HBV X Protein induces overexpression of HERV-W env through NF-κB in HepG2 cells

Pathophysiological significance and modulation of the transient receptor potential canonical 3 ion channel

Transient receptor potential canonical 3 (TRPC3) protein belongs to the TRP family of nonselective cation channels. Its activation occurs by signaling through a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and a phospholipase C-dependent (PLC) pathway. Perturbations in the expression of TRPC3 are associated with a plethora of pathophysiological conditions responsible for disorders of the cardiovascular, immune, and central nervous systems. The recently solved cryo-EM structure of TRPC3 provides detailed inputs about the underlying mechanistic aspects of the channel, which in turn enables more efficient ways of designing small-molecule modulators. Pharmacologically targeting TRPC3 in animal models has demonstrated great efficacy in treating diseases including cancers, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. Despite extensive scientific evidence supporting some strong correlations between the expression and activity of TRPC3 and various pathophysiological conditions, therapeutic strategies based on its pharmacological modulations have not led to clinical trials. The development of small-molecule TRPC3 modulators with high safety, sufficient brain penetration, and acceptable drug-like profiles remains in progress. Determining the pathological mechanisms for TRPC3 involvement in human diseases and understanding the requirements for a drug-like TRPC3 modulator will be valuable in advancing small-molecule therapeutics to future clinical trials. In this review, we provide an overview of the origin and activation mechanism of TRPC3 channels, diseases associated with irregularities in their expression, and new development in small-molecule modulators as potential therapeutic interventions for treating TRPC3 channelopathies.

Mechanistic regulation of HERV activation in tumors and implications for translational research in oncology

Transcription of distinct loci of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) and in some cases, translation of these transcripts have been consistently observed in many types of cancer. It is still debated whether HERV activation serves as a trigger for carcinogenesis or rather occurs as a consequence of epigenetic alterations and other molecular sequelae that characterize cellular transformation. Here we review the known molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of HERV activation in cancer cells as well as its potential contribution to carcinogenesis. Further, we describe the use of HERV expression in cancer diagnostic and characterize the potential of HERV-derived antigens to serve as novel targets for cancer immunotherapy. We believe this review, which summarizes both what is known as well as unknown in this rapidly developing field, will boost interest in research on the therapeutic potential of targeting HERV elements in tumors and the impact of HERV activation in oncogenesis.

Ancient dormant virus remnant ERVW-1 drives ferroptosis via degradation of GPX4 and SLC3A2 in schizophrenia

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are remnants of retroviral infections in human germline cells from millions of years ago. Among these, ERVW-1 (also known as HERV-W-ENV, ERVWE1, or ENVW) encodes the envelope protein of the HERV-W family, which contributes to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Additionally, neuropathological studies have revealed cell death and disruption of iron homeostasis in the brains of individuals with schizophrenia. Here, our bioinformatics analysis showed that differentially expressed genes in the human prefrontal cortex RNA microarray dataset (GSE53987) were mainly related to ferroptosis and its associated pathways. Clinical data demonstrated significantly lower expression levels of ferroptosis-related genes, particularly Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and solute carrier family 3 member 2 (SLC3A2), in schizophrenia patients compared to normal controls. Further in-depth analyses revealed a significant negative correlation between ERVW-1 expression and the levels of GPX4/SLC3A2 in schizophrenia. Studies indicated that ERVW-1 increased iron levels, malondialdehyde (MDA), and transferrin receptor protein 1 (TFR1) expression while decreasing glutathione (GSH) levels and triggering the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, suggesting that ERVW-1 can induce ferroptosis. Ongoing research has shown that ERVW-1 reduced the expression of GPX4 and SLC3A2 by inhibiting their promoter activities. Moreover, Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1), the ferroptosis inhibitor, reversed the iron accumulation and mitochondrial membrane potential loss, as well as restored the expressions of ferroptosis markers GSH, MDA, and TFR1 induced by ERVW-1. In conclusion, ERVW-1 could promote ferroptosis by downregulating the expression of GPX4 and SLC3A2, revealing a novel mechanism by which ERVW-1 contributes to neuronal cell death in schizophrenia.

HervD Atlas: a curated knowledgebase of associations between human endogenous retroviruses and diseases

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), as remnants of ancient exogenous retrovirus infected and integrated into germ cells, comprise ∼8% of the human genome. These HERVs have been implicated in numerous diseases, and extensive research has been conducted to uncover their specific roles. Despite these efforts, a comprehensive source of HERV-disease association still needs to be added. To address this gap, we introduce the HervD Atlas (https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/hervd/), an integrated knowledgebase of HERV-disease associations manually curated from all related published literature. In the current version, HervD Atlas collects 60 726 HERV-disease associations from 254 publications (out of 4692 screened literature), covering 21 790 HERVs (21 049 HERV-Terms and 741 HERV-Elements) belonging to six types, 149 diseases and 610 related/affected genes. Notably, an interactive knowledge graph that systematically integrates all the HERV-disease associations and corresponding affected genes into a comprehensive network provides a powerful tool to uncover and deduce the complex interplay between HERVs and diseases. The HervD Atlas also features a user-friendly web interface that allows efficient browsing, searching, and downloading of all association information, research metadata, and annotation information. Overall, the HervD Atlas is an essential resource for comprehensive, up-to-date knowledge on HERV-disease research, potentially facilitating the development of novel HERV-associated diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Cell Fusion and Syncytia Formation in Cancer

The natural phenomenon of cell-cell fusion does not only take place in physiological processes, such as placentation, myogenesis, or osteoclastogenesis, but also in pathophysiological processes, such as cancer. More than a century ago postulated, today the hypothesis that the fusion of cancer cells with normal cells leads to the formation of cancer hybrid cells with altered properties is in scientific consensus. Some studies that have investigated the mechanisms and conditions for the fusion of cancer cells with other cells, as well as studies that have characterized the resulting cancer hybrid cells, are presented in this review. Hypoxia and the cytokine TNFα, for example, have been found to promote cell fusion. In addition, it has been found that both the protein Syncytin-1, which normally plays a role in placentation, and phosphatidylserine signaling on the cell membrane are involved in the fusion of cancer cells with other cells. In human cancer, cancer hybrid cells were detected not only in the primary tumor, but also in the circulation of patients as so-called circulating hybrid cells, where they often correlated with a worse outcome. Although some data are available, the questions of how and especially why cancer cells fuse with other cells are still not fully answered.

Captive ERVWE1 triggers impairment of 5-HT neuronal plasticity in the first-episode schizophrenia by post-transcriptional activation of HTR1B in ALKBH5-m6A dependent epigenetic mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Abnormalities in the 5-HT system and synaptic plasticity are hallmark features of schizophrenia. Previous studies suggest that the human endogenous retrovirus W family envelope (ERVWE1) is an influential risk factor for schizophrenia and inversely correlates with 5-HT4 receptor in schizophrenia. To our knowledge, no data describes the effect of ERVWE1 on 5-HT neuronal plasticity. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) regulates gene expression and impacts synaptic plasticity. Our research aims to systematically investigate the effects of ERVWE1 on 5-HT neuronal plasticity through m6A modification in schizophrenia.

RESULTS

HTR1B, ALKBH5, and Arc exhibited higher levels in individuals with first-episode schizophrenia compared to the controls and showed a strong positive correlation with ERVWE1. Interestingly, HTR1B was also correlated with ALKBH5 and Arc. Further analyses confirmed that ALKBH5 may be an independent risk factor for schizophrenia. In vitro studies, we discovered that ERVWE1 enhanced HTR1B expression, thereby activating the ERK-ELK1-Arc pathway and reducing the complexity and spine density of 5-HT neurons. Furthermore, ERVWE1 reduced m6A levels through ALKBH5 demethylation. ERVWE1 induced HTR1B upregulation by improving its mRNA stability in ALKBH5-m6A-dependent epigenetic mechanisms. Importantly, ALKBH5 mediated the observed alterations in 5-HT neuronal plasticity induced by ERVWE1.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, HTR1B, Arc, and ALKBH5 levels were increased in schizophrenia and positively associated with ERVWE1. Moreover, ALKBH5 was a novel risk gene for schizophrenia. ERVWE1 impaired 5-HT neuronal plasticity in ALKBH5-m6A dependent mechanism by the HTR1B-ERK-ELK1-Arc pathway, which may be an important contributor to aberrant synaptic plasticity in schizophrenia.

ERVW-1 Activates ATF6-Mediated Unfolded Protein Response by Decreasing GANAB in Recent-Onset Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, a mental disorder, afflicts 1% of the worldwide population. The dysregulation of homeostasis in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has been implicated in schizophrenia. Moreover, recent studies indicate that ER stress and the unfolded protein response (UPR) are linked to this mental disorder. Our previous research has verified that endogenous retrovirus group W member 1 envelope (ERVW-1), a risk factor for schizophrenia, is elevated in individuals with schizophrenia. Nevertheless, no literature is available regarding the underlying relationship between ER stress and ERVW-1 in schizophrenia. The aim of our research was to investigate the molecular mechanism connecting ER stress and ERVW-1 in schizophrenia. Here, we employed Gene Differential Expression Analysis to predict differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the human prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients and identified aberrant expression of UPR-related genes. Subsequent research indicated that the UPR gene called XBP1 had a positive correlation with ATF6, BCL-2, and ERVW-1 in individuals with schizophrenia using Spearman correlation analysis. Furthermore, results from the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) suggested increased serum protein levels of ATF6 and XBP1 in schizophrenic patients compared with healthy controls, exhibiting a strong correlation with ERVW-1 using median analysis and Mann-Whitney U analysis. However, serum GANAB levels were decreased in schizophrenic patients compared with controls and showed a significant negative correlation with ERVW-1, ATF6, and XBP1 in schizophrenic patients. Interestingly, in vitro experiments verified that ERVW-1 indeed increased ATF6 and XBP1 expression while decreasing GANAB expression. Additionally, the confocal microscope experiment suggested that ERVW-1 could impact the shape of the ER, leading to ER stress. GANAB was found to participate in ER stress regulated by ERVW-1. In conclusion, ERVW-1 induced ER stress by suppressing GANAB expression, thereby upregulating the expression of ATF6 and XBP1 and ultimately contributing to the development of schizophrenia.

HERVs and Cancer-A Comprehensive Review of the Relationship of Human Endogenous Retroviruses and Human Cancers

Genomic instability and genetic mutations can lead to exhibition of several cancer hallmarks in affected cells such as sustained proliferative signaling, evasion of growth suppression, activated invasion, deregulation of cellular energetics, and avoidance of immune destruction. Similar biological changes have been observed to be a result of pathogenic viruses and, in some cases, have been linked to virus-induced cancers. Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), once external pathogens, now occupy more than 8% of the human genome, representing the merge of genomic and external factors. In this review, we outline all reported effects of HERVs on cancer development and discuss the HERV targets most suitable for cancer treatments as well as ongoing clinical trials for HERV-targeting drugs. We reviewed all currently available reports of the effects of HERVs on human cancers including solid tumors, lymphomas, and leukemias. Our review highlights the central roles of HERV genes, such as gag, env, pol, np9, and rec in immune regulation, checkpoint blockade, cell differentiation, cell fusion, proliferation, metastasis, and cell transformation. In addition, we summarize the involvement of HERV long terminal repeat (LTR) regions in transcriptional regulation, creation of fusion proteins, expression of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and promotion of genome instability through recombination.

HERV-W ENV Induces Innate Immune Activation and Neuronal Apoptosis via linc01930/cGAS Axis in Recent-Onset Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder affecting about 1% of individuals worldwide. Increased innate immune activation and neuronal apoptosis are common findings in schizophrenia. Interferon beta (IFN-β), an essential cytokine in promoting and regulating innate immune responses, causes neuronal apoptosis in vitro. However, the precise pathogenesis of schizophrenia is unknown. Recent studies indicate that a domesticated endogenous retroviral envelope glycoprotein of the W family (HERV-W ENV, also called ERVWE1 or syncytin 1), derived from the endogenous retrovirus group W member 1 (ERVWE1) locus on chromosome 7q21.2, has a high level in schizophrenia. Here, we found an increased serum IFN-β level in schizophrenia and showed a positive correlation with HERV-W ENV. In addition, serum long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1930 (linc01930), decreased in schizophrenia, was negatively correlated with HERV-W ENV and IFN-β. In vitro experiments showed that linc01930, mainly in the nucleus and with noncoding functions, was repressed by HERV-W ENV through promoter activity suppression. Further studies indicated that HERV-W ENV increased IFN-β expression and neuronal apoptosis by restraining the expression of linc01930. Furthermore, HERV-W ENV enhanced cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and stimulator of interferon genes protein (STING) expression and interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) phosphorylation in neuronal cells. Notably, cGAS interacted with HERV-W ENV and triggered IFN-β expression and neuronal apoptosis caused by HERV-W ENV. Moreover, Linc01930 participated in the increased neuronal apoptosis and expression level of cGAS and IFN-β induced by HERV-W ENV. To summarize, our results suggested that linc01930 and IFN-β might be novel potential blood-based biomarkers in schizophrenia. The totality of these results also showed that HERV-W ENV facilitated antiviral innate immune response, resulting in neuronal apoptosis through the linc01930/cGAS/STING pathway in schizophrenia. Due to its monoclonal antibody GNbAC1 application in clinical trials, we considered HERV-W ENV might be a reliable therapeutic choice for schizophrenia.

Expressions of Type I and III Interferons, Endogenous Retroviruses, TRIM28, and SETDB1 in Children with Respiratory Syncytial Virus Bronchiolitis

Interferons (IFNs) and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) play essential roles for the control of viral infections. Their expression in infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) bronchiolitis is poorly defined. Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) represent 8% of our genome and modulate inflammatory and immune reactions. TRIM28 and SETDB1 participate in the epigenetic regulation of genes involved in the immune response, including IFNs and HERVs. No study has explored the expression of HERVs, TRIM28, and SETDB1 during RSV bronchiolitis. We assessed, through a PCR real-time Taqman amplification assay, the transcription levels of six IFN-I ISGs, four IFNλs, the pol genes of HERV-H, -K, and -W families, the env genes of Syncytin (SYN)1 and SYN2, and of TRIM28/SETDB1 in whole blood from 37 children hospitalized for severe RSV bronchiolitis and in healthy children (HC). The expression of most IFN-I ISGs was significantly higher in RSV+ patients than in age-matched HC, but it was inhibited by steroid therapy. The mRNA concentrations of IFN-λs were comparable between patients and age-matched HC. This lack of RSV-driven IFN-III activation may result in the defective protection of the airway mucosal surface leading to severe bronchiolitis. The expression of IFN-III showed a positive correlation with age in HC, that could account for the high susceptibility of young children to viral respiratory tract infections. The transcription levels of every HERV gene were significantly lower in RSV+ patients than in HC, while the expressions of TRIM28/SETDB1 were overlapping. Given the negative impact of HERVs and the positive effects of TRIM28/SETDB1 on innate and adaptive immune responses, the downregulation of the former and the normal expression of the latter may contribute to preserving immune functions against infection.

Domesticated HERV-W env contributes to the activation of the small conductance Ca2+-activated K+ type 2 channels via decreased 5-HT4 receptor in recent-onset schizophrenia

The human endogenous retroviruses type W family envelope (HERV-W env) gene is located on chromosome 7q21-22. Our previous studies show that HERV-W env is elevated in schizophrenia and HERV-W env can increase calcium influx. Additionally, the 5-HTergic system and particularly 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptors play a prominent role in the pathogenesis and treatment of schizophrenia. 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 4 (5-HT4R) agonist can block calcium channels. However, the underlying relationship between HERV-W env and 5-HT4R in the etiology of schizophrenia has not been revealed. Here, we used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect the concentration of HERV-W env and 5-HT4R in the plasma of patients with schizophrenia and we found that there were decreased levels of 5-HT4R and a negative correlation between 5-HT4R and HERV-W env in schizophrenia. Overexpression of HERV-W env decreased the transcription and protein levels of 5-HT4R but increased small conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ type 2 channels (SK2) expression levels. Further studies revealed that HERV-W env could interact with 5-HT4R. Additionally, luciferase assay showed that an essential region (-364 to -176 from the transcription start site) in the SK2 promoter was required for HERV-W env-induced SK2 expression. Importantly, 5-HT4R participated in the regulation of SK2 expression and promoter activity. Electrophysiological recordings suggested that HERV-W env could increase SK2 channel currents and the increase of SK2 currents was inhibited by 5-HT4R. In conclusion, HERV-W env could activate SK2 channels via decreased 5-HT4R, which might exhibit a novel mechanism for HERV-W env to influence neuronal activity in schizophrenia.

Endogenous Retrovirus RNA Expression Differences between Race, Stage and HPV Status Offer Improved Prognostication among Women with Cervical Cancer

Endogenous human retroviruses (ERVs) are remnants of exogenous retroviruses that have integrated into the human genome. Using publicly available RNA-seq data from 63 cervical cancer patients, we investigated the expression of ERVs in cervical cancers. Four aspects of cervical cancer were investigated: patient ancestral background, tumor HPV type, tumor stage and patient survival. Between the racial subgroups, 74 ERVs were significantly differentially expressed, with Black Americans having 30 upregulated and 44 downregulated (including MER21C, HERV9-int, and HERVH-int) ERVs when compared to White Americans. We found that 3313 ERVs were differentially expressed between HPV subgroups, including MER41A, HERVH-int and HERVK9. There were 28 downregulated (including MLT1D and HERVH-int) and 61 upregulated (including MER41A) ERVs in locally advanced-stage compared to early-stage samples. Tissue microarrays of cervical cancer patients were used to investigate the protein expression of ERVs with protein coding potential (i.e., HERVK and ERV3). Significant differences in protein expression of ERV3 (p = 0.000905) were observed between early-stage and locally advanced-stage tumors. No significant differential expression at the protein level was found for HERVK7 (p = 0.243). We also investigated a prognostic model, supplementing a baseline prediction model using FIGO stage, age and HPV positivity with ERVs data. The expression levels of all ERVs in the HERVd were input into a Lasso-Cox proportional hazards model, developing a predictive 67-ERV panel. When ERVs expression levels were supplemented with the clinical data, a significant increase in prognostic power (p = 9.433 × 10-15) relative to that obtained with the clinical parameters alone (p = 0.06027) was observed. In summary, ERV RNA expression in cervical cancer tumors is significantly different among racial cohorts, HPV subgroups and disease stages. The combination of the expression of certain ERVs in cervical cancers with clinical factors significantly improved prognostication compared to clinical factors alone; therefore, ERVs may serve as future prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Novelty and Impact: When endogenous retroviral (ERV) expression signatures were combined with currently employed clinical prognosticators of relapse of cervical cancer, the combination outperformed prediction models based on clinical prognosticators alone. ERV expression signatures in tumor biopsies may therefore be useful to help identify patients at greater risk of recurrence. The novel ERV expression signatures or adjacent genes possibly impacted by ERV expression described here may also be targets for the development of future therapeutic interventions.

ERVWE1 Reduces Hippocampal Neuron Density and Impairs Dendritic Spine Morphology through Inhibiting Wnt/JNK Non-Canonical Pathway via miR-141-3p in Schizophrenia

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are remnants of ancestral germline infections by exogenous retroviruses. Human endogenous retroviruses W family envelope gene (HERV-W env, also called ERVWE1), located on chromosome 7q21-22, encodes an envelope glycoprotein from the HERV-W family. Mounting evidence suggests that aberrant expression of ERVWE1 involves the etiology of schizophrenia. Moreover, the genetic and morphological studies indicate that dendritic spine deficits may contribute to the onset of schizophrenia. Here, we reported that ERVWE1 changed the density and morphology of the dendritic spine through inhibiting Wingless-type (Wnt)/c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK) non-canonical pathway via miR-141-3p in schizophrenia. In this paper, we found elevated levels of miR-141-3p and a significant positive correlation with ERVWE1 in schizophrenia. Moreover, serum Wnt5a and actin-related protein 2 (Arp2) levels decreased and demonstrated a significant negative correlation with ERVWE1 in schizophrenia. In vitro experiments disclosed that ERVWE1 up-regulated miR-141-3p expression by interacting with transcription factor (TF) Yin Yang 1 (YY1). YY1 modulated miR-141-3p expression by binding to its promoter. The luciferase assay revealed that YY1 enhanced the promoter activity of miR-141-3p. Using the miRNA target prediction databases and luciferase reporter assays, we demonstrated that miR-141-3p targeted Wnt5a at its 3' untranslated region (3' UTR). Furthermore, ERVWE1 suppressed the expression of Arp2 through non-canonical pathway, Wnt5a/JNK signaling pathway. In addition, ERVWE1 inhibited Wnt5a/JNK/Arp2 signal pathway through miR-141-3p. Finally, functional assays showed that ERVWE1 induced the abnormalities in hippocampal neuron morphology and spine density through inhibiting Wnt/JNK non-canonical pathway via miR-141-3p in schizophrenia. Our findings indicated that miR-141-3p, Wnt5a, and Arp2 might be potential clinical blood-based biomarkers or therapeutic targets for schizophrenia. Our work also provided new insight into the role of ERVWE1 in schizophrenia pathogenesis.

Human endogenous retroviruses in cancer: Oncogenesis mechanisms and clinical implications

Human Endogenous Retroviruses (HERVs) are viral sequences integrated into the human genome, resulting from the infection of human germ-line cells by ancient exogenous retroviruses. Despite losing their replication and retrotransposition abilities, HERVs appear to have been co-opted in human physiological functions while their aberrant expression is linked to human disease. The role of HERVs in multiple malignancies has been demonstrated, however, the extent to which HERV activation and expression participate in the development of cancer is not yet fully comprehended. In this review article, we discuss the presumed role of HERVs in carcinogenesis and their promising diagnostic and prognostic implications. Additionally, we explore recent data on the HERVs in cancer therapeutics, either through the manipulation of their expression, to induce antitumor innate immunity responses or as cancer immunotherapy targets. Finally, more precise and higher resolution high-throughput sequencing approaches will further elucidate HERV participation in human physiological and pathological processes.

Extracellular Events Involved in Cancer Cell-Cell Fusion

Fusion among different cell populations represents a rare process that is mediated by both intrinsic and extracellular events. Cellular hybrid formation is relayed by orchestrating tightly regulated signaling pathways that can involve both normal and neoplastic cells. Certain important cell merger processes are often required during distinct organismal and tissue development, including placenta and skeletal muscle. In a neoplastic environment, however, cancer cell fusion can generate new cancer hybrid cells. Following survival during a subsequent post-hybrid selection process (PHSP), the new cancer hybrid cells express different tumorigenic properties. These can include elevated proliferative capacity, increased metastatic potential, resistance to certain therapeutic compounds, and formation of cancer stem-like cells, all of which characterize significantly enhanced tumor plasticity. However, many parts within this multi-step cascade are still poorly understood. Aside from intrinsic factors, cell fusion is particularly affected by extracellular conditions, including an inflammatory microenvironment, viruses, pH and ionic stress, hypoxia, and exosome signaling. Accordingly, the present review article will primarily highlight the influence of extracellular events that contribute to cell fusion in normal and tumorigenic tissues.

Modulation of HERV Expression by Four Different Encephalitic Arboviruses during Infection of Human Primary Astrocytes

Human retroelements (HERVs) are retroviral origin sequences fixed in the human genome. HERVs induction is associated with neurogenesis, cellular development, immune activation, and neurological disorders. Arboviruses are often associated with the development of encephalitis. The interplay between these viruses and HERVs has not been fully elucidated. In this work, we analyzed RNAseq data derived from infected human primary astrocytes by Zika (ZikV), Mayaro (MayV), Oropouche (OroV) and Chikungunya (ChikV) viruses, and evaluated the modulation of HERVs and their nearby genes. Our data show common HERVs expression modulation by both alphaviruses, suggesting conserved evolutionary routes of transcription regulation. A total of 15 HERVs were co-modulated by the four arboviruses, including the highly upregulated HERV4_4q22. Data on the upregulation of genes nearby to these elements in ChikV, MayV and OroV infections were also obtained, and interaction networks were built. The upregulation of 14 genes common among all viruses was observed in the networks, and 93 genes between MayV and ChikV. These genes are related to cellular processes such as cellular replication, cytoskeleton, cell vesicle traffic and antiviral response. Together, our results support the role of HERVs induction in the transcription regulation process of genes during arboviral infections.

HERV-W ENV antigenemia and correlation of increased anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin levels with post-COVID-19 symptoms

Due to the wide scope and persistence of COVID-19´s pandemic, post-COVID-19 condition represents a post-viral syndrome of unprecedented dimensions. SARS-CoV-2, in line with other infectious agents, has the capacity to activate dormant human endogenous retroviral sequences ancestrally integrated in human genomes (HERVs). This activation was shown to relate to aggravated COVID-19 patient´s symptom severity. Despite our limited understanding of how HERVs are turned off upon infection clearance, or how HERVs mediate long-term effects when their transcription remains aberrantly on, the participation of these elements in neurologic disease, such as multiple sclerosis, is already settling the basis for effective therapeutic solutions. These observations support an urgent need to identify the mechanisms that lead to HERV expression with SARS-CoV-2 infection, on the one hand, and to answer whether persistent HERV expression exists in post-COVID-19 condition, on the other. The present study shows, for the first time, that the HERV-W ENV protein can still be actively expressed long after SARS-CoV-2 infection is resolved in post-COVID-19 condition patients. Moreover, increased anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulins in post-COVID-19 condition, particularly high anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulin levels of the E isotype (IgE), seem to strongly correlate with deteriorated patient physical function (r=-0.8057, p<0.01). These results indicate that HERV-W ENV antigenemia and anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgE serology should be further studied to better characterize post-COVID-19 condition pathogenic drivers potentially differing in subsets of patients with various symptoms. They also point out that such biomarkers may serve to design therapeutic options for precision medicine in post-COVID-19 condition.

Influenza A Virus Infection Reactivates Human Endogenous Retroviruses Associated with Modulation of Antiviral Immunity

Human endogenous retrovirus (HERVs), normally silenced by methylation or mutations, can be reactivated by multiple environmental factors, including infections with exogenous viruses. In this work, we investigated the transcriptional activity of HERVs in human A549 cells infected by two wild-type (PR8M, SC35M) and one mutated (SC35MΔNS1) strains of Influenza A virus (IAVs). We found that the majority of differentially expressed HERVs (DEHERVS) and genes (DEGs) were up-regulated in the infected cells, with the most significantly enriched biological processes associated with the genes differentially expressed exclusively in SC35MΔNS1 being linked to the immune system. Most DEHERVs in PR8M and SC35M are mammalian apparent LTR retrotransposons, while in SC35MΔNS1, more HERV loci from the HERVW9 group were differentially expressed. Furthermore, up-regulated pairs of HERVs and genes in close chromosomal proximity to each other tended to be associated with immune responses, which implies that specific HERV groups might have the potential to trigger specific gene networks and influence host immunological pathways.

Viral Causality of Human Cancer and Potential Roles of Human Endogenous Retroviruses in the Multi-Omics Era: An Evolutionary Epidemiology Review

Being responsible for almost 12% of cancers worldwide, viruses are among the oldest known and most prevalent oncogenic agents. The quality of the evidence for the in vivo tumorigenic potential of microorganisms varies, thus accordingly, viruses were classified in 4 evidence-based categories by the International Agency for Research on Cancer in 2009. Since then, our understanding of the role of viruses in cancer has significantly improved, firstly due to the emergence of high throughput sequencing technologies that allowed the “brute-force” recovery of unknown viral genomes. At the same time, multi-omics approaches unravelled novel virus-host interactions in stem-cell biology. We now know that viral elements, either exogenous or endogenous, have multiple sometimes conflicting roles in human pathophysiology and the development of cancer. Here we integrate emerging evidence on viral causality in human cancer from basic mechanisms to clinical studies. We analyze viral tumorigenesis under the scope of deep-in-time human-virus evolutionary relationships and critically comment on the evidence through the eyes of clinical epidemiology, firstly by reviewing recognized oncoviruses and their mechanisms of inducing tumorigenesis, and then by examining the potential role of integrated viruses in our genome in the process of carcinogenesis.

Hallmarks of Retroelement Expression in T-Cells Treated With HDAC Inhibitors

A wide spectrum of drugs have been assessed as latency reversal agents (LRA) to reactivate HIV-1 from cellular reservoirs and aid in viral eradication strategies. Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi) have been studied in vitro and in vivo as potential candidates for HIV-1 latency reversion. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) and romidepsin (RMD) are two HDACi able to reverse HIV latency, however studies of potential off-target effects on retroelement expression have been limited. Retroelements constitute a large portion of the human genome, and some are considered “fossil viruses” as they constitute remnants of ancient exogenous retroviruses infections. Retroelements are reactivated during certain disease conditions like cancer or during HIV-1 infection. In this study, we analyzed differential expression of retroelements using publicly available RNA-seq datasets (GSE102187 and GSE114883) obtained from uninfected CD4+, and HIV-1 latently infected CD4+ T-cells treated with HDACi (SAHA and RMD). We found a total of 712 and 1,380 differentially expressed retroelements in HIV-1 latently infected cells following a 24-h SAHA and RMD treatment, respectively. Furthermore, we found that 531 retroelement sequences (HERVs and L1) were differentially expressed under both HDACi treatments, while 1,030 HERV/L1 were exclusively regulated by each drug. Despite differences in specific HERV loci expression, the overall pattern at the HERV family level was similar for both treatments. We detected differential expression of full-length HERV families including HERV-K, HERV-W and HERV-H. Furthermore, we analyzed the link between differentially expressed retroelements and nearby immune genes. TRAF2 (TNF receptor) and GBP5 (inflammasome activator) were upregulated in HDACi treated samples and their expression was correlated with nearby HERV (MERV101_9q34.3) and L1 (L1FLnI_1p22.2k, L1FLnI_1p22.2j, L1FLnI_1p22.2i). Our findings suggest that HDACi have an off-target effect on the expression of retroelements and on the expression of immune associated genes in treated CD4+ T-cells. Furthermore, our data highlights the importance of exploring the interaction between HIV-1 and retroelement expression in LRA treated samples to understand their role and impact on “shock and kill” strategies and their potential use as reservoir biomarkers.

Implication of human endogenous retrovirus W family envelope in hepatocellular carcinoma promotes MEK/ERK-mediated metastatic invasiveness and doxorubicin resistance

Human endogenous retrovirus (HERVs), originating from exogenous retroviral infections of germ cells millions of years ago, have the potential for human diseases. Syncytin-1, an envelope protein encoded by the HERV W family, participates in the contexts of schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, and several types of cancers. Nevertheless, there is no report on the expression pattern and potential mechanism of Syncytin-1 in HCC. Here we found Syncytin-1 expression was up-regulated in HCC compared to adjacent non-tumorous tissues, especially in advanced HCC. Syncytin-1 was an independent risk factor to predict vascular invasion, metastasis, larger tumor size, and poor prognosis in HCC patients. Further analysis discovered that Syncytin-1 overexpression positively associated with HCC patients with serum HBsAg positive. Functional experiments in vitro and in vivo demonstrated that Syncytin-1 enhanced cell proliferation, metastasis, and tumorigenicity in HCC. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis suggested that the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) pathway was involved in HCC. Our clinical data indicated that the levels of phosphorylation MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 were increased in HCC comparing with adjacent non-tumorous tissues. It showed the linear correlation between Syncytin-1 expression and upregulated MEK1/2 and ERK1/2 phosphorylation levels in HCC. Furthermore, Syncytin-1 activated MEK/ERK pathway in HCC cells. In-depth research showed that the inflammation-activated MEK/ERK pathway was essential in Syncytin-1 promoted hepatocarcinogenesis. Syncytin-1 suppressed doxorubicin-induced apoptosis via MEK/ERK cascade. In conclusion, Syncytin-1 promoted HCC progression and doxorubicin resistance via the inflammation-activated MEK/ERK pathway. Our findings revealed that Syncytin-1 was a potential prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target for HCC.

Activation of Endogenous Retrovirus, Brain Infections and Environmental Insults in Neurodegeneration and Alzheimer's Disease

Chronic neurodegenerative diseases are complex, and their pathogenesis is uncertain. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative brain alteration that is responsible for most dementia cases in the elderly. AD etiology is still uncertain; however, chronic neuroinflammation is a constant component of brain pathology. Infections have been associated with several neurological diseases and viruses of the Herpes family appear to be a probable cause of AD neurodegenerative alterations. Several different factors may contribute to the AD clinical progression. Exogeneous viruses or other microbes and environmental pollutants may directly induce neurodegeneration by activating brain inflammation. In this paper, we suggest that exogeneous brain insults may also activate retrotransposons and silent human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs). The initial inflammation of small brain areas induced by virus infections or other brain insults may activate HERV dis-regulation that contributes to neurodegenerative mechanisms. Chronic HERV activation in turn may cause progressive neurodegeneration that thereafter merges in cognitive impairment and dementia in genetically susceptible people. Specific treatment for exogenous end endogenous pathogens and decreasing pollutant exposure may show beneficial effect in early intervention protocol to prevent the progression of cognitive deterioration in the elderly.

Transcriptome Analyses Implicate Endogenous Retroviruses Involved in the Host Antiviral Immune System through the Interferon Pathway

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are the remains of ancient retroviruses that invaded our ancestors' germline cell and were integrated into the genome. The expression of HERVs has always been a cause for concern because of its association with various cancers and diseases. However, few previous studies have focused on specific activation of HERVs by viral infections. Our previous study has shown that dengue virus type 2 (DENV-2) infection induces the transcription of a large number of abnormal HERVs loci; therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between exogenous viral infection and HERV activation further. In this study, we retrieved and reanalyzed published data on 21 transcriptomes of human cells infected with various viruses. We found that infection with different viruses could induce transcriptional activation of HERV loci. Through the comparative analysis of all viral datasets, we identified 43 key HERV loci that were up-regulated by DENV-2, influenza A virus, influenza B virus, Zika virus, measles virus, and West Nile virus infections. Furthermore, the neighboring genes of these HERVs were simultaneously up-regulated, and almost all such neighboring genes were interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), which are enriched in the host's antiviral immune response pathways. Our data supported the hypothesis that activation of HERVs, probably via an interferon-mediated mechanism, plays an important role in innate immunity against viral infections.

Human Endogenous Retroviruses as Biomedicine Markers

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) were formed via ancient integration of exogenous retroviruses into the human genome and are considered to be viral "fossils". The human genome is embedded with a considerable amount of HERVs, witnessing the long-term evolutionary history of the viruses and the host. Most HERVs have lost coding capability during selection but still function in terms of HERV-mediated regulation of host gene expression. In this review, we summarize the roles of HERV activation in response to viral infections and diseases, and emphasize the potential use of HERVs as biomedicine markers in the early diagnosis of diseases such as cancer, which provides a new perspective for the clinical application of HERVs.

Endogenous Retroviruses in Nervous System Disorders

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERV) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of several nervous system disorders including multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The toxicity of HERV-derived RNAs and proteins for neuronal cells has been demonstrated. The involvement of HERV in the pathogenesis of currently incurable diseases might offer new treatment strategies based on the inhibition of HERV activities by small molecules or therapeutic antibodies.

HIV-1 infection activates endogenous retroviral promoters regulating antiviral gene expression

Although endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are known to harbor cis-regulatory elements, their role in modulating cellular immune responses remains poorly understood. Using an RNA-seq approach, we show that several members of the ERV9 lineage, particularly LTR12C elements, are activated upon HIV-1 infection of primary CD4⁺ T cells. Intriguingly, HIV-1-induced ERVs harboring transcription start sites are primarily found in the vicinity of immunity genes. For example, HIV-1 infection activates LTR12C elements upstream of the interferon-inducible genes GBP2 and GBP5 that encode for broad-spectrum antiviral factors. Reporter assays demonstrated that these LTR12C elements drive gene expression in primary CD4⁺ T cells. In line with this, HIV-1 infection triggered the expression of a unique GBP2 transcript variant by activating a cryptic transcription start site within LTR12C. Furthermore, stimulation with HIV-1-induced cytokines increased GBP2 and GBP5 expression in human cells, but not in macaque cells that naturally lack the GBP5 gene and the LTR12C element upstream of GBP2. Finally, our findings suggest that GBP2 and GBP5 have already been active against ancient viral pathogens as they suppress the maturation of the extinct retrovirus HERV-K (HML-2). In summary, our findings uncover how human cells can exploit remnants of once-infectious retroviruses to regulate antiviral gene expression.

The role of endogenous retroviruses-K in human cancer

It is known that human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) constitute almost 8% of the human genome. Although the expression of HERVs from the human genome is tightly regulated, different exogenous and endogenous factors could trigger HERV activation. Aberrant expression of different HERVs may potentially cause a variety of diseases such as neurological and autoimmune diseases as well as cancer. It is suggested that HERV-K can induce cancer through different mechanisms that are discussed. The interplay between some tumor viruses and HERV-K seems to be a key player in progression of viral-associated cancers because elevated levels of Rec and Np9 proteins are observed in several cancers. The frequent over expression of HERV proteins and some specific antibodies in cancer cells could be considered as suitable prognostic and therapeutic biomarkers in diagnosis and treatment of cancers. The expression of HERV proteins in cancers and development of immune responses against them may also be used as targets for cancer immunotherapy. Further studies are warranted to evaluate the role of HERVs in cancer formation and use of different HERV proteins in developing new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for cancer treatments.

Transcription profile of human endogenous retroviruses in response to dengue virus serotype 2 infection

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), the remains of retroviruses infection in our ancestors' germline cell over millions of years, take up about 8% of the human genome in total. HERV transcription has been detected in various cancers and diseases. However, the interaction between HERV expression and viral infection has not been fully elucidated. Here, we provided the first transcriptional profile of HERVs in dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) infected A549 cells by using high-throughput RNA sequencing. The results showed that a number of HERVs and human genes were significantly differentially expressed in response to DENV-2 infection. Further bioinformatic analyses indicated a correlation between HERVs and human genes. In particular, the genes near the HERVs activated by dengue infection were dominantly enriched in the antiviral immune response. Taken together, our findings suggest that activated HERVs may be involved in the cellular immune response to viral infection by coexpressing with nearby host genes.

Endogenous Retroviruses Activity as a Molecular Signature of Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are genetic elements resulting from relics of ancestral infection of germline cells, now recognized as cofactors in the etiology of several complex diseases. Here we present a review of findings supporting the role of the abnormal HERVs activity in neurodevelopmental disorders. The derailment of brain development underlies numerous neuropsychiatric conditions, likely starting during prenatal life and carrying on during subsequent maturation of the brain. Autism spectrum disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorders, and schizophrenia are neurodevelopmental disorders that arise clinically during early childhood or adolescence, currently attributed to the interplay among genetic vulnerability, environmental risk factors, and maternal immune activation. The role of HERVs in human embryogenesis, their intrinsic responsiveness to external stimuli, and the interaction with the immune system support the involvement of HERVs in the derailed neurodevelopmental process. Although definitive proofs that HERVs are involved in neurobehavioral alterations are still lacking, both preclinical models and human studies indicate that the abnormal expression of ERVs could represent a neurodevelopmental disorders-associated biological trait in affected individuals and their parents.

The Concomitant Expression of Human Endogenous Retroviruses and Embryonic Genes in Cancer Cells under Microenvironmental Changes is a Potential Target for Antiretroviral Drugs

In our genomes there are thousands of copies of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) originated from the integration of exogenous retroviruses that infected germ line cells millions of years ago, and currently an altered expression of this elements has been associated to the onset, progression and acquisition of aggressiveness features of many cancers. The transcriptional reactivation of HERVs is mainly an effect of their responsiveness to some factors in cell microenvironment, such as nutrients, hormones and cytokines. We have already demonstrated that, under pressure of microenvironmental changes, HERV-K (HML-2) activation is required to maintain human melanoma cell plasticity and CD133+ cancer stem cells survival. In the present study, the transcriptional activity of HERV-K (HML-2), HERV-H, CD133 and the embryonic transcription factors OCT4, NANOG and SOX2 was evaluated during the in vitro treatment with antiretroviral drugs in cells from melanoma, liver and lung cancers exposed to microenvironmental changes. The exposure to stem cell medium induced a phenotype switching with the generation of sphere-like aggregates, characterized by the concomitant increase of HERV-K (HML-2) and HERV-H, CD133 and embryonic genes transcriptional activity. Although with heterogenic response among the different cell lines, the in vitro treatment with antiretroviral drugs affected HERVs transcriptional activity in parallel with the reduction of CD133 and embryonic genes expression, clonogenic activity and cell growth, accompanied by the induction of apoptosis. The responsiveness to antiretroviral drugs treatment of cancer cells with stemness features and expressing HERVs suggests the use of these drugs as innovative approach to treat aggressive tumours in combination with chemotherapeutic/radiotherapy regimens.

Neural Cell Responses Upon Exposure to Human Endogenous Retroviruses

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) are ancient retroviral elements, which invaded the human germ line several million years ago. Subsequent retrotransposition events amplified these sequences, resulting in approximately 8% of the human genome being composed of HERV sequences today. These genetic elements, normally dormant within human genomes, can be (re)-activated by environmental factors such as infections with other viruses, leading to the expression of viral proteins and, in some instances, even to viral particle production. Several studies have shown that the expression of these retroviral elements correlates with the onset and progression of neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Further studies provided evidence on additional roles for HERVs in schizophrenia (SCZ). Since these diseases are still not well understood, HERVs might constitute a new category of pathogenic components that could significantly change our understanding of these pathologies. Moreover, knowledge about their mode of action might also help to develop novel and more powerful approaches for the treatment of these complex diseases. Therefore, the main scope of this review is a description of the current knowledge on the involvement of HERV-W and HERV-K in neurological disease specifically focusing on the effects they exert on neural cells of the central nervous system.

CKLF1 Enhances Inflammation-Mediated Carcinogenesis and Prevents Doxorubicin-Induced Apoptosis via IL6/STAT3 Signaling in HCC

PURPOSE

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the most common and deadliest malignancies worldwide, has a poor prognosis, owing to its high potential for vascular invasion and metastasis and the lack of biomarkers for early diagnosis. Thus, it must be a crucial factor for investigating therapeutic strategies for HCC to identify the functional molecular targets. Here, we reported a novel chemokine, CKLF1, that might act as a pivotal modulator in the invasion and metastasis of HCC and could serve as an attractive target for cancer therapy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Bioinformatics analysis, PCR, Western blotting, and IHC were performed to detect the expression of CKLF1 in HCC. The function of CKLF1 was demonstrated by a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments. Pharmacologic treatment, flow cytometry, and Western blotting were carried out to demonstrate the potential mechanisms of CKLF1.

RESULTS

We proved that CKLF1 was overexpressed in HCC tissues and was related to tumor stage, vascular invasion, and patient survival. Then, functional assays showed that CKLF1 promoted hepatocellular carcinogenesis and metastatic potential. Finally, the IL6/STAT3 signaling pathway was involved in the mechanistic investigation. The results demonstrated that CKLF1 enhanced the progression of HCC and prevented doxorubicin-induced apoptosis through activating the IL6/STAT3 pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

These data showed that CKLF1 inhibited apoptosis and promoted malignant transformation through the IL6/STAT3 pathway, and ultimately enhanced the development and metastasis of HCC. Thus, our work revealed that CKLF1 was a significant prognostic factor of HCC and might be a potential molecular therapeutic target for HCC.

Transactivation of human endogenous retroviruses by tumor viruses and their functions in virus-associated malignancies

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), viral-associated sequences, are normal components of the human genome and account for 8–9% of our genome. These original provirus sequences can be transactivated to produce functional products. Several reactivated HERVs have been implicated in cancers and autoimmune diseases. An emerging body of literature supports a potential role of reactivated HERVs in viral diseases, in particular viral-associated neoplasms. Demystifying studies on the mechanism(s) of HERV reactivation could provide a new framework for the development of treatment and prevention strategies targeting virus-associated tumors. Although available data suggest that co-infection by other viruses, such as Kaposi’s Sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), may be a crucial driving force to transactivate HERV boom, the mechanisms of action of viral infection-induced HERV transactivation and the contributions of HERVs to viral oncogenesis warrant further studies. Here, we review viral co-infection contributes to HERVs transactivation with focus on human viral infection associated oncogenesis and diseases, including the abilities of viral regulators involved in HERV reactivation, and physiological effects of viral infection response on HERV reactivation.

Upregulation of syncytin-1 promotes invasion and metastasis by activating epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related pathway in endometrial carcinoma

Background

Endometrial carcinoma (EC) is the most common and lethal malignancy worldwide. Syncytin-1 is expressed in multiple types of cancer. However, the expression pattern and potential mechanism of syncytin-1 and its clinical significance in EC remain unclear.

Materials and methods

We analyzed 130 primary EC specimens from Binzhou Medical University to investigate the clinical role of syncytin-1 in EC by using different advanced pathological stages of EC tissues. Kaplan–Meier analysis was used to measure the overall survival of EC patients. Syncytin-1 expression was analyzed by Western blot assays in HECCL-1 and RL-95-2 cells. Cell proliferation, cycle, migration, and invasion abilities were detected by cell counting kit-8, flow cytometry, and transwell assays. AKT and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related genes were assessed by Western blot assays in HECCL-1 and RL-95-2 cells.

Results

Syncytin-1 was upregulated in EC tissues and cells and was related to clinical stages, expression of ER, Ki-67, and overall survival of EC. Functional research revealed that overexpression of syncytin-1 can promote cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, and the migration and invasion of EC cells. Suppression of syncytin-1 expression also inhibited cell proliferation and apoptosis in vitro. The expression of syncytin-1 substantially improved the expression levels of EMT-related genes (vimentin, E-cadherin, slug, and ZEB1) but significantly decreased those of epithelial markers (N-cadherin and snail). In addition, we found that syncytin-1 was not correlated with AKT-related genes (total-AKT, p-AKT, and vinculin).

Conclusion

Our results suggested that syncytin-1 may promote aggressive behavior and can serve as a novel prognostic biomarker for EC. Our study provides new insights into the regulatory mechanism of EMT signaling.

HERV-W env regulates calcium influx via activating TRPC3 channel together with depressing DISC1 in human neuroblastoma cells

The activation and involvement of human endogenous retroviruses W family envelope gene (HERV-W env, also called ERVWE1) have been reported in several neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, as well as in multiple sclerosis (MS). Dysregulation of intracellular calcium content is also involved in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Our previous studies showed that HERV-W env overexpression results in activation of small conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel protein 3 (SK3), a potential risk factor for schizophrenia. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate the relationship between HERV-W env and calcium signaling in schizophrenia. Our results showed that HERV-W env could induce Ca²⁺ influx in two human neuroblastoma cell lines and upregulate the expression and activation of TRPC3 in cells. The abnormal increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration was inhibited by addition of the TRPC3 channel blocker pyr3, demonstrating that the Ca²⁺ influx induced by HERV-W env was TRPC3-dependent. Further experiments showed that HERV-W env overexpression downregulated DISC1, while knockdown of DISC1 promoted activation of TRPC3 without affecting TRPC3 expression. In conclusion, HERV-W env induced Ca²⁺ influx in human neuroblastoma cells by activating the TRPC3 channel through directly regulating its expression or downregulating DISC1, which could also increase TRPC3 activation without affecting TRPC3 expression. These findings provide new insights into how HERV-W env affects neuronal activity and contributes to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.

Human endogenous retroviruses role in cancer cell stemness

Cancer incidence and mortality, metastasis, drug resistance and recurrence are still the critical issues of oncological diseases. In this scenario, increasing scientific evidences demonstrate that the activation of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) is involved in the aggressiveness of tumors such as melanoma, breast, germ cell, renal, ovarian, liver and haematological cancers. In their dynamic regulation, HERVs have also proved to be important determinants of pluripotency in human embryonic stem cells (ESC) and of the reprogramming process of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). In many types of tumors, essential characteristics of aggressiveness have been associated with the achievement of stemness features, often accompanied with the identification of defined subpopulations, termed cancer stem cells (CSCs), which possess stem cell-like properties and sustain tumorigenesis. Indeed, CSCs show high self-renewal capacity with a peculiar potential in tumor initiation, progression, metastasis, heterogeneity, recurrence, radiotherapy and drug resistance. However, HERVs role in CSCs biology is still not fully elucidated. In this regard, CD133 is a widely recognized marker of CSCs, and our group demonstrated, for the first time, the requirement of HERV-K activation to expand and maintain a CD133+ melanoma cell subpopulation with stemness features in response to microenvironmental modifications. The review will discuss HERVs expression as cancer hallmark, with particular focus on their role in the regulation of cancer stemness features and the potential involvement as targets for therapy.