correlated to victimization on both questionnaires (r = .25 - .29). However, for heterosexual men, only scores on the SES-SFV were correlated with rape empathy for victims (r = .19). For sexual minorities there appeared to be differences between PRSPS-V only victims and those who reported victimization on both questionnaires in rape empathy (F = 2.65, p = .053). These results provide researchers a starting point for improving these questionnaires to collect more accurate data that helps improve the ability to detect cases of sexual victimization and thus, prevent and heal sexual victimization, especially in understudied populations such as men and sexual minorities.

The Interaction Between Observer Sex and Sexual Identity on Attributions of Blame With a Heterosexual Female Victim

This article examines the difference in blame attribution between men and women, heterosexuals and homosexuals, and heterosexual males, heterosexual females, gay males, and lesbians in response to a vignette depicting the acquaintance rape of a heterosexual female (n = 177). While the levels of empathy for the victim and blaming of the perpetrator were high for every group and blaming of the victim and rape myth acceptance were low for every group, some important trends emerged. Consistent with previous research, women reported higher rates of empathy for the victim, lower rape myth acceptance, and lower victim blaming than did men. Men and homosexuals had higher rates of victim blaming and were more likely to excuse the perpetrator's behavior than were women and heterosexuals, respectively. Lesbians had various patterns where they were at times more similar to heterosexual males (e.g., how much they blamed the perpetrator) or heterosexual females (e.g. in terms of empathy levels). They were consistently different from gay males. Further, the majority of differences were attributed to gay males, who had the highest levels of victim blaming and empathy for the perpetrator, were the most likely to excuse the perpetrator's behavior, and had the highest rate of rape myth acceptance of all of the groups. We conclude that sex and sexual identity interact to shape attributions about rape and discuss avenues for future research to explore these patterns.

The Relationship Among Online Sexually Explicit Material Exposure to, Desire for, and Participation in Rough Sex

The broad accessibility of online sexually explicit material (SEM) exposes viewers to a wide scope of sexual behaviors. Social concern tends to be heightened over SEM that incorporates highly graphic, "rough" sex. This study assessed the associations among exposure to rough sex in SEM, desire for rough sex, and participation in rough sex while accounting for gender, sexual orientation, and perceived realism of SEM. Young adults (N = 327; ages 19-30; 50.8% men) were recruited through a crowdsourcing website. They completed an anonymous online survey that assessed viewing frequency for a range of sexual behaviors in SEM, the perceived realism of SEM, desire to participate in the behaviors viewed, and if they had ever participated in those behaviors. Hair pulling, spanking, scratching, biting, bondage, fisting, and double penetration were used to create the variable of rough sex. Rough sex desire and participation were common among individuals who have been exposed to rough sex in SEM, with 91.4% desiring to engage in 1 + behaviors at least to a small degree and 81.7% having engaged in 1 + behaviors. Exposure to rough sex in SEM was positively associated with desire for and participation in rough sex, emphasizing the need to ensure that individuals can distinguish between consensual rough sex and sexual violence. This study did not parse out causal effects or directionality, but did provide some insights into the interrelatedness of viewing, desiring, and participating in rough sex.

Emotion Regulation Moderates the Relationship Between Alcohol Consumption and the Perpetration of Sexual Aggression

Sexual assault remains a significant problem on college campuses, and previous research identifies alcohol and emotion regulation as potential contributors to perpetration. Data were collected from 101 male undergraduates, assessing emotion regulation difficulties, sexual aggression perpetration toward women, and alcohol consumption. Results showed that emotion regulation moderated the relationship between alcohol consumption and sexual aggression, such that those with high emotion regulation difficulties were more likely to behave in a sexually aggressive manner. Thus, men with high emotion regulation difficulties may be more likely than those with low difficulties to use alcohol to overcome their inhibitions and perpetrate sexual aggression.

The effects of gender, personal trauma history and memory continuity on the believability of child sexual abuse disclosure among psychologists

Gender, a personal history of trauma and attitudes towards continuous vs recovered memories of abuse significantly impact the believability of Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) disclosures in community samples. Yet, whether these variables influence the believability of CSA disclosure and subsequent clinical decisions made by practicing psychologists is underexplored. A vignette of trauma disclosure from a hypothetical adult client was presented via an online survey to 292 registered psychologists. Participants rated the believability of the disclosure, answered an open-ended item regarding treatment planning, and completed the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey to measure personal trauma history. Results indicated that female psychologists believed disclosures significantly more than male psychologists and that disclosures comprised of continuous memories were believed more than recently recovered memories. A significant interaction between gender and personal trauma history was also revealed. Female psychologists believed disclosures regardless of their personal trauma history, while male psychologists with a personal history of trauma believed disclosures significantly more than male psychologists without personal trauma history. Reported believability of the disclosure, while unrelated to treatment planning, was associated with a reported intention to validate the client's experience. The results support that, similar to community samples, gender and a personal trauma history impact psychologist believability of CSA disclosure. The research further supports that psychologist level of belief then translates into clinical implications.

Prostitution Myth Endorsement

Women in the sex trade have experienced victim blame from first responders and victimization from buyers and traffickers. Women’s ability to exit the sex trade may be negatively affected by bias from prostitution myth adherence that has normalized sexual exploitation and violence against women. Few studies have examined beliefs and behaviors that predict these problematic attitudes. In the current study, we assessed predictors of prostitution myth endorsement in a sample of 355 college students (196 women, 159 men). Gender, increased sexist attitudes toward women, frequency of pornography consumption, and self-control deficits significantly predicted prostitution myth adherence. Interactions between gender and study variables were not significant, demonstrating that gender did not moderate the relations between sexist attitudes toward women, lifetime sexual victimization, self-control deficits, and frequency of pornography consumption on prostitution myth endorsement. We discuss practice implications and future research directions with particular focus on the need to challenge and transform the current sociopolitical culture related to gender equity and healthy sexuality through advocacy and education.

That's What Friends Are For: Bystander Responses to Friends or Strangers at Risk for Party Rape Victimization

The present research examined bystander responses to potential party rape scenarios involving either a friend or a stranger at risk. Undergraduate students (N = 151) imagined attending a party and seeing a man lead an intoxicated woman (friend or stranger) into a bedroom. After random assignment to conditions, participants reported on intentions to help, barriers to helping, victim blame, and empathic concern. As expected, based on their shared social group membership, bystanders intended to offer more help to friends than to strangers. Bystanders also reported more personal responsibility to help and more empathic concern when the potential victim was a friend rather than stranger. Observing a friend versus stranger at risk did not affect audience inhibition or perceived victim blame. Compared with women, men reported more blame and less empathic concern for potential victims. However, there were no gender differences in bystander intent to help or barriers to helping. In multivariate analyses, both responsibility to help and empathic concern for the potential victim uniquely predicted bystanders' intent to help a woman at risk for party rape. Results suggest that promoting social identification with peers at risk could increase bystander intervention.

Rape Crimes Reviewed: The Role of Observer Variables in Female Victim Blaming

This article presents an overview of empirical research on the role of observer variables in rape victim blaming (female attacked by a male perpetrator). The focus is on literature from the last 15 years. The variables observer gender, ambivalent sexism, rape myth acceptance, and rape empathy are discussed in relation to victim blaming. Most research on rape is conducted using diverse methods and approaches that result in a great disparity regarding the role of these variables in predicting blame assignments. Despite the inconsistencies, most studies show that men hold the victim more responsible for her own victimization than women. Findings further indicate that higher scores on sexist ideologies and rape myth acceptance predict higher victim blame, and that higher rape empathy scores predict lower victim blame. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.