Thin Is In? Think Again: The Rising Importance of Muscularity in the Thin Ideal Female Body

Risks and benefits of social media trends: The influence of "fitspiration", "body positivity", and text-based "body neutrality" on body dissatisfaction and affect in women with and without eating disorders

This online experimental study investigates the effects of the social media trends "fitspiration" (images of thin-muscular women promoting health and fitness), "body positivity" (images of larger female bodies motivating women to love their bodies), and "body neutrality" (illustrations encouraging women to appreciate the body's functions) on body dissatisfaction and affect in women with and without eating disorders (ED). Women with (n = 172) and women without ED (n = 210) were randomly assigned to the conditions "fitspiration", "body positivity", and text-based "body neutrality", each comprising the presentation of 30 Instagram posts. Before and after viewing the posts, participants answered state questionnaires on body dissatisfaction and affect. The results revealed that body dissatisfaction increased after viewing "fitspiration" images and decreased after viewing "body positivity" and text-based "body neutrality" posts. Positive affect decreased following exposure to "fitspiration" and text-based "body neutrality" but remained unchanged following "body positivity". Negative affect decreased following "body positivity" and text-based "body neutrality" content but did not change following exposure to "fitspiration". There was no differential effect on women with versus without ED. This study demonstrates harmful effects of "fitspiration" on body image and affect, indicating the need for prevention programs for both women with and without ED.

Anabolic steroid consumption among gym-goers in Amman: knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors

Background

The use of Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) among gym members has become a significant concern due to their impact on physical training and performance. Research worldwide indicates a notable prevalence of AAS use among athletes and gym attendees, often involving substances that are neither safe nor legal.

Objectives

This study aims to determine the prevalence of AAS use among gym attendees in Amman, Jordan, and to explore the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors associated with AAS use.

Methods

The study involved 399 participants from 35 randomly selected gyms in the metropolitan area of Amman, Jordan. A cluster sampling technique was used to select a diverse and representative sample of gym attendees. Data was collected using a self-administered questionnaire that assessed AAS use, knowledge, attitudes, and behavioral factors. Statistical analyses were conducted using chi-square tests to explore the relationships between AAS use and categorical variables, while logistic regression was employed to identify predictors of AAS use.

Results

The analysis revealed significant associations between AAS use and various factors, including knowledge, attitudes, behavioral factors, and demographic variables such as gender, age, exercise frequency, reasons for exercise, and total exercise duration. The study identified key predictors of AAS use among gym attendees in Amman, highlighting the importance of demographic and behavioral factors.

Conclusion

The findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to address misconceptions and promote safer practices among gym-goers in Amman. The study provides critical insights that can guide the development of strategies, policy adjustments, and educational initiatives aimed at reducing AAS misuse and fostering a healthier gym culture in the region.

A Qualitative Model of Weight Cycling

Weight cycling is a likely consequence of striving to lose weight after internalizing body image ideals, making upward social comparisons, and experiencing weight stigma. Despite weight cycling's potential physical and psychological consequences, the interplay of weight cycling, social pressures, and experienced and internalized stigma have not been qualitatively explored. Thus, through in-depth interviews of 36 weight-cycling adults, this study sought to understand how people negotiate weight cycling. Interviews informed the development of a qualitative model of weight cycling, which was derived from a theory-neutral inductive analysis. The model's stages included entering the cycle, undergoing the cycle, and challenging the cycle. Participants were triggered to enter the cycle due to weight stigma caused by social pressures. Within the cycle, interviewees internalized weight stigma and engaged in disordered weight management behaviors. Some participants challenged the cycle by becoming more self-aware and mitigating their toxic dieting behaviors. However, it was very difficult, if not impossible, for many to fully exit weight cycling and the restraints of previous weight management thinking and patterns. Our investigation underscores the seriousness of weight cycling and suggests ways to combat weight cycling on both macro and individual levels. It may also be useful to consider weight cycling as disordered eating in hopes of shifting society's dangerous focus on rapid weight loss.

Personal ideal, cultural ideal and optimal attractiveness: Are these constructs for body size and shape the same or different?

There has been an assumption in the literature that the three concepts of ideal body shape (personal ideal, cultural ideal, and the most attractive body shape) are effectively the same percept. To test this presumption, 554 participants completed either a between- or within-subjects condition using a matrix of 32 bodies varying in two dimensions: muscle and adiposity. Three separate groups of participants were recruited to the between-subjects design and made only one of these judgements, whilst participants in the within-subjects version completed all three of these judgments. These bodies are based on 3D scans of 221 women's bodies and so accurately represent the change in size and shape caused by changing body composition. The participants also completed a set of psychometric questionnaires to index the degree to which external concepts of body image have been internalised. The results show that in both conditions, all three judgements collapse onto the same average preferred body shape, with low adiposity and relatively high muscularity. However, this masked systematic differences in responses between personal ideals and the other body judgements, which may be explained by a difference in how information directly related to oneself is processed relative to more abstract third person judgements.

Risk of eating disorders in Mexican university students

OBJECTIVE

To determine the distribution of the risk of developing an eating disorder, other psychological variables, body mass index (BMI) and physical activity in Mexican university students. The second aim was to determine the association between the risk of developing an eating disorder and all variables by sex.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study was carried out.

SETTING

The Health Sciences Institute and the Agricultural Sciences Institute within the Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Mexico.

PARTICIPANTS

395 university students (65 % women) aged 18 to 29.

ANALYSIS

Descriptive, correlational and binary regression model.

RESULTS

The risk of developing an eating disorder (moderate and high) was 37.3 % for women and 32.6 % for men. A logistic regression analysis of women showed that thin-ideal internalization (12.9 times), BMI (3.5 times) and inactivity (2.6 times) increased the risk of developing an eating disorder. In men, the drive for muscularity (7.5 times) and BMI (2.3 times) increased the risk.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

The variables associated with the risk of developing an eating disorder differed by sex, except for BMI, which increased the risk in both sexes. Findings should be considered in the design of future interventions to prevent the risk of eating disorders and associated factors.

Individual's experiences of adjusting to changes in body image after spinal cord injury: a literature review and thematic synthesis

PURPOSE

To understand how individuals experience and adjust to changes in body image after spinal cord injury (SCI).

METHODS

A systematic search using four databases identified eleven articles that met the inclusion criteria. The studies were critically appraised to determine quality. Interpretative thematic synthesis was used to explore adults' experiences of adjusting to changes in body image after SCI.

RESULTS

Three themes described the influence of sociocultural factors on body image: 'Sociocultural influences', 'Responses of others' and 'Experience of rehabilitation'. Six themes described individuals' experiences of body image. 'Loss and threat of difference', 'Discomfort and disconnection' and 'Resistance' negatively influenced body image. 'Reconnecting with the body and re-negotiating identity', 'Support network' and 'Challenging beliefs about disability' promoted positive body image. Adjustment was a dynamic process, influenced by interactions between individual, relational and sociocultural factors.

CONCLUSIONS

The physical impacts of SCI, individual's perceptions, relationships and sociocultural discourses influenced body image. Rehabilitation professionals could support adjustment to changes in body image by considering individual, relational and systemic influences. Furthermore, it is important to include an individual's support network within their care as social factors influenced body image experiences. Peer support could promote hope and challenge negative sociocultural beliefs about disability.

Body Uneasiness, Body Figure Perception, and Body Weight: Factor Structure and Longitudinal Measurement Invariance of a Set of Attitudinal and Perceptual Body Image Assessment Tools in Adolescents

Body image is a multifaceted construct that includes attitudinal and perceptual components, but its attention has mainly been focused on the facet of body dissatisfaction. The present longitudinal study extended the validation of a multifacet attitudinal questionnaire, the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT), against perceptions of body shape and weight. A convenient sample of adolescents took part in a 2-year unbalanced panel study (5 waves). The participants completed the BUT questionnaire and selected their perceived actual, ideal, and reflected body figures along the Contour Drawing Rating Scale; ideal/actual and ideal/normative body mass index discrepancies were also included. After replicating the expected five-factor structure of the BUT items, results from confirmatory factor analysis revealed that the five BUT scales loaded on an attitudinal dimension, whereas the perceived body figures and the discrepancy indices were on a perceptive domain. Such a two-domain structure of body image measures showed gender and seasonal (1-year) measurement invariance, whereas longitudinal 6-month and 18-month invariance partially failed. Overall, the present findings support the validity of the Body Uneasiness Test in adolescence, further demonstrating a preliminary multidimensional structure of body image onto which attitudinal and perceptual body image-related measures were projected.

Does body positivity work for men as it does for women? The impact of idealized body and body positive imagery on body satisfaction, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity

Exposure to body-positive imagery plays a positive role in women's body image. However, literature has not examined if this is the case for men too. In this study (N = 207), we examined the impact of idealized body and body-positive imagery on both men's and women's body satisfaction and body image concerns. Participants were asked to report their positive and negative mood, body satisfaction, drive for thinness, and drive for muscularity before and after being exposed to either control (landscapes and animals), idealized body, or body-positive imagery. Results showed that women were overall more dissatisfied with their bodies and reported a stronger negative mood and a higher drive for thinness than men. Men, instead, reported a higher drive for muscularity. Exposure to idealized body imagery decreased positive mood and body satisfaction in both men and women. In contrast, exposure to body-positive imagery increased body satisfaction and decreased the drive for thinness in both men and women. Drive for muscularity was not affected by the type of imagery. The findings show that idealized body and body-positive imagery have similar effects on men and women and showcase the importance of considering the effects of body-positivity content for both genders.

The female athletic ideal - Friend or foe? Fit, thin, and athletic body ideals and their associations with women's body image

The internalization of body ideals is a critical predictor of body image and health behaviors. Thin and athletic ideal internalization in women need to be elucidated. The aims of the current study included: (i) describing the endorsement of thin and athletic body ideals among women and (ii) examining group differences in negative and positive self-conscious emotions and body image. Participants (N = 392 women; Mage = 25.6, SD = 5.3 years) were assigned to Fit Ideal (n = 110), Thin Ideal (n = 83), Athletic Ideal (n = 55), and Low Internalization (n = 144) groups based on scores for thin and athletic internalization. Three multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to examine Body Ideal group differences on negative appearance and fitness self-conscious emotions, and positive self-conscious emotions and body image. The Athletic Ideal and Low Internalization groups generally scored lower on negative self-conscious emotions and higher on positive self-conscious emotions and body image in comparison to the Fit and Thin Ideal groups (Cohen's d =.35 to 1.15). Results suggest that differing levels of thin and athletic internalization may intersect uniquely with women's body-related self-conscious emotions and positive body image and thus may have distinct effects on women's health and behavior.

Bidirectional relationships between muscularity-oriented disordered eating and mental health constructs: a prospective study

Muscularity-oriented disordered eating (MODE) is a novel class of eating behaviors characterised by abnormal dietary alterations aimed towards building lean muscle. Although traditionally shown to affect men, emerging evidence suggests that increasingly more women are striving for the muscular and lean ideal, resulting in engagement of MODE behaviors. Prior research examining MODE in women is limited, yet emerging evidence from cross-sectional studies have established associations between MODE and poor mental health indices in this population. However, the temporal order of these associations in women is not yet known. Thus, the current study examined possible bi-directional associations between MODE behaviors and common mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, loneliness). Adult women completed online study measures at baseline (Time 1 [T1]; n = 1760) and three-month follow-up (Time 2 [T2]; n = 1180). Cross-lagged panel models were computed to test for possible bi-directional relationships between MODE and the relevant mental health constructs. Findings showed that higher MODE levels at T1 significantly predicted increased depressive and anxiety symptoms (but not loneliness) at T2, and loneliness at T1 (but not depression/anxiety) significantly predicted MODE at T2. Effect sizes were small, so findings should be interpreted with this in mind. This is the first study to establish temporal relationships between MODE and mental health outcomes in adult women. Findings suggest that clinicians may benefit from inquiring about MODE behaviors for proper screening, assessment, and intervention, and potentially addressing loneliness to decrease risk of MODE.

Exercise or lie down? The impact of fitness app use on users' wellbeing

Introduction

The use of fitness apps is becoming more and more widespread, and its impact on people's well-being has received more and more attention.

Methods

The relationship between fitness app use and users' well-being and the influence mechanism was explored using structural equation modeling with upward social comparison as the mediating variable and self-control as the moderating variable.

Results

The questionnaire survey of 1,452 fitness app users over 18 years old shows that: (1) fitness app use is associated with users' well-being; (2) upward social comparison plays a mediating role in the relationship between fitness app use and users' well-being; (3) self-control has a moderating effect on the relationship between fitness app use and users' well-being.

Discussion

Self-control plays a significant moderating role between social comparison and well-being, upward social comparison can improve the well-being of high self-control users but reduce the well-being of low self-control users.

Appearance comparison on Instagram: The impact of fitspiration and transformation imagery on young women's body satisfaction

Fitspiration, or imagery of thin muscular individuals that displays their physiques while posing or exercising, is a popular type of content on Instagram which ostensibly exists to encourage individuals to engage in a healthy lifestyle. A subtype of fitspiration imagery, "transformation" imagery, depicts physical changes following a "lifestyle change" involving diet and exercise. Despite its intentions, fitspiration imagery largely promotes one idealized body type (the fit ideal) and can be accompanied by messages encouraging restrained eating. Viewing fitspiration imagery has been associated with body dissatisfaction and appearance comparison in women, but the impact of transformation imagery specifically on women's body image has not yet been studied, nor has the impact of the broader fitspiration category and the transformation subtype on women's body image been compared. The current study aimed to clarify the relations between fitspiration and transformation imagery, appearance comparison, and body satisfaction using an experimental design. Female participants (N = 161) completed a measure of body satisfaction and then were randomly assigned to view one of three types of images: fit ideal only, body transformation, or travel (control). Participants then completed measures of appearance comparison and body satisfaction. Viewing fit ideal only and body transformation imagery was associated with lower body satisfaction and higher appearance comparison. The relation between image type and changes in body satisfaction was mediated by appearance comparison. Findings suggest that individuals may benefit from limiting exposure to fit ideal and body transformation imagery, particularly if they are vulnerable to engaging in appearance comparison.

Do selfies make women look slimmer? The effect of viewing angle on aesthetic and weight judgments of women's bodies

Taking and posting selfies is a popular activity, with some individuals taking and sharing multiple selfies each day. The influence of the selfie angle, as opposed to more traditional photo angles such as the allocentric images we see in print media, on our aesthetic judgements of images of bodies has not been explored. This study compared the attractiveness and weight judgements that participants made of images of the same bodies taken from different visual angles over a series of four experiments (total N = 272). We considered how these judgements may relate to disordered eating thoughts and behaviours. Selfies were judged to be slimmer than images from other perspectives, and egocentric images were judged to be the least attractive. The way participants rated bodies seen from different perspectives was related to their own disordered eating thoughts and behaviours. These results contribute to our understanding of how we perceive the images we see on social media and how these might be related to how we feel about our own and other people's bodies.

Does medium matter? Investigating the impact of viewing ideal image or short-form video content on young women's body image, mood, and self-objectification

There is a rising prevalence of short-form videos on social media, particularly since the advent of TikTok. Viewing appearance-ideal images has harmful effects on young women's body image. However, the impacts of viewing appearance-ideal short-form videos on body image are largely unknown. This study investigated the impact of viewing appearance-ideal short-form social media video content on young women's (Mage = 19.19, SD = 1.80) state appearance satisfaction, negative mood, self-objectification, and related constructs, compared to viewing appearance-ideal image content and appearance-neutral content. Young women (N = 211) were shown either: (1) appearance-ideal images, (2) appearance-ideal videos, (3) appearance-neutral images, or (4) appearance-neutral videos. Viewing appearance-ideal content regardless of the medium led to decreased appearance satisfaction, and increased negative mood, and self-objectification, and more state internalisation of appearance ideals compared to viewing appearance-neutral content. Further, if women perceived the appearance-ideal content they viewed to be unedited or unenhanced, they reported less appearance satisfaction after viewing video than image content. Thus, the impact of viewing ideal video and image content taken from social media may have similar effects on young women. However, when ideal content is low in perceived enhancement, viewing videos may be more harmful for appearance satisfaction than viewing images.

One body, two faces: How double standards influence body evaluation in women with binge-eating disorder compared to mentally healthy women with higher weight and average weight

OBJECTIVE

Research has found evidence that women with anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) apply different standards for themselves than for others when evaluating bodies, an aspect of a disturbed body image. This study investigates whether women with binge-eating disorder (BED) likewise show self-deprecating double standards (DS).

METHODS

Women with BED (n = 40), women with higher weight (n = 40) and women with average weight (n = 40) viewed a presentation of different builds, including their individual ideal body, which were presented once with participants' own and once with an unknown woman's face. After each presentation, participants rated their emotional response regarding arousal and valence, and evaluated the body's attractiveness, body fat and muscle mass. DS were defined as the difference in ratings of the same body with one's own and the unknown face.

RESULTS

Women with BED showed a higher degree of negative emotions in response to a thin and a high-weight build, rated lower levels of body attractiveness for an athletic build, and displayed more arousal for almost all builds presented with their own compared to with another face. While women with BED showed a higher burden on measures of eating pathology and body image than the other groups, DS were not more pronounced in women with BED.

DISCUSSION

The findings contradict DS as a characteristic feature of BED, but underline "normative" DS for higher-weight/high-weight builds, reflecting weight stigmatization. Psychoeducation on these DS might complement cognitive-behavioral therapy in BED in order to reduce negative emotions.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

A bias in body evaluation has been proven in women with anorexia and BN, but no research has examined this in women with BED. This study provides evidence of DS in body evaluation in women with BED, compares the extent of DS between women with BED, higher weight, and average weight, and investigates individual body ideals in women with BED and higher weight.

Young women's dialectical responses to fitspiration and thinspiration: A qualitative study

With the popularity of image-based social media platforms like Instagram, researchers have begun to study relationships between social media and body image. Much of this research has used quantitative research methods, which cannot capture the rich, inner experiences of individuals. Given the dearth of qualitative research on what young women internally experience when viewing "Thinspiration" or "Fitspiration," this study used the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method, with the aim of capturing in their own words what young women feel and think in response to viewing fitspiration and thinspiration. Twelve young women viewed Fitspiration and Thinspiration profiles and were interviewed about these and similar everyday experiences. The CQR analytic team identified 10 general, 18 typical, and 11 variant domains (i.e., topic areas). An example general domain was "body image," under which the category "body dissatisfaction," fell; by viewing Thinspiration or Fitspiration, these young women were reminded how they are dissatisfied with how they see their own body or were prompted to believe others are reminded of this when viewing such content. An example typical domain was "diet/disordered eating"; several participants associated Thinspiration or Fitspiration with diet or disordered eating. From five of the 10 general domains emerged what we call an emergent dialectical theory of social media and body image. When viewing Thinspiration or Fitspiration, young women often seemed to feel or think two seemingly opposite things simultaneously within the topic areas of attainability, emotional reactions, social comparison, body image, and health.

Sex-dependent clinical presentation, body image, and endocrine status in long-term remitted anorexia nervosa

OBJECTIVE

Although anorexia nervosa (AN) in males has recently gained attention, knowledge of its psychological and physiological outcomes is still scarce. We explore sex-specific characteristics of long-term remitted AN with respect to residual eating disorder (ED) psychopathology, body image, and endocrinology.

METHOD

We recruited 33 patients with AN in remission for at least 18 months (24 women, 9 men) and 36 matched healthy controls (HCs). Eating disorder psychopathology and body image ideals were assessed via clinical interviews, questionnaires, and an interactive 3D body morphing tool. Plasma levels of leptin, free triiodothyronine, cortisol, and sex hormones were quantified. Univariate models controlled for age and weight were used to test for the effects of diagnosis and sex.

RESULTS

Both patient groups showed residual ED psychopathology but normal weight and hormone levels relative to HCs. Male remitted patients demonstrated significantly stronger muscularity-focused body image ideals, evident in interviews, self-reports, and behavioural data, than both female patients and HCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex-specific body image characteristics in patients with remitted AN point towards the need to adjust test instruments and diagnostic criteria to male-specific psychopathology. In the future, sufficiently powered studies should evaluate the risk of men with AN developing muscle dysmorphia in the long term.

Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults

The aim of this study was to describe muscle dysmorphia (MD) symptomatology among a large, diverse, and national sample of adolescents and young adults in Canada. Data from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (N = 2256) were analyzed. MD symptomatology was assessed using the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI). Men (mean [M] = 33.9, standard deviation [SD] = 8.6) reported significantly greater overall MD symptomatology compared to women (M = 30.1, SD = 7.3) and transgender/gender non-conforming (TGNC; M = 31.5, SD = 7.6) participants. Similarly, the prevalence of clinical MD risk was also highest among men (25.7 %). In regression analyses, participants who identified as South Asian (B 1.97, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 0.41, 3.52) or Middle Eastern (B 2.92, 95 % CI 0.50,5.35), compared to White participants, or identified as gay or lesbian (B 2.65, 95 % CI 1.19, 4.10), compared to heterosexual participants, had greater MD symptomatology. Findings are the first to describe the MD symptomatology among Canadian adolescents and young adults. Health care and public health professionals should be aware of the overall high occurrence of MD symptomatology in this sample, and future research is needed to continue to describe MD among Canadian young people.

Associations between body image patterns and body image-related pathology in sexual minority individuals: A mixture-modeling approach

Body image concerns are associated with disordered eating, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and illicit appearance and performance enhancing drug (APED) misuse. Sexual minority individuals are a vulnerable population for body image concerns. Latent profile analyses were used to identify body image patterns in sexual minority men (n = 479) and women (n = 483) and to investigate associations between latent profiles and body image-related pathology. A 5-profile solution demonstrated best fit for men and a 4-profile solution for women. Among women, co-occurring high thinness/muscularity concerns had higher probability of vomiting and dietary restriction than the high thinness/low muscularity concerns profile. The probability of driven exercise did not differ across latent profiles for men and only differed between low thinness/low muscularity and high thinness/high muscularity concerns profiles in women. Men with low thinness/high muscularity concerns had significantly lower probability of vomiting and laxative misuse than all other profiles but did not significantly differ from co-occurring high or moderate thinness/muscularity concerns profiles in binge eating and illicit APED misuse. This study may have implications for future research, treatment, and prevention of body image-related pathology in sexual minority individuals.

Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Use: Patterns of Use among a National Sample of Canadian Adolescents and Young Adults

Background

Androgenic-anabolic steroid (AAS) use is relatively common among international recreational and community samples and is associated with several deleterious side effects and health consequences that have not been studied recently among a large Canadian sample. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess and describe characteristics of AAS users compared to non-AAS users among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults.

Methods

Data from 2,774 adolescents and young adults from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors were analyzed. Participants were recruited via social media advertisements and completed the survey online. Survey items measured sociodemographics, AAS use, AAS side effects, motives for AAS use, AAS administration, body satisfaction, other illicit substance use, mental health, and violence involvement.

Results

Among the overall sample, 1.6% of participants reported lifetime AAS use, with the majority of users being White, heterosexual males. Most users strived to gain weight, with main motives for AAS use including increased muscularity and strength, and improved appearance. Most AAS users were satisfied with their body compared to non-users. Approximately one in five users had AAS dependence and experienced multiple adverse side effects. Few differences between users and non-users in self-reported mental health were found.

Conclusion

Findings indicate that AAS use among a community sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults is an important health issue, particularly given the relatively high occurrence of AAS dependence and adverse side effects reported by users. Findings support the need for education and intervention efforts from healthcare professionals. Further investigations among Canadian AAS users may provide more insight regarding the unique supports these individuals require.

The Somatomorphic Matrix-Female: More evidence for the validity of bidimensional figural rating scales for women

Our study aimed to develop and provide a preliminary psychometric validation of the Somatomorphic Matrix-Female (SM-F), a new bidimensional female figural rating scale which can be used to gauge actual and desired levels of both body fat and muscularity in a consolidated measure, as well as providing an index of actual-desired body discrepancy based on these measures. Across two studies undergraduate women (n Study 1 = 481; n Study 2 = 391) completed the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire, the Body Shape Questionnaire-34, and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (Study 1) and the Drive for Thinness Scale and the Drive for Muscularity Scale (Study 2), as well as the SM-F. Overall, the SM-F demonstrated sound content, concurrent, and convergent validity for actual and desired body fat, actual and desired muscularity, and their respective discrepancy scores.

I'm Skinny, I'm Worth More: Fashion Models' Experiences of Aesthetic Labor and Its Impact on Body Image and Eating Behaviors

The fashion industry has been critiqued for promoting ultra-thin bodies, yet the relationship between models' aesthetic labor and eating disorder (ED) development is unclear. Using interpretive phenomenological analysis, we explored the lived experiences of nine female fashion models including metaphors they used to describe body perceptions and eating behaviors. Four superordinate themes emerged: Shaped for the industry; The body as a market product; Food restriction ("it's almost glamorized"); Toward a healthier modelhood. Models' career trajectories were those of lost childhoods, punitive body rules, inadequate dietary advice, and self-regulated food restriction. Models were "shaped" by agents from an early age to conform to the industry's body rules irrespective of the physiological and psychological consequences. A "toxic" side to this aesthetic industry was depicted; agents were judged callous and money-focused, while idioms like, "feeling like a piece of meat" and "being a hanger of clothes" conveyed a deep sense of degradation and objectification. Ideas instilled at a formative age continued to influence self-image and eating patterns into maturity, pointing to an industrial element to the construction of eating disorders. Our study highlights how infantilization, sexism, and other unethical elements become normalized in poorly regulated industries such as fashion, with dire consequences for the health and wellbeing of employees. Model agencies should recognize the impact of occupational edicts and poor communication on young recruits in a sensitive phase of personality development. Finally, we advocate for more acknowledgment and further investigation into eating disorder construction commercial/industrial side.

Associations between muscle-building exercise and concurrent e-cigarette, cigarette, and cannabis use among U.S. adolescents

Physical activity and team sports may be protective of substance use among adolescents, although there is mixed evidence on whether muscle-building exercise is associated with patterns of e-cigarette use (i.e., vaping), cigarette use, and cannabis use. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the association between muscle-building exercise and patterns of concurrent substance use among U.S. adolescents. Cross-sectional data from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N = 8,474) were analyzed in 2022. Muscle-building exercise was assessed by number of days of the behavior in the past week and categorized based on level of engagement (none, low, medium, and high). Concurrent vaping, cigarette use, and cannabis use within the past 30 days were assessed using a combined, four-category variable (no use, any single use, any dual use, and triple use). Multinomial logistic regressions, with coefficients transformed to relative risk ratios (RRR), were conducted to estimate the associations between muscle-building exercise and concurrent substance use among the overall sample, and by sex, while adjusting for relevant sociodemographic variables. Among the overall sample, high engagement (6-7 days) in muscle-building exercise was associated with greater relative risk of any single use (RRR 1.36, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.06-1.72), any dual use (RRR 1.46, 95% CI 1.10-2.94), and triple use (RRR 1.81, 95% CI 1.05-3.12). While muscle-building exercise was associated with greater relative risk of concurrent patterns of vaping, cigarette use, and cannabis use among adolescent males, there were no significant relationships found among adolescent females. Healthcare professionals should consider this association when treating adolescent males, particularly given the high prevalence of muscle-building exercise and substance use among this group. More research is needed to understand the experiences of adolescent males who report high engagement in muscle-building exercise and substance use to uncover mechanisms of association.

Looking at me, looking at you: The mediating roles of body surveillance and social comparison in the relationship between fit ideal internalisation and body dissatisfaction

Understanding the mechanisms through which internalisation of societal body standards lead to negative outcomes for women is important to inform prevention and treatment strategies targeting female body image issues and problematic eating and exercise behaviours. This study investigated the mediating roles of body surveillance and social comparison on the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and a range of negative eating and body image related outcomes. Participants were 448 females, aged 16-25 years who completed self-report measures of fit-ideal internalisation, body surveillance, social comparison, body dissatisfaction, dieting, bulimic behaviours and compulsive exercise. Consistent with hypotheses, the results of parallel mediation analyses suggested that both body surveillance and social comparison mediated the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and body dissatisfaction, dieting and bulimic behaviours. However, only social comparison was found to mediate the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and compulsive exercise. The results suggest both body surveillance and social comparison are mechanisms by which fit internalisation detriments women's body image, making them potentially useful treatment targets for future research.

Thin, muscular, and fit-ideals: Prevalence and correlates in undergraduate women

Objective: The current study aimed to compare endorsement of the muscular- and thin-ideals alone, as well as simultaneous endorsement of both as representative of the fit-ideal and examine potential negative correlates of each type of ideal internalization. Participants: Participants were 300 female undergraduate students. Methods: Participants completed measures of internalization of the thin- and muscular-ideals, body dissatisfaction, body checking, and body avoidance. Results: Analyses revealed that approximately 24.9% of participants endorsed scores in the upper quartile on thin-ideal internalization, and 27.4% of participants fell in the upper quartile of muscular-ideal internalization, while 10.3% endorsed high internalization of both ideals. Analyses revealed that individuals endorsing only the thin-ideal reported significantly higher levels of body dissatisfaction and body avoidance than those endorsing the fit-ideal. Conclusions: Overall, findings suggested that thin- and muscular-ideal internalization present different patterns of association depending on whether an individual endorses one or both of these body ideals.

Acculturation and Disordered Eating among Asian American College Students: The Role of Objectification through a Sociocultural Lens

Disordered eating is a public health problem because it's highly prevalent, dangerous, and costly. More research about its risk factors and mechanisms is needed to address this problem and prevent disordered eating among high-risk populations, particularly understudied ethnic minorities. The present study contributes to the limited existing research on acculturation and disordered eating among Asian American college students who represent an understudied and high-risk group. The sample consisted of 245 Asian American (primarily East and Southeast Asian American) college students who provided data on their acculturation status, internalization of thin and muscular body ideals, body surveillance, body shame, and disordered eating. Results show that after controlling for gender, both cultures are positively associated with internalization of the muscular body ideal, but only the Asian culture of origin is associated with disordered eating. Additionally, path analysis results show that Asian culture of origin has a significant total effect on disordered eating as well as a significant indirect effect on disordered eating, mediated by thin body ideal internalization. While American culture does not have a significant contribution to body ideal internalization or disordered eating, it interacts with Asian culture of origin and put participants with high levels of both cultures at a greater risk for muscular body ideal internalization. Findings highlight the importance of cultural context in the understanding of body experiences and disordered eating among Asian American college students and have implications for the prevention and intervention of these problems in this high-risk population.

The degree to which the cultural ideal is internalized predicts judgments of male and female physical attractiveness

We used attractiveness judgements as a proxy to visualize the ideal female and male body for male and female participants and investigated how individual differences in the internalization of cultural ideals influence these representations. In the first of two studies, male and female participants judged the attractiveness of 242 male and female computer-generated bodies which varied independently in muscle and adipose. This allowed us to map changes in attractiveness across the complete body composition space, revealing single peaks for the attractiveness of both men and women. In the second study, we asked our participants to choose the most attractive male and female bodies in a method of adjustment task in which they could independently vary muscle and adipose to create the most attractive body. We asked whether individual differences in internalization of cultural ideals, drive for muscularity, eating disorder symptomatology and depressive symptoms could systematically shift the location of peak attractiveness in body composition space. We found a clear preference by both genders for a male body with high muscle and low adipose, and a toned, low adipose female body. The degree of internalization of cultural ideals predicted large individual differences in the composition of the most attractive bodies.

The associations between autistic traits and disordered eating/drive for muscularity are independent of anxiety and depression in females but not males

Previous research has shown a positive correlation between autistic traits and eating disorder symptoms, and this relationship appears to be independent of co-occurring mental health status. The current study followed a pre-registered analysis plan with the aim to investigate a previously unconsidered factor in the relationship between autistic traits and disorders of eating and body image: the drive for muscularity. Participants (N = 1068) completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Eating Attitudes Test-26 (EAT-26) and Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS). Positive correlations between AQ and EAT-26 and AQ and DMS were observed. In females, AQ remained significantly correlated with EAT-26 and DMS when controlling for co-occurring anxiety and depression symptoms, but this was not the case in males. These findings demonstrate the moderating role of sex, and the need to consider autistic traits in individuals diagnosed with, or at a heightened risk for, disorders of eating and body image.

Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia in adolescents: findings from the EveryBODY study

BACKGROUND

We sought to provide the first point prevalence estimates of muscle dysmorphia (MD), a form of body dysmorphic disorder characterized by a preoccupation with perceived insufficient muscularity, in adolescents.

METHODS

Data were taken from a survey of 3618 Australian adolescents (11.172-19.76 years; 49.3% girls). Measures captured demographic characteristics, symptoms of MD and eating disorders, psychological distress and functional impairment. Diagnostic criteria for MD developed by Pope et al. (1997, Psychosomatics, 38(6), 548-557) were applied, entailing preoccupation with insufficient muscularity causing significant levels of distress or disability that cannot be better accounted for by an eating disorder.

RESULTS

The point prevalence of MD was 2.2% [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-3.0%] among boys and 1.4% (95% CI 0.9-2.0%) among girls. Prevalence was not associated with gender (V = 0.031) or socioeconomic status (SES) (partial η²< 0.001), but was marginally associated with older age (partial η² = 0.001). Boys with MD were more likely than girls with MD to report severe preoccupation with muscularity (V = 0.259) and a weight-lifting regime that interfered with their life (V = 0.286), whereas girls with MD were more likely to report discomfort with body exposure (V = 0.380).

CONCLUSIONS

While future epidemiological research using diagnostic interviews is needed to verify these estimates, the findings suggest that MD is relatively common from early to late adolescence. Gender differences in MD prevalence may be minimal; however, the symptom profile appears to diverge between boys and girls. These findings provide a platform for future, analytical research designed to inform clinical and public health interventions.

Prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics of moderate and high engagement in muscle-building exercise among adolescents

This study aimed to describe the prevalence and sociodemographic characteristics of U.S. adolescents who engage in frequent muscle-building exercise. Data from the 2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N = 8474) were analyzed. Frequent muscle-building exercise in the past week (≥ 5 days and 7 days) were assessed. Multivariable logistic analyses were conducted separately by sex to obtain adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals for the association between key sociodemographic characteristics and muscle-building exercise. Nearly one in five (17.9%) boys, compared to 7.7% of girls, reported seven days of muscle-building exercise in the past week. Patterns of sociodemographic characteristics were associated with seven days of muscle-building exercise in the past week, including weight gain attempts among boys and Hispanic/Latina identity among girls. High engagement in muscle-building exercise is common among adolescents, particularly boys, and varied by sociodemographic characteristics, indicating a need for research to further describe engagement in muscle-building exercise among adolescents.

Does seeking the brawns impact the brain?: An investigation of muscularity-oriented disordered behaviors and cognitive function

Shifts in body-image ideals over the past 30 years towards leaner, muscular bodies have revealed new health behaviors that may be related to cognitive function. This study objective was to investigate prospective associations between a drive for muscularity and/or muscularity-oriented disordered behaviors (MODBs) with cognition. Data were drawn from Add Health, a nationally representative longitudinal cohort dataset. Drive for muscularity and MODB engagement were assessed in emerging adulthood (ages 18-26). Cognition was measured via immediate word recall, delayed-word recall, and number recall at 7-years later (ages 24-32). Analyzes were conducted in 1976 participants with available data. A one-way ANCOVA revealed that those with a drive for muscularity had lower immediate word recall (F(3, 12,819) = 3.845, p = .009) and delayed word recall (F(3, 12,807) = 5.933, p < .001) scores than other weight goal groups adjusting for covariates. Hierarchical linear regressions between individual MODBs and cognitive outcomes showed that legal performance-enhancing substance use (βs = 0.06-0.07, p < .05) and exercise (β = 0.06, p < .05) were positively associated with some cognition scores. Conversely, lifting weights (β = - 0.06, p < .05) and eating different foods than usual (β = - 0.05, p < .05) exhibited negative associations with some of the cognitive outcomes. Future research should be conducted to examine other potential outcomes related to the drive for muscularity and associated MODBs.

Eating and body image characteristics of those who aspire to the slim-thick, thin, or fit ideal and their impact on state body image

The slim-thick ideal is characterized by a small waist and flat stomach, but large hips, thighs, and butt. Little research to date has examined the impact of this body-ideal on women's body image. The purpose of the current study was to investigate: 1) the impact of slim-thick, thin-, and fit-ideal imagery on women's body image, 2) the body ideals women most aspire to, and 3) eating and body image characteristics of women who aspire to each ideal. Participants were 123 female undergraduate students. Results revealed that experimental exposure to slim-thick- and fit-ideal imagery resulted in lower body satisfaction. Participants reported aspiring more to the fit and slim-thick-ideal than to the thin-ideal, and rated the slim-thick-ideal as the most attractive and desirable. Women who aspired to the thin- or slim-thick-ideal reported the greatest overall disordered eating. Women who aspired to the slim-thick-ideal reported greater dietary restraint, eating, shape and weight concerns, appearance ideal internalization, body image investment, and physical appearance perfectionism than those who aspired to the fit-ideal. Findings show that beauty ideals are shifting away from the thin-ideal toward a slim-thick-ideal. Slim-thick internalization may be harmful to women's well-being and should be addressed in body image and eating disorders interventions.

Is a female physical empowerment campaign effective in improving positive body image, motivation for physical activity, and physical activity behavior in young female adults? A two-study experimental test of "This Girl Can"

This Girl Can is a campaign designed to empower women to increase physical activity. The campaign uses images/videos of women of diverse body weights/shapes, ages and ethnicities being physically active, emphasizing body functionality. First, we examined the effects of multi-session (N = 3) exposures to This Girl Can on body functionality, body appreciation and self-compassion (Study 1). Second, we explored if autonomous motivation for physical activity mediated effects of This Girl Can on physical activity (Study 2). Women (Study 1: N = 186, M (SD) age = 27.55 (14.01); Study 2: N = 153, M (SD) age = 28.31 (11.70)) were randomized to This Girl Can, or control videos/images depicting idealized women of thin/athletic body types being physically active (Study 1), or control videos highlighting physical activity benefits (Study 2). Outcomes were measured at baseline, post-test and 1-week follow-up. Study 1 results showed significant group by time interactions for body functionality (decreasing in the control group), body appreciation and self-compassion (both increased only in the experimental conditions). In Study 2, path analysis revealed no statistically significant mediation effect (ab = 13.18, 95 % CI [-107.92, 152.59]) of autonomous motivation. Future interventions designed to promote positive body image and self-compassion should incorporate media focusing on diverse women engaging in self-chosen physical activity.

The 'not-so-healthy' appearance pursuit? Disentangling unique associations of female drive for toned muscularity with disordered eating and compulsive exercise

Today, many women are driven to subscribe to a more athletically oriented appearance ideal hallmarked by muscle tone (referred to as athletic- or fit-looking). However, the constellation of unhealthy eating and exercise behaviors that may accompany the pursuit of toned muscularity among women is not yet well characterized. To address this knowledge gap, our study evaluated the associations among the female drive for toned muscularity and both thinness-oriented disordered eating behaviors (e.g., dietary restriction) and muscularity-oriented disordered eating behaviors (e.g., excessive scrutiny of macro-nutrient values of food), as well as dimensions of compulsive exercise. Participants were 388 Australian undergraduate women who completed an online questionnaire including self-report measures of said constructs. Hierarchical regression models were used to determine whether the drive for toned muscularity accounted for unique variance in eating and exercise behaviors after adjusting for theoretically relevant covariates. Results indicated independent relationships between the drive for toned muscularity and several facets of thinness- and muscularity-oriented disordered eating, as well as compulsive exercise (e.g., exercise rigidity). Our findings further contribute to an emerging literature illustrating that women driven to attain a toned appearance may be vulnerable to engaging in a wide range of maladaptive eating and exercise practices.

Association between muscle dysmorphia psychopathology and binge eating in a large at-risk cohort of men and women

BACKGROUND

Current research on muscle dysmorphia (MD) has focused on restrained eating behaviors and has adopted a primarily male perspective. Despite initial evidence, the role of possible binge eating associated with MD has only been scarcely investigated. To extend the transdiagnostic and cross-gender approaches and address the dearth in research related to MD, this study investigated the association between MD psychopathology and binge eating in men and women.

METHODS

This study investigated the association between MD psychopathology and binge eating in both men and women. Participants were a sample of 5905 men (n = 422) and women (n = 5483) social media users aged 18-72 years. They completed an online survey that included self-report measures assessing demographics, binge eating, MD psychopathology, and drive for thinness and leanness. Binge eating was assessed using the diagnostic questions of the validated German version of the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire. The Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) was used to assess MD psychopathology. A total score of > 39 was set as a cutoff to define an "MD at-risk" state for both men and women. Hierarchical logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the association between MD psychopathology and binge eating.

RESULTS

MD psychopathology was significantly positively associated with binge eating in both men and women. Among the three MDDI subscales, only appearance intolerance was significantly associated with MD, and drive for size and functional impairment were not associated. MD at-risk status yielded a predicted probability of binge eating of 25% for men and 66.9% for women. The increased probability of binge eating associated with MD at-risk status was mainly accounted for by appearance intolerance in men and drive for thinness in women.

CONCLUSION

MD psychopathology is positively associated with binge eating in both men and women. Binge eating episodes should therefore form part of the clinical assessment of MD.

The independent contribution of muscularity-oriented disordered eating to functional impairment and emotional distress in adult men and women

Muscularity-oriented disordered eating (MODE) refers to a broad cluster of pathological eating patterns driven by the pursuit of muscularity and leanness. Although increasing attention has been devoted towards understanding these symptoms in men, little work has been conducted to understand MODE in women. It is also unclear whether MODE contributes unique variance to functional impairment and emotional distress beyond thinness-oriented disordered eating symptoms. We addressed these gaps in a sample of 1,321 community-based adult women (n = 1136) and men (n = 185). Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that MODE explained a significant proportion of unique variance in functional impairment in both men and women, even after controlling for traditional thinness-oriented disordered eating symptoms. MODE also contributed unique variance in symptoms of depression and anxiety in women, but not for men. Findings highlight the possible significance of these unique symptoms patterns geared towards the pursuit of muscularity and leanness. MODE symptoms may be a viable target in eating disorder intervention or prevention programs, although further longitudinal research is needed.

A Longitudinal and Comparative Content Analysis of Instagram Fitness Posts

Body dissatisfaction is among the most common mental health challenges experienced by women and has been identified as a risk factor for disordered eating. Research has found that exposure to social media images depicting thin, muscular bodies, often dubbed ‘fitspiration’, may contribute to body dissatisfaction. Image-centred social media platforms, such as Instagram, have rising popularity among adolescents and young adults. However, little is known about the content of images produced by different fitness-related sources, such as those from fitness brands compared with individual users, and how fitness content on social media is evolving over time. This study sought to determine whether Instagram content varied between female fitness influencers and brands and how this content changed between 2019 and 2021. A longitudinal content analysis was conducted on a sample of 400 Instagram images using a coding scheme developed specifically for this project. The scheme coded images for fit ideal body depiction, fitness focus, objectification, and sexualisation. Chi-square tests indicated that female fitness influencer content was more sexualised and portrayed more of the fit ideal, while fitness brands produced more Instagram content with a fitness focus. There were no significant overall longitudinal changes for any of the four key variables. However, when looking at longitudinal changes by account type, fitness-focused influencer content increased while fitness-focused brand content decreased over time. These findings highlight discernible differences in content produced by different Instagram account types. It points future research towards the consideration of potential moderating factors, such as account type, when exploring the impact of social media images on body image and mental health.

Weight gain attempts and substance use behaviors among adults across five countries

Weight gain attempts are common among adolescents, yet a paucity of research has explored these behaviors among adults, particularly in relation to substance use behaviors. To address this gap in the literature, pooled data from the 2018 and 2019 International Food Policy Study (N = 42,108) were analyzed. The association of weight gain attempts in the past 12 months with four important and relatively common substance use behaviors (alcohol use, binge-drinking, cigarette smoking, marijuana use) was examined using multiple modified Poisson regression analyses that adjusted for theoretically relevant covariates. Among men and women, weight gain attempts were associated with a higher likelihood of cigarette smoking in the past 30 days, marijuana use in the past 12 months, and binge-drinking one or more times per month in the past 12 months among men only. Among women, weight gain attempts were associated with a lower likelihood of alcohol use one or more times per month in the past 12 months. Our findings contribute to the literature demonstrating that substance use behaviors are more prevalent among adults who report weight gain attempts in a large international sample.

Incorporating social media and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model of body image: Towards a modern understanding of adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction

The tripartite influence model stipulates that appearance pressures from three sources (family, peers, traditional media) lead adolescent girls to internalize a thin appearance ideal and engage in social appearance comparisons, resulting in body dissatisfaction (Thompson et al., 1999). Social media is a modern source of appearance pressure and, increasingly, adolescent girls desire an appearance that is both thin and muscular. The current study of U.S. adolescent girls (n = 543, M_age = 15.58, 49.17% Latina, 28.18% White, 8.66% Black, 7.55% Asian, 6.45% multiracial/another race/ethnicity) incorporates social media appearance pressures and muscular ideal internalization into the tripartite influence model using structural equation modeling. Findings provided support for this adapted model: family, peers, traditional media, and social media contributed to body dissatisfaction. All appearance pressure sources were associated with appearance esteem via thin ideal internalization. Peer and social media pressures were both related to greater muscular ideal internalization, which was not significantly associated with appearance esteem. Social media was the only source of pressure associated with appearance esteem through both thin ideal internalization and body comparison. Findings highlight adolescent girls' pressure to look both thin and muscular, as well as the role of social media as a prominent source of appearance socialization.

Confirmatory Factor and Measurement Invariance Analyses of the Drive for Muscularity Scale in Sexual Minority Men and Women

The Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) is a commonly used measure used to assess the pursuit of muscularity. However, the factor structure of this measure has yet to be confirmed in a sample of sexual minority women. Moreover, the invariance of this measure across gender has also yet to be explored. The aim of the present study was, therefore, to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the DMS in samples of both cisgender sexual minority men and women, and subsequently evaluate the measurement invariance by gender. The sample consisted of 962 cisgender sexual minority young adult men (N = 479) and women (N = 483). A series of CFAs were conducted, assessing both the one-factor and two-factor solutions of the DMS, with and without the inclusion of item 10 ("I think about taking anabolic steroids"). Across cisgender sexual minority young adult men and women, the 14-item two-factor solution demonstrated most appropriate fit, although the 15-item two-factor solution was also adequate among only women. Measurement invariance analyses indicated that the 14-item two-factor DMS can be used in samples of both cisgender sexual minority men and women. The present study was novel in exploring the factor structure of the DMS in sexual minority women and measurement invariance by gender; however, future research is needed to further corroborate these findings and assess measurement invariance by sexual orientation and race.

Validation of the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI) in Brazilian Women

Despite high levels of body dissatisfaction and an increasing drive for muscularity among Brazilian women, most of the existing literature on muscle dysmorphia focuses on men and has mainly been conducted in Western and English-speaking regions. As a result, one of the most widely used assessment tools for symptoms of the disorder, the Muscle Dysmorphic Disorder Inventory (MDDI), has not yet been evaluated in Brazilian women-an at-risk population. In the present study, we perform a psychometric evaluation of the Brazilian Portuguese translation of the MDDI in a sample of 515 women. We evaluated the factor structure using a two-step, split-sample exploratory and confirmatory factor analytic approach, which supported the original three-factor structure of the measure. Additionally, we found good internal consistency, convergent validity, and test-retest reliability of the measure. Collectively, these results support the use of the measure in Brazilian women and provide a foundation to expand the literature in this population.

Internalized Weight Stigma, Psychological Well-Being, and Sleep in Women

BACKGROUND

Many women internalize negative attitudes regarding body shape and size because of the societal standards for women's ideal body shapes and sizes. Internalized weight stigma is related to poorer physical and psychological health. A growing body of research has documented the links between other forms of internalized stigma (e.g., HIV-stigma) and poor sleep quality; however, little research examines the links between internalized weight stigma and sleep or the mechanisms that explain this relationship. Internalized weight stigma may be associated with poor sleep through increases in psychological distress. This study hypothesized that the links between internalized weight stigma and sleep would be mediated by higher levels of depression and anxiety.

METHODS

About 257 women were recruited via social media, word of mouth, and an undergraduate participant pool. Participants completed an online survey assessing various aspects of weight stigma and health through self-report questionnaires. Most women were non-Hispanic White (86.8%) and had a mean age of 31.40.

RESULTS

The indirect effects of internalized weight stigma on poorer global sleep quality and daily disturbances through depression and anxiety were significant. In contrast, depressive symptoms but not anxiety explained the links between internalized weight stigma and perceived sleep quality and neither depressive symptoms nor anxiety explained the link between internalized weight stigma and sleep efficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

Internalized weight stigma is linked to poorer sleep quality, and these links may be explained by psychological well-being. Understanding the mechanisms by which internalized weight stigma is associated with sleep quality can inform the psychological interventions employed.

Self-concept clarity and appearance-based social comparison to idealized bodies

Exposure to images of idealized bodies in the media has been shown to increase body dissatisfaction among women. One of the mechanisms through which exposure influences body dissatisfaction is appearance-based comparison with the people in the images. The present study tested the hypothesis that individuals low in self-concept clarity (i.e., individuals who lack a clear sense of their own identity) would be more likely to compare themselves to images of thin models, and would consequently experience greater body dissatisfaction. White female participants (N = 489) were exposed to either images featuring idealized bodies or neutral control images, and then indicated the extent to which they compared their appearance to that of the targets and reported their level of body dissatisfaction. A moderated-mediation model showed that the effect of exposure condition on body dissatisfaction via appearance comparison to the targets depended on the participant's level of self-concept clarity. Those with lower self-concept clarity engaged in greater comparison when exposed to idealized images relative to control images, leading to greater post-exposure body dissatisfaction. These findings suggest that low self-concept clarity might increase vulnerability to the negative effects of exposure to idealized media images.

The effect of physical appearance perfectionism and social comparison to thin-, slim-thick-, and fit-ideal Instagram imagery on young women's body image

Body image research to date has examined the impact of thin- and fit-ideal media on women's body image, however cultural trends in Western media have recently shifted towards a curvier body type called slim-thick, which is characterized by a large butt and thighs and small waist and flat stomach. We experimentally examined the impact of forced social comparison to slim-thick-, thin-, and fit-ideal imagery on women's body image relative to a control condition, and whether physical appearance perfectionism moderated these findings. Participants were 402 female undergraduate students. Results revealed that comparison to body-ideal imagery resulted in greater weight and appearance dissatisfaction and less overall body satisfaction, relative to the control condition. Those exposed to slim-thick imagery experienced more weight and appearance dissatisfaction and less body satisfaction than those in the thin-ideal condition. Physical appearance perfectionism moderated these results, such that women who reported moderate or high levels of physical appearance perfectionism experienced greater weight and appearance dissatisfaction and lower body satisfaction in the slim-thick condition, than in the thin-ideal, fit-ideal, or control conditions. It was concluded that drive to achieve body ideals is shifting to a slim-thick body, which maybe more detrimental to women's body image than thin-ideal imagery.

General and sport-specific weight pressures as risk factors for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among female collegiate athletes

Female collegiate athletes are a high-risk group for disordered eating. Petrie and Greenleaf's (2007) sociocultural model proposes that both general and sport-related weight pressures lead athletes to internalize unrealistic body ideals, ultimately resulting in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. In this study, we used structural equation modeling to assess general and sport-specific weight pressures in relation to thin- and muscular-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating among 212 female Division I college athletes. General weight pressures from parents, peers, and the media were associated with disordered eating indirectly via thin- and muscular-ideal internalization. In contrast, sport-specific weight pressures were not associated with disordered eating in the full model. After controlling for weight pressures and body ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction was also not associated with disordered eating. These findings suggest that female athletes are vulnerable to weight- and appearance-related pressures from outside the sport context and that the mechanisms underlying the development of disordered eating may differ between athletes and non-athletes.

Gender differences in eating disorder-related intrusive thoughts

The present study aimed to examine gender differences in the experience of eating disorder-related intrusive thoughts (EDITs; i.e., frequency, content, emotional consequences, & control strategies). In addition, differences in the experience of EDITs across those atrisk of developing an eating disorder and those who are not atrisk were investigated. Six hundred and seventy-one adults completed self-report measures assessing the experience of EDITs, disordered eating attitudes and behaviours, and body dissatisfaction. It was found that females experienced EDITs more frequently and with higher levels of distress compared with males. With regard to control strategies, females tended to use distraction and thought suppression, whereas males were likely to do nothing in response. Participants in the at-risk group experienced EDITs more frequently, with higher distress, and responded by using obsessive-compulsive rituals or doing what the intrusion dictated significantly more than non-risk participants. Relationships between body dissatisfaction and EDITs related to bodily appearance were found to be stronger for men, whereas women revealed a stronger relationship between disordered eating and purging EDITs. The findings of this study support the growing literature regarding EDITs as a distinct clinical feature of eating disorders, and the developing evidence base regarding intrusive thoughts as a transdiagnostic mechanism.