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Al-Sareji OJ, Al-Samarrai SY, Grmasha RA, Meiczinger M, Al-Juboori RA, Jakab M, Somogyi V, Miskolczi N, Hashim KS. A novel and sustainable composite of L@PSAC for superior removal of pharmaceuticals from different water matrices: Production, characterization, and application. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 251:118565. [PMID: 38431073 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 02/25/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
This study endeavors to develop cost-effective environmentally friendly technology for removing harmful residual pharmaceuticals from water and wastewater by utilizing the effective adsorption of pistachio shell (PS) biochar and the degradation potency of laccase immobilized on the biochar (L@PSAC). The carbonatization and activation of the shells were optimized regarding temperature, time, and NH4NO3/PS ratio. This step yielded an optimum PS biochar (PSAC) with the highest porosity and surface area treated at 700 °C for 3 h using an NH4NO3/PS ratio of 3% wt. The immobilization of laccase onto PSAC (L@PSAC) was at its best level at pH 5, 60 U/g, and 30 °C. The optimum L@PSAC maintained a high level of enzyme activity over two months. Almost a complete removal (>99%) of diclofenac, carbamazepine, and ciprofloxacin in Milli-Q (MQ) water and wastewater was achieved. Adsorption was responsible for >80% of the removal and the rest was facilitated by laccase degradation. L@PSAC maintained effective removal of pharmaceuticals of ≥60% for up to six treatment cycles underscoring the promising application of this material for wastewater treatment. These results indicate that activated carbon derived from the pistachio shell could potentially be utilized as a carrier and adsorbent to efficiently remove pharmaceutical compounds. This enzymatic physical elimination approach has the potential to be used on a large-scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamah J Al-Sareji
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem str. 10, Veszprem H, 8200, Hungary; Environmental Research and Studies Center, University of Babylon, Babylon, Al-Hillah, 51001, Iraq; The School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Graduate, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Kensington, NSW, 2052, Australia.
| | | | - Ruqayah Ali Grmasha
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem str. 10, Veszprem H, 8200, Hungary; Environmental Research and Studies Center, University of Babylon, Babylon, Al-Hillah, 51001, Iraq; The School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Graduate, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Kensington, NSW, 2052, Australia; University of Pannonia, Faculty of Engineering, Center for Natural Science, Research Group of Limnology, H-8200, Veszprem, Egyetem u. 10, Hungary
| | - Mónika Meiczinger
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem str. 10, Veszprem H, 8200, Hungary
| | - Raed A Al-Juboori
- NYUAD Water Research Center, New York University-Abu Dhabi Campus, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Water and Environmental Engineering Research Group, Department of Built Environment, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15200, Aalto, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Miklós Jakab
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, University of Pannonia, H-8200, Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Viola Somogyi
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem str. 10, Veszprem H, 8200, Hungary
| | - Norbert Miskolczi
- Faculty of Engineering, Institute of Chemical Engineering and Process Engineering, MOL Department of Hydrocarbon & Coal Processing, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10, Veszprém, H-8200, Hungary
| | - Khalid S Hashim
- School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, L3 2ET, UK; Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Babylon, Babylon, Al-Hillah, Iraq; Dijlah University College, Baghdad, Iraq
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Harish BS, Thayumanavan T, Nambukrishnan V, Sakthishobana K. Heterogeneous biocatalytic system for effective decolorization of textile dye effluent. 3 Biotech 2023; 13:165. [PMID: 37162807 PMCID: PMC10163993 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-023-03586-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The current physicochemical methods for decolorizing toxic synthetic dyes are not sustainable to halt the environmental damage as they are expensive and often produce concentrated sludge, which may lead to secondary disposal problems. Biocatalysis (microbes and/or their enzymes) is a cost-effective, versatile, energy-saving and clean alternative. The most common enzymes involved in dye degradation are laccases, azoreductases and peroxidases. Toxic dyes could be converted into less harmful byproducts through the combined action of many enzymes or the utilization of whole cells. The action of whole cells to treat dye effluents is either by biosorption or degradation (aerobic or anaerobic). Using immobilized cells or enzymes will offer advantages such as superior stability, persistence against harsh environmental conditions, reusability and longer half-lives. This review envisages the recent strategies of immobilization and bioreactor considerations with the immobilized system as the effective treatment of textile dye effluents. Packed bed reactors are the most popular heterogeneous biocatalytic reactors for dye decolorization due to their efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. S. Harish
- Department of Biotechnology, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, 641402 India
| | - Tha Thayumanavan
- Department of Biotechnology, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, 641402 India
| | - Veerasekar Nambukrishnan
- Department of Biotechnology, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, 641402 India
| | - K. Sakthishobana
- Department of Biotechnology, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, Sathyamangalam, 638401 India
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Maghraby Y, El-Shabasy RM, Ibrahim AH, Azzazy HMES. Enzyme Immobilization Technologies and Industrial Applications. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:5184-5196. [PMID: 36816672 PMCID: PMC9933091 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c07560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes play vital roles in diverse industrial sectors and are essential components of many industrial products. Immobilized enzymes possess higher resistance to environmental changes and can be recovered/recycled easily when compared to the free forms. The primary benefit of immobilization is protecting the enzymes from the harsh environmental conditions (e.g., elevated temperatures, extreme pH values, etc.). The immobilized enzymes can be utilized in various large-scale industries, e.g., medical, food, detergent, textile, and pharmaceutical industries, besides being used in water treatment plants. According to the required application, a suitable enzyme immobilization technique and suitable carrier materials are chosen. Enzyme immobilization techniques involve covalent binding, encapsulation, entrapment, adsorption, etc. This review mainly covers enzyme immobilization by various techniques and their usage in different industrial applications starting from 1992 until 2022. It also focuses on the multiscale operation of immobilized enzymes to maximize yields of certain products. Lastly, the severe consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic on global enzyme production is briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmin
R. Maghraby
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Sciences & Engineering, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Rehan M. El-Shabasy
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Sciences & Engineering, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
- Chemistry
Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia
University, Shebin El-Kom 32512, Egypt
| | - Ahmed H. Ibrahim
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Sciences & Engineering, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
- Center
for Materials Science, Zewail City of Science
and Technology, 6th of October 12578, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hassan Mohamed El-Said Azzazy
- Department
of Chemistry, School of Sciences & Engineering, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
- Department
of Nanobiophotonics, Leibniz Institute for
Photonic Technology, Albert Einstein Str. 9, Jena 07745, Germany
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Kyomuhimbo HD, Brink HG. Applications and immobilization strategies of the copper-centred laccase enzyme; a review. Heliyon 2023; 9:e13156. [PMID: 36747551 PMCID: PMC9898315 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Laccase is a multi-copper enzyme widely expressed in fungi, higher plants, and bacteria which facilitates the direct reduction of molecular oxygen to water (without hydrogen peroxide production) accompanied by the oxidation of an electron donor. Laccase has attracted attention in biotechnological applications due to its non-specificity and use of molecular oxygen as secondary substrate. This review discusses different applications of laccase in various sectors of food, paper and pulp, waste water treatment, pharmaceuticals, sensors, and fuel cells. Despite the many advantages of laccase, challenges such as high cost due to its non-reusability, instability in harsh environmental conditions, and proteolysis are often encountered in its application. One of the approaches used to minimize these challenges is immobilization. The various methods used to immobilize laccase and the different supports used are further extensively discussed in this review.
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Al-Sareji OJ, Meiczinger M, Salman JM, Al-Juboori RA, Hashim KS, Somogyi V, Jakab M. Ketoprofen and aspirin removal by laccase immobilized on date stones. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 311:137133. [PMID: 36343736 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, enzymatic remediation/biocatalysis has gained prominence for the bioremediation of recalcitrant chemicals. Laccase is one of the commonly investigated enzymes for bioremediation applications. There is a growing interest in immobilizing this enzyme onto adsorbents for achieving high pollutant removal through simultaneous adsorption and biodegradation. Due to the influence of the biomolecule-support interface on laccase activity and stability, it is crucial to functionalize the solid carrier prior to immobilization. Date stone (PDS), as an eco-friendly, low-cost, and effective natural adsorbent, was utilized as a carrier for laccase (fungus Trametes versicolor). After activating PDS through chemical treatments, the surface area increased by thirty-six-fold, and carbonyl groups became more prominent. Batch experiments were carried out for ketoprofen and aspirin biodegradation in aqueous solutions. After six cycles, the laccase maintained 54% of its original activity confirmed by oxidation tests of 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS). In addition, the storage, pH, and thermal stability of immobilized laccase on functionalized date stone (LFPDS) were found to be superior to that of free laccase, demonstrating its potential for ongoing applications. In the aqueous batch mode, this immobilized laccase system was used to degrade 25 mg L-1 of ketoprofen and aspirin, resulting in almost complete removal within 4 h of treatment. This study reveals that agricultural wastes such as date stone can successfully be valorized through simple activation techniques, and the final product can be used as an adsorbent and substrate for immobilization enzyme. The high efficiency of the LFPDS in removing ketoprofen and aspirin highlights the potential of this technology for removing pharmaceuticals and merits its continued development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osamah J Al-Sareji
- Environmental Research and Studies Center, University of Babylon, Al-Hillah, Iraq; Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem Str. 10, Veszprém H, 8200, Hungary.
| | - Mónika Meiczinger
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem Str. 10, Veszprém H, 8200, Hungary
| | - Jasim M Salman
- Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Babylon, Al-Hillah, Iraq
| | - Raed A Al-Juboori
- NYUAD Water Research Center, New York University-Abu Dhabi Campus, Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 129188, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; Water and Environmental Engineering Research Group, Department of Built Environment, Aalto University, P.O. Box 15200, Aalto, FI-00076, Espoo, Finland
| | - Khalid S Hashim
- School of Civil Engineering and Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, UK; Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Babylon, Al-Hillah, Iraq
| | - Viola Somogyi
- Sustainability Solutions Research Lab, Faculty of Engineering, University of Pannonia, Egyetem Str. 10, Veszprém H, 8200, Hungary
| | - Miklós Jakab
- Research Centre of Engineering Sciences, Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, University of Pannonia, P.O. Box 158, H-8201 Veszprém, Hungary
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Rodrigues AF, da Silva AF, da Silva FL, dos Santos KM, de Oliveira MP, Nobre MM, Catumba BD, Sales MB, Silva AR, Braz AKS, Cavalcante AL, Alexandre JY, Junior PG, Valério RB, de Castro Bizerra V, do Santos JC. A scientometric analysis of research progress and trends in the design of laccase biocatalysts for the decolorization of synthetic dyes. Process Biochem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2023.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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7
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Nájera-Martínez EF, Melchor-Martínez EM, Sosa-Hernández JE, Levin LN, Parra-Saldívar R, Iqbal HMN. Lignocellulosic residues as supports for enzyme immobilization, and biocatalysts with potential applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 208:748-759. [PMID: 35364201 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.03.180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Growing demand for agricultural production means a higher quantity of residues produced. The reuse and recycling of agro-industrial wastes reduce worldwide greenhouse emissions. New opportunities are derived from this kind of residuals in the biotechnological field generating valuable products in growing sectors such as transportation, bioenergy, food, and feedstock. The use of natural macromolecules towards biocatalysts offers numerous advantages over free enzymes and friendliness with the environment. Enzyme immobilization improves enzyme properties (stability and reusability), and three types of supports are discussed: inorganic, organic, and hybrid. Several examples of agro-industrial wastes such as coconut wastes, rice husks, corn residues and brewers spent grains (BSG), their properties and potential as supports for enzyme immobilization are described in this work. Before the immobilization, biological and non-biological pretreatments could be performed to enhance the waste potential as a carrier. Additionally, immobilization methods such as covalent binding, adsorption, cross-linking and entrapment are compared to provide high efficiency. Enzymes and biocatalysts for industrial applications offer advantages over traditional chemical processes with respect to sustainability and process efficiency in food, energy, and bioremediation fields. The wastes reviewed in this work demonstrated a high affinity for lipases and laccases and might be used in biodiesel production and textile wastewater treatment, among other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Laura Noemí Levin
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Dpto. de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Laboratorio de Micología Experimental: INMIBO-CONICET, 1428, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Roberto Parra-Saldívar
- Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, 64849, Monterrey, NL, Mexico.
| | - Hafiz M N Iqbal
- Tecnológico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, 64849, Monterrey, NL, Mexico.
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8
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Zofair SFF, Ahmad S, Hashmi MA, Khan SH, Khan MA, Younus H. Catalytic roles, immobilization and management of recalcitrant environmental pollutants by laccases: Significance in sustainable green chemistry. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 309:114676. [PMID: 35151142 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We are facing a high risk of exposure to emerging contaminants and increasing environmental pollution with the concomitant growth of industries. Persistence of these pollutants is a major concern to the ecosystem. Laccases, also known as "green catalysts" are multi-copper oxidases which offers an eco-friendly solution for the degradation of these hazardous pollutants to less or non-toxic compounds. Although various other biological methods exist for the treatment of pollutants, the fact that laccases catalyze the oxidation of broad range of substrates in the presence of molecular oxygen without any additional cofactor and releases water as the by-product makes them exceptional. They have a good possibility of utilization in various industries, especially for the purpose of bioremediation. Besides this, they have also been used in medical/health care, food industry, bio-bleaching, wine stabilization, organic synthesis and biosensors. This review covers the catalytic behaviour of laccases, their immobilization strategies, potential applications in bioremediation of recalcitrant environmental pollutants and their engineering. It provides a comprehensive summary of most factors to consider while working with laccases in an industrial setting. It compares the benefits and drawbacks of the current techniques. Immobilization and mediators, two of the most significant aspects in working with laccases, have been meticulously discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syeda Fauzia Farheen Zofair
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Sumbul Ahmad
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Md Amiruddin Hashmi
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Shaheer Hasan Khan
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India
| | - Masood Alam Khan
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hina Younus
- Enzymology Laboratory, Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Faculty of Life Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, India.
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Deproteinization of Shrimp Shell Waste by Kurthia gibsonii Mb126 immobilized chitinase. JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.22207/jpam.16.2.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This work was aimed at immobilization, characterization, and utilization of chitinase from Kurthia gibsonii Mb126. Immobilization of Kurthia gibsonii Mb126 chitinase on glutaraldehyde treated chitosan was carried out with immobilization yield of 106%. The optimal factors of the immobilization technique such as concentration of glutaraldehyde, chitinase concentration, and immobilization time were evaluated. After optimizing process parameters of immobilization (Glutaraldehyde concentration 4%, chitinase conc. 60mg, immobilization time 30min.), the specific activity of immobilized chitinase improved to 4.3-fold compared to the free form of chitinase. Temperature and pH optima of the immobilized chitinase and free enzyme were same i.e., 7.5 and 40°C respectively. The relative activity of immobilized chitinase remained 90% at 40°C, at 50°C, and at 60°C for 120 min. In the pH range from 5.5 to 8, the immobilized chitinase retained 100% activity. The results confirmed that the pH stability and thermal stability of chitinase increased by immobilizing chitinase on chitosan. The immobilized enzyme system maintained 90% of its efficiency even after 16 successive reaction cycles. The immobilized chitinase maintained 78% of its activity even after 20 months. Fermentation of prawn shell waste with immobilized chitinase indicated a high level of deproteinization. Deproteinization experiments were carried out with 5mL (0.4 mg/mL ) of immobilized and free chitinase on 300 mg/mL of prawn shell waste for 20 days without any additional supplements at 40°C and 6.5 pH. Protein content was reduced from 38.4 to 0.8% with immobilized chitinase. Results suggests the possibility of using immobilized enzymes to remove the prawn shell waste from the environment. To the best of our knowledge there was no such study about the deproteinization of prawn shell waste using immobilized chitinase till the date.
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Loi M, Glazunova O, Fedorova T, Logrieco AF, Mulè G. Fungal Laccases: The Forefront of Enzymes for Sustainability. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:1048. [PMID: 34947030 PMCID: PMC8708107 DOI: 10.3390/jof7121048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Enzymatic catalysis is one of the main pillars of sustainability for industrial production. Enzyme application allows minimization of the use of toxic solvents and to valorize the agro-industrial residues through reuse. In addition, they are safe and energy efficient. Nonetheless, their use in biotechnological processes is still hindered by the cost, stability, and low rate of recycling and reuse. Among the many industrial enzymes, fungal laccases (LCs) are perfect candidates to serve as a biotechnological tool as they are outstanding, versatile catalytic oxidants, only requiring molecular oxygen to function. LCs are able to degrade phenolic components of lignin, allowing them to efficiently reuse the lignocellulosic biomass for the production of enzymes, bioactive compounds, or clean energy, while minimizing the use of chemicals. Therefore, this review aims to give an overview of fungal LC, a promising green and sustainable enzyme, its mechanism of action, advantages, disadvantages, and solutions for its use as a tool to reduce the environmental and economic impact of industrial processes with a particular insight on the reuse of agro-wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Loi
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (M.L.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Olga Glazunova
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (O.G.); (T.F.)
| | - Tatyana Fedorova
- A.N. Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia; (O.G.); (T.F.)
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (M.L.); (A.F.L.)
| | - Giuseppina Mulè
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy; (M.L.); (A.F.L.)
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Morshed MN, Behary N, Bouazizi N, Guan J, Nierstrasz VA. An overview on biocatalysts immobilization on textiles: Preparation, progress and application in wastewater treatment. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 279:130481. [PMID: 33894516 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The immobilization of biocatalysts or other bioactive components often means their transformation from a soluble to an insoluble state by attaching them to a solid support material. Various types of fibrous textiles from both natural and synthetic sources have been studied as suitable support material for biocatalysts immobilization. Strength, inexpensiveness, high surface area, high porosity, pore size, availability in various forms, and simple preparation/functionalization techniques have made textiles a primary choice for various applications. This led to the concept of a new domain called-biocatalysts immobilization on textiles. By addressing the growing advancement in biocatalysts immobilization on textile, this study provides the first detailed overview on this topic based on the terms of preparation, progress, and application in wastewater treatment. The fundamental reason behind the necessity of biocatalysts immobilized textile as well as the potential preparation methods has been identified and discussed. The overall progress and performances of biocatalysts immobilized textile have been scrutinized and summarized based on the form of textile, catalytic activity, and various influencing factors. This review also highlighted the potential challenges and future considerations that can enhance the pervasive use of such immobilized biocatalysts in various sustainable and green chemistry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Neaz Morshed
- Department of Textile Technology, The Swedish School of Textiles, Faculty of Textiles, Engineering and Business, University of Borås, SE-50190, Borås, Sweden; Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industries Textiles (ENSAIT), GEMTEX Laboratory, 2 allée Louise et Victor Champier BP 30329, 59056, Roubaix, France; Université de Lille, Nord de France, F-59000, Lille, France; College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, 215006, Suzhou, China.
| | - Nemeshwaree Behary
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industries Textiles (ENSAIT), GEMTEX Laboratory, 2 allée Louise et Victor Champier BP 30329, 59056, Roubaix, France; Université de Lille, Nord de France, F-59000, Lille, France.
| | - Nabil Bouazizi
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industries Textiles (ENSAIT), GEMTEX Laboratory, 2 allée Louise et Victor Champier BP 30329, 59056, Roubaix, France; Université de Lille, Nord de France, F-59000, Lille, France.
| | - Jinping Guan
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, 215006, Suzhou, China.
| | - Vincent A Nierstrasz
- Department of Textile Technology, The Swedish School of Textiles, Faculty of Textiles, Engineering and Business, University of Borås, SE-50190, Borås, Sweden.
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Zhuo R, Fan F. A comprehensive insight into the application of white rot fungi and their lignocellulolytic enzymes in the removal of organic pollutants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 778:146132. [PMID: 33714829 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Environmental problems resultant from organic pollutants are a major current challenge for modern societies. White rot fungi (WRF) are well known for their extensive organic compound degradation abilities. The unique oxidative and extracellular ligninolytic systems of WRF that exhibit low substrate specificity, enable them to display a considerable ability to transform or degrade different environmental contaminants. In recent decades, WRF and their ligninolytic enzymes have been widely applied in the removal of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs), endocrine disruptor compounds (EDCs), pesticides, synthetic dyes, and other environmental pollutants, wherein promising results have been achieved. This review focuses on advances in WRF-based bioremediation of organic pollutants over the last 10 years. We comprehensively document the application of WRF and their lignocellulolytic enzymes for removing organic pollutants. Moreover, potential problems and intriguing observations that are worthy of additional research attention are highlighted. Lastly, we discuss trends in WRF-remediation system development and avenues that should be considered to advance research in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhuo
- Institute of Plant and Microbiology, Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Plant Functional Genomics and Developmental Regulation, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China.
| | - Fangfang Fan
- Harvard Medical School, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Sánchez-Morán H, Weltz JS, Schwartz DK, Kaar JL. Understanding Design Rules for Optimizing the Interface between Immobilized Enzymes and Random Copolymer Brushes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:26694-26703. [PMID: 34081428 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c02443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A long-standing goal in the field of biotechnology is to develop and understand design rules for the stabilization of enzymes upon immobilization to materials. While immobilization has sometimes been successful as a strategy to stabilize enzymes, the design of synthetic materials that stabilize enzymes remains largely empirical. We sought to overcome this challenge by investigating the mechanistic basis for the stabilization of immobilized lipases on random copolymer brush surfaces comprised of poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate (PEGMA) and sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA), which represent novel heterogeneous supports for immobilized enzymes. Using several related but structurally diverse lipases, including Bacillus subtilis lipase A (LipA), Rhizomucor miehei lipase, Candida rugosa lipase, and Candida antarctica lipase B (CALB), we showed that the stability of each lipase at elevated temperatures was strongly dependent on the fraction of PEGMA in the brush layer. This dependence was explained by developing and applying a new algorithm to quantify protein surface hydrophobicity, which involved using unsupervised cluster analysis to identify clusters of hydrophobic atoms. Characterization of the lipases showed that the optimal brush composition correlated with the free energy of solvation per enzyme surface area, which ranged from -17.1 kJ/mol·nm2 for LipA to -11.8 kJ/mol·nm2 for CALB. Additionally, using this algorithm, we found that hydrophobic patches consisting of aliphatic residues had a higher free energy than patches consisting of aromatic residues. By providing the basis for rationally tuning the interface between enzymes and materials, this understanding will transform the use of materials to reliably ruggedize enzymes under extreme conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor Sánchez-Morán
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Campus Box 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - James S Weltz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Campus Box 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Daniel K Schwartz
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Campus Box 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Joel L Kaar
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Campus Box 596, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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Federsel HJ, Moody TS, Taylor SJ. Recent Trends in Enzyme Immobilization-Concepts for Expanding the Biocatalysis Toolbox. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092822. [PMID: 34068706 PMCID: PMC8126217 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes have been exploited by humans for thousands of years in brewing and baking, but it is only recently that biocatalysis has become a mainstream technology for synthesis. Today, enzymes are used extensively in the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, food, fine chemicals, flavors, fragrances and other products. Enzyme immobilization technology has also developed in parallel as a means of increasing enzyme performance and reducing process costs. The aim of this review is to present and discuss some of the more recent promising technical developments in enzyme immobilization, including the supports used, methods of fabrication, and their application in synthesis. The review highlights new support technologies such as the use of well-established polysaccharides in novel ways, the use of magnetic particles, DNA, renewable materials and hybrid organic–inorganic supports. The review also addresses how immobilization is being integrated into developing biocatalytic technology, for example in flow biocatalysis, the use of 3D printing and multi-enzymatic cascade reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Jürgen Federsel
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Department of Chemical Process and Pharmaceutical Development, P.O. Box 5607, S-114 86 Stockholm, Sweden
- Correspondence: (H.-J.F.); (T.S.M.); Tel.: +46-70-311-55-53 (H.-J.F.); +44-28-3833-2200 (T.S.M.)
| | - Thomas S. Moody
- Almac Sciences Ltd., 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK;
- Arran Chemical Company Limited, Unit 1 Monksland Industrial Estate, N37 DN24 Athlone, Ireland
- Correspondence: (H.-J.F.); (T.S.M.); Tel.: +46-70-311-55-53 (H.-J.F.); +44-28-3833-2200 (T.S.M.)
| | - Steve J.C. Taylor
- Almac Sciences Ltd., 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, UK;
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15
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Electrostatic and Hydrogen Bond Immobilization of Trypsine onto pH-Sensitive N-Vinylpyrrolidone and 4-Vinylpyridine Radical co-Grafted Chitosan Based on Hydrogel. Macromol Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13233-021-9015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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16
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Flow Biocatalysis: A Challenging Alternative for the Synthesis of APIs and Natural Compounds. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22030990. [PMID: 33498198 PMCID: PMC7863935 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22030990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Biocatalysts represent an efficient, highly selective and greener alternative to metal catalysts in both industry and academia. In the last two decades, the interest in biocatalytic transformations has increased due to an urgent need for more sustainable industrial processes that comply with the principles of green chemistry. Thanks to the recent advances in biotechnologies, protein engineering and the Nobel prize awarded concept of direct enzymatic evolution, the synthetic enzymatic toolbox has expanded significantly. In particular, the implementation of biocatalysts in continuous flow systems has attracted much attention, especially from industry. The advantages of flow chemistry enable biosynthesis to overcome well-known limitations of “classic” enzymatic catalysis, such as time-consuming work-ups and enzyme inhibition, as well as difficult scale-up and process intensifications. Moreover, continuous flow biocatalysis provides access to practical, economical and more sustainable synthetic pathways, an important aspect for the future of pharmaceutical companies if they want to compete in the market while complying with European Medicines Agency (EMA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and green chemistry requirements. This review focuses on the most recent advances in the use of flow biocatalysis for the synthesis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), pharmaceuticals and natural products, and the advantages and limitations are discussed.
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Ren D, Wang Z, Jiang S, Yu H, Zhang S, Zhang X. Recent environmental applications of and development prospects for immobilized laccase: a review. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev 2021; 36:81-131. [PMID: 33435852 DOI: 10.1080/02648725.2020.1864187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Laccases have enormous potential as promising 'green' biocatalysts in environmental applications including wastewater treatment and polluted soil bioremediation. The catalytic oxidation reaction they perform uses only molecular oxygen without other cofactors, and the only product after the reaction is water. The immobilization of laccase offers several improvements such as protected activity and enhanced stability over free laccase. In addition, the reusability of immobilized laccase is adistinct advantage for future applications. This review covers the sources of and progress in laccase research, and discusses the different methodologies of laccase immobilization that have emerged in the recent 5-10 years, as well as its applications to environmental fields, and evaluates these emerging technologies. Abbreviations: (2,4,6-TCP): 2,4,6-trichlorophenol; (2,4-DCP): 2,4-dichlorophenol; (ABTS), 2,2-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid); (ACE), acetaminophen; (BC-AS), almond shell; (BC-PM), pig manure; (BC-PW), pine wood; (BPA), bisphenol A; (BPA), bisphenol A; (BPF), bisphenol F; (BPS), bisphenol S; (C60), fullerene; (Ca-AIL), calcium-alginate immobilized laccase; (CBZ), carbamazepine; (CETY), cetirizine; (CHT-PGMA-PEI-Cu (II) NPs), Cu (II)-chelated chitosan nanoparticles; (CLEAs), cross-linked enzyme aggregates; (CMMC), carbon-based mesoporous magnetic composites; (COD), chemical oxygen demand; (CPH), ciprofloxacin hydrochloride; (CS), chitosan; (CTC), chlortetracycline; (Cu-AIL), copper-alginate immobilized laccase; (DBR K-4BL), Drimarene brilliant red K-4BL; (DCF), diclofenac; (E1),estrone; (E2), 17 β-estradiol; (EDC), 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride; (EDCs), endocrine disrupting chemicals; (EE2), 17α-ethinylestradiol; (EFMs), electrospun fibrous membranes; (FL), free laccase; (fsMP), fumed silica microparticles; (GA-CBs), GLU-crosslinked chitosan beads; (GA-CBs), glutaraldehyde-crosslinked chitosan beads; (GA-Zr-MOF), graphene aerogel-zirconium-metal organic framework; (GLU), glutaraldehyde; (GO), graphene oxide; (HMCs), hollow mesoporous carbon spheres; (HPEI/PES), hyperbranched polyethyleneimine/polyether sulfone; (IC), indigo carmine; (IL), immobilized laccase; (kcat), catalytic constant; (Km), Michealis constant; (M-CLEAs), Magnetic cross-linked enzyme aggregates; (MMSNPs-CPTS-IDA-Cu2+), Cu2+-chelated magnetic mesoporous silica nanoparticles; (MSS), magnetic mesoporous silica spheres; (MWNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes; (MWNTs), multi-walled carbon nanotubes; (NHS), N-hydroxy succinimide; (O-MWNTs), oxidized-MWNTs; (P(AAm-NIPA)), poly(acrylamide-N-isopropylacrylamide); (p(GMA)), poly(glycidyl methacrylate); (p(HEMA)), poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate); (p(HEMA-g-GMA)-NH2, poly(glycidyl methacrylate) brush grafted poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate); (PA6/CHIT), polyamide 6/chitosan; (PAC), powdered active carbon; (PAHs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; (PAM-CTS), chitosan grafted polyacrylamide hydrogel; (PAN/MMT/GO), polyacrylonitrile/montmorillonite/graphene oxide; (PAN/PVdF), polyacrylonitrile/polyvinylidene fluoride; (PEG), poly ethylene glycol; (PEI), Poly(ethyleneimine); (poly(4-VP)), poly(4-vinyl pyridine); (poly(GMA-MAA)), poly(glycidyl methacrylate-methacrylic acid); (PVA), polyvinyl alcohol; (RBBR), Remazol Brilliant Blue R; (SDE), simulated dye effluent; (semi-IPNs), semi-interpenetrating polymer networks; (TC), tetracycline; (TCH), tetracycline hydrochloride; (TCS), triclosan; (Vmax), maximum activity; (Zr-MOF, MMU), micro-mesoporous Zr-metal organic framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dajun Ren
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhaobo Wang
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shan Jiang
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Hongyan Yu
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shuqin Zhang
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaoqing Zhang
- College of Resource and Environmental Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, China.,Hubei Key Laboratory for Efficient Utilization and Agglomeration of Metallurgic Mineral Resources, Wuhan University of Science and Technology , Wuhan, Hubei, China
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18
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Naramittanakul A, Buttranon S, Petchsuk A, Chaiyen P, Weeranoppanant N. Development of a continuous-flow system with immobilized biocatalysts towards sustainable bioprocessing. REACT CHEM ENG 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1re00189b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Implementing immobilized biocatalysts in continuous-flow systems can enable a sustainable process through enhanced enzyme stability, better transport and process continuity as well as simplified recycle and downstream processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apisit Naramittanakul
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Supacha Buttranon
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Atitsa Petchsuk
- National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC), Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Pimchai Chaiyen
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong 21210, Thailand
| | - Nopphon Weeranoppanant
- School of Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE), Vidyasirimedhi Institute of Science and Technology (VISTEC), Rayong 21210, Thailand
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
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19
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Nunes JCF, Cristóvão RO, Freire MG, Santos-Ebinuma VC, Faria JL, Silva CG, Tavares APM. Recent Strategies and Applications for l-Asparaginase Confinement. Molecules 2020; 25:E5827. [PMID: 33321857 PMCID: PMC7764279 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25245827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
l-asparaginase (ASNase, EC 3.5.1.1) is an aminohydrolase enzyme with important uses in the therapeutic/pharmaceutical and food industries. Its main applications are as an anticancer drug, mostly for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) treatment, and in acrylamide reduction when starch-rich foods are cooked at temperatures above 100 °C. Its use as a biosensor for asparagine in both industries has also been reported. However, there are certain challenges associated with ASNase applications. Depending on the ASNase source, the major challenges of its pharmaceutical application are the hypersensitivity reactions that it causes in ALL patients and its short half-life and fast plasma clearance in the blood system by native proteases. In addition, ASNase is generally unstable and it is a thermolabile enzyme, which also hinders its application in the food sector. These drawbacks have been overcome by the ASNase confinement in different (nano)materials through distinct techniques, such as physical adsorption, covalent attachment and entrapment. Overall, this review describes the most recent strategies reported for ASNase confinement in numerous (nano)materials, highlighting its improved properties, especially specificity, half-life enhancement and thermal and operational stability improvement, allowing its reuse, increased proteolysis resistance and immunogenicity elimination. The most recent applications of confined ASNase in nanomaterials are reviewed for the first time, simultaneously providing prospects in the described fields of application.
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Affiliation(s)
- João C. F. Nunes
- Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua do Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (J.C.F.N.); (R.O.C.); (J.L.F.)
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
| | - Raquel O. Cristóvão
- Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua do Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (J.C.F.N.); (R.O.C.); (J.L.F.)
| | - Mara G. Freire
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
| | - Valéria C. Santos-Ebinuma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista-UNESP, Araraquara 14800-903, Brazil;
| | - Joaquim L. Faria
- Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua do Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (J.C.F.N.); (R.O.C.); (J.L.F.)
| | - Cláudia G. Silva
- Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua do Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (J.C.F.N.); (R.O.C.); (J.L.F.)
| | - Ana P. M. Tavares
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal;
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20
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Girelli AM, Scuto FR. Eggshell membrane as feedstock in enzyme immobilization. J Biotechnol 2020; 325:241-249. [PMID: 33068695 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2020.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Eggshell membrane, an eco-compatible, safe and cheap by-product was employed as carrier for the laccase from Trametes versicolor immobilization. In order to evaluate the best protocol to apply for the syringic acid degradation, two different types of laccase loading on eggshell membrane were used by incubation in solution or by enzyme-dropping. Chemicals (covalent) and physicals (adsorption) immobilizations were tested for both procedure using native or periodate-oxidized laccase. It is shown that immobilization of periodate-oxidized laccase on NiCl2-pretreated eggshell membrane was the best method for the first procedure (immobilized activity 1300 U/Kg, a residual activity of 30 % for 6 reuse). For the enzyme-dropping protocol a covalent method with the bifunctional cross linker (glutaraldehyde) was the best method (immobilized activity 3500 U/Kg, a residual activity of 45 % for 6 reuse).
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Girelli
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - F R Scuto
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
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21
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Bilal M, Wang Z, Cui J, Ferreira LFR, Bharagava RN, Iqbal HMN. Environmental impact of lignocellulosic wastes and their effective exploitation as smart carriers - A drive towards greener and eco-friendlier biocatalytic systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 722:137903. [PMID: 32199388 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, lignocellulosic wastes have gathered much attention due to increasing economic, social, environmental apprehensions, global climate change and depleted fossil fuel reserves. The unsuitable management of lignocellulosic materials and related organic wastes poses serious environmental burden and causes pollution. On the other hand, lignocellulosic wastes hold significant economic potential and can be employed as promising catalytic supports because of impressing traits such as surface area, porous structure, and occurrence of many chemical moieties (i.e., carboxyl, amino, thiol, hydroxyl, and phosphate groups). In the current literature, scarce information is available on this important and highly valuable aspect of lignocellulosic wastes as smart carriers for immobilization. Thus, to fulfill this literature gap, herein, an effort has been made to signify the value generation aspects of lignocellulosic wastes. Literature assessment spotlighted that all these waste materials display high potential for immobilizing enzyme because of their low cost, bio-renewable, and sustainable nature. Enzyme immobilization has gained recognition as a highly useful technology to improve enzyme properties such as catalytic stability, performance, and repeatability. The application of carrier-supported biocatalysts has been a theme of considerable research, for the past three decades, in the bio-catalysis field. Nonetheless, the type of support matrix plays a key role in the immobilization process due to its influential impact on the physicochemical characteristics of the as-synthesized biocatalytic system. In the past, an array of various organic, inorganic, and composite materials has been used as carriers to formulate efficient and stable biocatalysts. This review is envisioned to provide recent progress and development on the use of different agricultural wastes (such as coconut fiber, sugarcane bagasse, corn and rice wastes, and Brewers' spent grain) as support materials for enzyme immobilization. In summary, the effective utilization of lignocellulosic wastes to develop multi-functional biocatalysts is not only economical but also reduce environmental problems of unsuitable management of organic wastes and drive up the application of biocatalytic technology in the industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Bilal
- School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China.
| | - Zhaoyu Wang
- School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China
| | - Jiandong Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, No 29, 13th, Avenue, Tianjin Economic and Technological Development Area (TEDA), Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Luiz Fernando Romanholo Ferreira
- Graduate Program in Process Engineering, Tiradentes University, Av. Murilo Dantas 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju, SE, Brazil; Institute of Technology and Research, Av. Murilo Dantas 300 - Prédio do ITP, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju, SE, Brazil
| | - Ram Naresh Bharagava
- Laboratory for Bioremediation and Metagenomics Research, Department of Microbiology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Vidya Vihar, Raebareli Road, Lucknow 226 025, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Hafiz M N Iqbal
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Campus Monterrey, Ave. Eugenio Garza Sada 2501, Monterrey, N.L. CP 64849, Mexico.
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Immobilization of laccase on Sepharose-linked antibody support for decolourization of phenol red. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 161:78-87. [PMID: 32505629 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Laccases which are considered as "green tools" in biotechnology have potential to degrade toxic contaminants/synthetic dyes present in industrial effluents. The loss in activity and stability of laccases are key challenges faced in their potential industrial applications. Here, laccase from Trametes versicolor (polypore mushroom) was immobilized on Sepharose-linked antibody support to carry out the decolourization of phenol red. This support was prepared by covalent linking of anti-laccase antibodies to CNBr activated Sepharose at pH 8.5, and then laccase was immobilized on this affinity support at pH 5.0. The amount of laccase immobilized was approximately 33 mg per gram of the affinity support, giving an immobilization yield of 83.4%. The immobilized enzyme displayed an activity of 3.88 U with an effectiveness factor (η) of 0.90. Immobilization of laccase led to significant enhancement in thermal and storage stability. The immobilized enzyme retained 44% of its activity after 10 cycles of continuous use. The decolourization of phenol red dye obtained by immobilized and soluble laccase after 6 h of incubation at 50 °C was 80 and 56%, respectively. Thus, immobilization of laccase on Sepharose-linked antibody support leads to remarkable improvement in its various properties, making it more versatile for industrial applications.
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Hajieghrari M, Hejazi P. Enhanced biodegradation of n-Hexadecane in solid-phase of soil by employing immobilized Pseudomonas Aeruginosa on size-optimized coconut fibers. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 389:122134. [PMID: 32004840 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this research, biodegradation of hexadecane as a model contaminant in solid soil using both free and immobilized Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, capable of producing biosurfactant, was investigated. Coconut fibers in three mesh sizes were used as a cellulosic biocarrier for immobilization procedure. Bioremediation experiments were monitored for 60 days after incubation at 27 °C in small columns, containing contaminated solid soil, with the capability of aeration from bottom to top. The difference in the number of immobilized bacteria cells on the fibers with different particle sizes, emphasizes the importance of choosing an optimized carrier size. Enhancement in hexadecane degradation up to 50 % at the end of experiments was achieved by immobilized Pseudomonas Aeruginosa on the fibers with a mesh size between 8 and 16 compared to inoculation of free bacteria cells into the soil. Effect of mixing the pretreated fibers with soil and inoculating free cells into this mixture was also investigated compared to free cell experiments without fiber, which led to 28 % decrease in hexadecane degradation. Obtained kinetic equations for experiments confirm the impact of immobilization of bacteria on the enhancement of biodegradation rate and reduction of the half-life of the contaminant is soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdiyeh Hajieghrari
- Biotechnology Research Laboratory, School of Chemical, Petroleum and Gas Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Zip Code: 16846-13114, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parisa Hejazi
- Biotechnology Research Laboratory, School of Chemical, Petroleum and Gas Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Zip Code: 16846-13114, Tehran, Iran.
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24
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A promising laccase immobilization using electrospun materials for biocatalytic degradation of tetracycline: Effect of process conditions and catalytic pathways. Catal Today 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2019.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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25
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Girelli AM, Astolfi ML, Scuto FR. Agro-industrial wastes as potential carriers for enzyme immobilization: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 244:125368. [PMID: 31790990 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This review provides a general overview of the suitability of different agro-industrial wastes for enzyme immobilization. For the purposes of this literary study, the support materials are divided into two main groups, called lignocellulosic (coconut fiber, corn cob, spent grain, spent coffee, husk, husk ash, and straw rice, soybean and wheat bran) and not lignocellulosic by-products (eggshell and eggshell membranes). The study pointed out that all of these wastes are materials of great potentiality for enzyme immobilization even if coconut fiber is preferred. This result is of significant interest due to the low cost and great availability of such wastes, which actually are underused and cause significant environmental problems for improper storage. In addition, the development of economic biocatalysts more sustainable, besides reduce environmental impacts, improve the application of enzymatic technology in industry. Therefore, the enzyme immobilization reaction and the application of biocatalysts are reviewed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Girelli
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Maria Luisa Astolfi
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Romana Scuto
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le A. Moro 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
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Cristóvão RO, Almeida MR, Barros MA, Nunes JCF, Boaventura RAR, Loureiro JM, Faria JL, Neves MC, Freire MG, Ebinuma-Santos VC, Tavares APM, Silva CG. Development and characterization of a novel l-asparaginase/MWCNT nanobioconjugate. RSC Adv 2020; 10:31205-31213. [PMID: 35520670 PMCID: PMC9056397 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra05534d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The enzyme l-asparaginase (ASNase) presents effective antineoplastic properties used for acute lymphoblastic leukemia treatment besides their potential use in the food sector to decrease the acrylamide formation. Considering their applications, the improvement of this enzyme's properties by efficient immobilization techniques is in high demand. Carbon nanotubes are promising enzyme immobilization supports, since these materials have increased surface area and effective capacity for enzyme loading. Accordingly, in this study, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were explored as novel supports for ASNase immobilization by a simple adsorption method. The effect of pH and contact time of immobilization, as well as the ASNase to nanoparticles mass ratio, were optimized according to the enzyme immobilization yield and relative recovered activity. The enzyme–MWCNTs bioconjugation was confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies. MWCNTs have a high ASNase loading capacity, with a maximum immobilization yield of 90%. The adsorbed ASNase retains 90% of the initial enzyme activity at the optimized conditions (pH 8.0, 60 min, and 1.5 × 10−3 g mL−1 of ASNase). According to these results, ASNase immobilized onto MWCNTs can find improved applications in several areas, namely biosensors, medicine and food industry. l-Asparaginase immobilization by adsorption over MWCNTs for potential application in pharmaceutical and food industries.![]()
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Tikhonov BB, Sulman EM, Stadol’nikova PY, Sulman AM, Golikova EP, Sidorov AI, Matveeva VG. Immobilized Enzymes from the Class of Oxidoreductases in Technological Processes: A Review. CATALYSIS IN INDUSTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s2070050419030115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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Immobilization of Trypsin from Porcine Pancreas onto Chitosan Nonwoven by Covalent Bonding. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11091462. [PMID: 31500182 PMCID: PMC6780051 DOI: 10.3390/polym11091462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study deals with the potential application of chitosan nonwoven for biomedical textiles based on enzyme immobilization. For this, chitosan nonwoven was first cross-linked with glutaraldehyde to introduce aldehyde groups at optimal conditions. To immobilize the enzyme trypsin onto glutaraldehyde-pre-activated chitosan nonwoven, several parameters such as pH, enzyme concentration, and reaction times were investigated. In addition, the pH, thermal stability, storage stability, and reusability of immobilized trypsin were examined. We found that the optimal immobilization conditions for trypsin were pH 8.5, enzyme concentration of 8% (owf), and treatment time of 30 min. Trypsin was immobilized at 25 °C efficiently. The immobilized trypsin showed lower pH stability and better thermal stability than free trypsin. The immobilized trypsin showed 50% of its initial activity after being used 15 times and 80% of that after 20 days of storage at 4 °C. SEM analysis also confirmed that trypsin was immobilized on chitosan nonwoven.
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Jamwal S, Dautoo UK, Ranote S, Dharela R, Chauhan GS. Enhanced catalytic activity of new acryloyl crosslinked cellulose dialdehyde-nitrilase Schiff base and its reduced form for nitrile hydrolysis. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 131:117-126. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Laccase Immobilized onto Zirconia⁻Silica Hybrid Doped with Cu 2+ as an Effective Biocatalytic System for Decolorization of Dyes. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12081252. [PMID: 30995753 PMCID: PMC6514565 DOI: 10.3390/ma12081252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, novel and advanced methods are being sought to efficiently remove dyes from wastewaters. These compounds, which mainly originate from the textile industry, may adversely affect the aquatic environment as well as living organisms. Thus, in presented study, the synthesized ZrO2–SiO2 and Cu2+-doped ZrO2–SiO2 oxide materials were used for the first time as supports for laccase immobilization, which was carried out for 1 h, at pH 5 and 25 °C. The materials were thoroughly characterized before and after laccase immobilization with respect to electrokinetic stability, parameters of the porous structure, morphology and type of surface functional groups. Additionally, the immobilization yields were defined, which reached 86% and 94% for ZrO2–SiO2–laccase and ZrO2–SiO2/Cu2+–laccase, respectively. Furthermore, the obtained biocatalytic systems were used for enzymatic decolorization of the Remazol Brilliant Blue R (RBBR) dye from model aqueous solutions, under various reaction conditions (time, temperature, pH). The best conditions of the decolorization process (24 h, 30 °C and pH = 4) allowed to achieve the highest decolorization efficiencies of 98% and 90% for ZrO2–SiO2–laccase and ZrO2–SiO2/Cu2+–laccase, respectively. Finally, it was established that the mortality of Artemia salina in solutions after enzymatic decolorization was lower by approx. 20% and 30% for ZrO2–SiO2–laccase and ZrO2–SiO2/Cu2+–laccase, respectively, as compared to the solution before enzymatic treatment, which indicated lower toxicity of the solution. Thus, it should be clearly stated that doping of the oxide support with copper ions positively affects enzyme stability, activity and, in consequence, the removal efficiency of the RBBR dye.
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Budžaki S, Sundaram S, Tišma M, Hessel V. Cost analysis of oil cake-to-biodiesel production in packed-bed micro-flow reactors with immobilized lipases. J Biosci Bioeng 2019; 128:98-102. [PMID: 30745064 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Biodiesel production depends to a great extent on the use of cheap raw materials, since biodiesel itself is a mass product, not a high-value product. New processing methods, such as micro-flow continuous processing combined with enzymatic catalysis, open doors to the latter. As reported here, the window of opportunity in enzyme-catalyzed biodiesel production is the conversion of waste cooking oil. The main technological challenge for this is to obtain efficient immobilization of the lipase catalyst on beads. The beads can be filled into tubular reactors where designed packed-bed provide porous channels, forming micro-flow. It turns out, that in this way, the immobilization costs become the decisive economic factor. This paper reports a solution to that issue. The use of oil cake enables economic viability, which is not given by any of the commercial polymeric substrates used so far for enzyme immobilization. The costs of immobilization are mirrored in the earnings and cash flow of the new biotechnological process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Budžaki
- Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Smitha Sundaram
- Group Micro Flow Chemistry and Process Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Marina Tišma
- Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Franje Kuhača 20, HR-31000 Osijek, Croatia
| | - Volker Hessel
- Group Micro Flow Chemistry and Process Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, the Netherlands; School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005 South Australia, Australia.
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Encapsulation and immobilization of ficin extract in electrospun polymeric nanofibers. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 118:2287-2295. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.07.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Naghdi M, Taheran M, Brar SK, Kermanshahi-pour A, Verma M, Surampalli R. Pinewood nanobiochar: A unique carrier for the immobilization of crude laccase by covalent bonding. Int J Biol Macromol 2018; 115:563-571. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.04.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Zdarta J, Meyer AS, Jesionowski T, Pinelo M. Developments in support materials for immobilization of oxidoreductases: A comprehensive review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2018; 258:1-20. [PMID: 30075852 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2018.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Bioremediation, a biologically mediated transformation or degradation of persistent chemicals into nonhazardous or less-hazardous substances, has been recognized as a key strategy to control levels of pollutants in water and soils. The use of enzymes, notably oxidoreductases such as laccases, tyrosinases, various oxygenases, aromatic dioxygenases, and different peroxidases (all of EC class 1) is receiving significant research attention in this regard. It should be stated that immobilization is emphasized as a powerful tool for enhancement of enzyme activity and stability as well as for protection of the enzyme proteins against negative effects of harsh reaction conditions. As proper selection of support materials for immobilization and their performance is overlooked when it comes to comparing performance of immobilized enzyme in academic studies, this review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding the materials used for enzyme immobilization of these oxidoreductase enzymes for environmental applications. In the presented study, thorough physicochemical characteristics of the support materials was presented. Moreover, various types of reactions and notably operational modes of enzymatic processes for biodegradation of harmful pollutants are summarized, and future trends in use of immobilized oxidoreductases for environmental applications are discussed. Our goal is to provide an improved foundation on which new technological advancements can be made to achieve efficient enzyme-assisted bioremediation.
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Preparation and Optimisation of Cross-Linked Enzyme Aggregates Using Native Isolate White Rot Fungi Trametes versicolor and Fomes fomentarius for the Decolourisation of Synthetic Dyes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2017; 15:ijerph15010023. [PMID: 29295505 PMCID: PMC5800123 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The key to obtaining an optimum performance of an enzyme is often a question of devising a suitable enzyme and optimisation of conditions for its immobilization. In this study, laccases from the native isolates of white rot fungi Fomes fomentarius and/or Trametes versicolor, obtained from Czech forests, were used. From these, cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEA) were prepared and characterised when the experimental conditions were optimized. Based on the optimization steps, saturated ammonium sulphate solution (75 wt.%) was used as the precipitating agent, and different concentrations of glutaraldehyde as a cross-linking agent were investigated. CLEA aggregates formed under the optimal conditions showed higher catalytic efficiency and stabilities (thermal, pH, and storage, against denaturation) as well as high reusability compared to free laccase for both fungal strains. The best concentration of glutaraldehyde seemed to be 50 mM and higher efficiency of cross-linking was observed at a low temperature 4 °C. An insignificant increase in optimum pH for CLEA laccases with respect to free laccases for both fungi was observed. The results show that the optimum temperature for both free laccase and CLEA laccase was 35 °C for T. versicolor and 30 °C for F. fomentarius. The CLEAs retained 80% of their initial activity for Trametes and 74% for Fomes after 70 days of cultivation. Prepared cross-linked enzyme aggregates were also investigated for their decolourisation activity on malachite green, bromothymol blue, and methyl red dyes. Immobilised CLEA laccase from Trametes versicolor showed 95% decolourisation potential and CLEA from Fomes fomentarius demonstrated 90% decolourisation efficiency within 10 h for all dyes used. These results suggest that these CLEAs have promising potential in dye decolourisation.
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Silva C, Martins M, Jing S, Fu J, Cavaco-Paulo A. Practical insights on enzyme stabilization. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2017; 38:335-350. [PMID: 28764566 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2017.1355294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes are efficient catalysts designed by nature to work in physiological environments of living systems. The best operational conditions to access and convert substrates at the industrial level are different from nature and normally extreme. Strategies to isolate enzymes from extremophiles can redefine new operational conditions, however not always solving all industrial requirements. The stability of enzymes is therefore a key issue on the implementation of the catalysts in industrial processes which require the use of extreme environments that can undergo enzyme instability. Strategies for enzyme stabilization have been exhaustively reviewed, however they lack a practical approach. This review intends to compile and describe the most used approaches for enzyme stabilization highlighting case studies in a practical point of view.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Silva
- a Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB) , University of Minho , Braga , Portugal
| | - Madalena Martins
- a Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB) , University of Minho , Braga , Portugal
| | - Su Jing
- b International Joint Research Laboratory for Textile and Fiber Bioprocesses , Jiangnan University , Wuxi , China
| | - Jiajia Fu
- c Key Laboratory of Science and Technology of Eco-Textiles , Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University , Wuxi , Jiangsu , China
| | - Artur Cavaco-Paulo
- a Centre of Biological Engineering (CEB) , University of Minho , Braga , Portugal.,b International Joint Research Laboratory for Textile and Fiber Bioprocesses , Jiangnan University , Wuxi , China
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Bolibok P, Wiśniewski M, Roszek K, Terzyk AP. Controlling enzymatic activity by immobilization on graphene oxide. THE SCIENCE OF NATURE - NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN 2017; 104:36. [PMID: 28361348 PMCID: PMC5374183 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1459-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Revised: 03/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In this study, graphene oxide (GO) has been applied as a matrix for enzyme immobilization. The protein adsorption capacity of GO is much higher than of other large surface area carbonaceous materials. Its structure and physicochemical properties are reported beneficial also for enzymatic activity modifications. The experimental proof was done here that GO-based biocatalytic systems with immobilized catalase are modifiable in terms of catalyzed reaction kinetic constants. It was found that activity and stability of catalase, considered here as model enzyme, closely depend on enzyme/GO ratio. The changes in kinetic parameters can be related to secondary structure alterations. The correlation between enzyme/GO ratio and kinetic and structure parameters is reported for the first time and enables the conscious control of biocatalytic processes and their extended applications. The biological activity of obtained biocatalytic systems was confirmed in vitro by the use of functional test. The addition of immobilized catalase improved the cells' viability after they were exposed to hydrogen peroxide and tert-butyl-hydroperoxide used as source of reactive oxygen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulina Bolibok
- Faculty of Chemistry, Physicochemistry of Carbon Materials Research Group, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Gagarin St. 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
| | - Marek Wiśniewski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Physicochemistry of Carbon Materials Research Group, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Gagarin St. 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
- INVEST-TECH R&D Center, Plaska St. 32-34, 87-100, Toruń, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Roszek
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environment Protection, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Gagarin St. 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
| | - Artur P Terzyk
- Faculty of Chemistry, Physicochemistry of Carbon Materials Research Group, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Gagarin St. 7, 87-100, Toruń, Poland
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Bagewadi ZK, Mulla SI, Ninnekar HZ. Purification and immobilization of laccase from Trichoderma harzianum strain HZN10 and its application in dye decolorization. J Genet Eng Biotechnol 2017; 15:139-150. [PMID: 30647650 PMCID: PMC6296572 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgeb.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In this study we report the purification of laccase produced by Trichoderma harzianum strain HZN10 (using wheat bran under solid state fermentation) and its application in decolorization of synthetic dyes. Extracellular laccase was purified to homogeneity by DEAE-Sepharose and Sephadex G-100 chromatography with specific activity of 162.5 U/mg and 25-fold purification. Purified laccase was immobilized in various entrapments like calcium alginate, copper alginate, calcium alginate–chitosan beads and sol–gel matrix. Optimization results revealed that the laccase immobilized in sol–gel was optimally active in wide pH range (4.0–7.0) and thermo-stable (50–70 °C) than free enzyme which was optimum at 50 °C and pH 6.0. Kinetic analysis showed Km of 0.5 mM and 2.0 mM and Vmax of 285 U/mg and 500 U/mg by free laccase and sol–gel immobilized laccase respectively with 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) [ABTS] substrate. Free and immobilized laccase was employed for decolorization of three different synthetic dyes (malachite green, methylene blue and congo red). High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis results revealed that approximately 100% of malachite green, 90% of methylene blue and 60% of congo red dyes at initial concentration of 200 mg/L were decolorized within 16, 18 and 20 h, respectively by laccase immobilized in sol–gel matrix in the presence of 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HBT) mediator. During the decolorization all three synthetic dyes showed various peaks on HPLC chromatogram indicating different by-products formation. Finally, phytotoxicity analysis results revealed that the by-products of synthetic dyes (formed during decolorization) showed less toxicity against Phaseolus mungo compared to untreated synthetic dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zabin K Bagewadi
- Department of Biochemistry, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka 580 003, India.,Department of Biotechnology, KLE Technological University Hubballi, Karnataka 580 031, India
| | - Sikandar I Mulla
- Department of Biochemistry, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka 580 003, India
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40
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Effects of Temperature and pH on Immobilized Laccase Activity in Conjugated Methacrylate-Acrylate Microspheres. INT J POLYM SCI 2017. [DOI: 10.1155/2017/5657271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Immobilization of laccase on the functionalized methacrylate-acrylate copolymer microspheres was studied. Poly(glycidyl methacrylate-co-n-butyl acrylate) microspheres consisting of epoxy groups were synthesized using facile emulsion photocuring technique. The epoxy groups in poly(GMA-co-nBA) microspheres were then converted to amino groups. Laccase immobilization is based on covalent binding via amino groups on the enzyme surface and aldehyde group on the microspheres. The FTIR spectra showed peak at 1646 cm−1 assigned to the conformation of the polymerization that referred to GMA and nBA monomers, respectively. After modification of the polymer, intensity of FTIR peaks assigned to the epoxy ring at 844 cm−1 and 904 cm−1 was decreased. The results obtained from FTIR exhibit a good agreement with the epoxy content method. The activity of laccase-immobilized microspheres increased upon increasing the epoxy content. Furthermore, poly(GMA-co-nBA) microspheres revealed uniform size below 2 µm that contributes to large surface area of the microspheres to be used as a matrix, thus increasing the enzyme capacity and enzymatic reaction. Immobilized enzyme also shifted to higher pH and temperature compared to free enzyme.
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Zhou W, Guan ZB, Cai YJ, Chen Y, Zhang N, Liao XR. PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF IMMOBILIZED SPORES WITH LACCASE ACTIVITY FROM Bacillus pumilus W3 ON DEAE-CELLULOSE AND THEIR APPLICATION IN DYE DECOLORIZATION. BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/0104-6632.20170341s20150492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
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Immobilization of a novel cold active esterase onto Fe3O4∼cellulose nano-composite enhances catalytic properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 87:488-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Sampaio LMP, Padrão J, Faria J, Silva JP, Silva CJ, Dourado F, Zille A. Laccase immobilization on bacterial nanocellulose membranes: Antimicrobial, kinetic and stability properties. Carbohydr Polym 2016; 145:1-12. [PMID: 27106145 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
This work studied the physical immobilization of a commercial laccase on bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) aiming to identify the laccase antibacterial properties suitable for wound dressings. Physico-chemical analysis demonstrates that the BNC structure is manly formed by pure crystalline Iα cellulose. The pH optimum and activation energy of free laccase depends on the substrate employed corresponding to pH 6, 7, 3 and 57, 22, 48kJmol(-1) for 2,6-dimethylphenol (DMP), catechol and 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), respectively. The Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) value for the immobilized laccase (0.77mM) was found to be almost double of that of the free enzyme (0.42mM). However, the specific activities of immobilized and free laccase are similar suggesting that the cage-like structure of BNC allows entrapped laccase to maintain some flexibility and favour substrate accessibility. The results clearly show the antimicrobial effect of laccase in Gram-positive (92%) and Gram-negative (26%) bacteria and cytotoxicity acceptable for wound dressing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliana M P Sampaio
- 2C2T-Centre for Textile Science and Technology, Textile Engineering Department, University of Minho, Campus Azurem, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal.
| | - Jorge Padrão
- Centre for Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal.
| | - Jorge Faria
- 2C2T-Centre for Textile Science and Technology, Textile Engineering Department, University of Minho, Campus Azurem, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal.
| | - João P Silva
- Centre for Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal.
| | - Carla J Silva
- CeNTI-Centro de Nanotecnologia e Materiais Técnicos, Funcionais e Inteligentes, Rua Fernando Mesquita 2785, 4760-034 V. N. Famalicão, Portugal.
| | - Fernando Dourado
- Centre for Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal.
| | - Andrea Zille
- 2C2T-Centre for Textile Science and Technology, Textile Engineering Department, University of Minho, Campus Azurem, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal.
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Tavares APM, Silva CG, Dražić G, Silva AMT, Loureiro JM, Faria JL. Laccase immobilization over multi-walled carbon nanotubes: Kinetic, thermodynamic and stability studies. J Colloid Interface Sci 2015; 454:52-60. [PMID: 26002339 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2015.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Revised: 04/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The biocatalytic performance of immobilized enzyme systems depends mostly on the intrinsic properties of both biomolecule and support, immobilization technique and immobilization conditions. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) possess unique features for enzyme immobilization by adsorption. Enhanced catalytic activity and stability can be achieved by optimization of the immobilization conditions and by investigating the effect of operational parameters. Laccase was immobilized over MWCNTs by adsorption. The hybrid material was characterized by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM, respectively). The effect of different operational conditions (contact time, enzyme concentration and pH) on laccase immobilization was investigated. Optimized conditions were used for thermal stability, kinetic, and storage and operational stability studies. The optimal immobilization conditions for a laccase concentration of 3.75μL/mL were a pH of 9.0 and a contact time of 30min (522 Ulac/gcarrier). A decrease in the thermal stability of laccase was observed after immobilization. Changes in ΔS and ΔH of deactivation were found for the immobilized enzyme. The Michaelis-Menten kinetic constant was higher for laccase/MWCNT system than for free laccase. Immobilized laccase maintained (or even increased) its catalytic performance up to nine cycles of utilization and revealed long-term storage stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana P M Tavares
- LCM - Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, LSRE - Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Cláudia G Silva
- LCM - Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, LSRE - Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Goran Dražić
- Department of Nanostructured Materials, Jožef Stefan Institute, Jamova 39, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; Laboratory for Materials Chemistry, National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Adrián M T Silva
- LCM - Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, LSRE - Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - José M Loureiro
- LCM - Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, LSRE - Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Joaquim L Faria
- LCM - Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials, LSRE - Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering, Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
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Bezerra TMDS, Bassan JC, Santos VTDO, Ferraz A, Monti R. Covalent immobilization of laccase in green coconut fiber and use in clarification of apple juice. Process Biochem 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2014.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Hong CS, Chin SY, Cheng CK, Sabri MM, Chua GK. Enzymatic Conversion of Glycerol to Glyceric Acid with Immobilised Laccase in Na-Alginate Matrix. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.proche.2015.12.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Frazão CJR, Silva NHC, Freire CSR, Silvestre AJD, Xavier AMRB, Tavares APM. Bacterial cellulose as carrier for immobilization of laccase: Optimization and characterization. Eng Life Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/elsc.201400054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nuno H. C. Silva
- Department of Chemistry; CICECO, University of Aveiro; Aveiro Portugal
| | | | | | | | - Ana P. M. Tavares
- Associate Laboratory LSRE/LCM; Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering (LSRE); Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering; University of Porto; Porto Portugal
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Li XY, Yu SY, Park HJ, Zhao M. Polyethyleneglycol diacrylate microspheres: a novel carrier for laccase immobilisation. J Microencapsul 2014; 32:22-8. [PMID: 25090598 DOI: 10.3109/02652048.2014.940014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Laccase was immobilised on polyethyleneglycol diacrylate (PEGDA) microspheres. The optimal preparation conditions of PEGDA microspheres were as follows: 3.0% (w/v) 2,2-azobisisobutyro-nitrite (AIBN), 4.0-5.0% (w/v) polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 5.0-8.0% (w/v) glucose and 4.0% (w/v) PEGDA in glucose solution. The volume ratio of PEGDA solution, glucose/PVP solution and AIBN solution was 25: 100: 1. Microspheres obtained exhibited good characteristics with small sizes (1-4 µm). The immobilised laccase showed a higher stability in a wide pH range. Thermal stability and storage stability of immobilised laccase were enhanced. The activity of immobilised laccase was 45.0% after six cycles uses. Only 62.7% of the activity remained for free laccase while there was a 60.4% increased for immobilised laccase with storage at 4 °C for 25 d. The Km value of laccase increased from 21.9 to 114.0 µmol/l after immobilisation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Yan Li
- College of Life Sciences, Northeast Forestry University , Harbin , P.R. China and
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Guzik U, Hupert-Kocurek K, Wojcieszyńska D. Immobilization as a strategy for improving enzyme properties-application to oxidoreductases. Molecules 2014; 19:8995-9018. [PMID: 24979403 PMCID: PMC6271243 DOI: 10.3390/molecules19078995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The main objective of the immobilization of enzymes is to enhance the economics of biocatalytic processes. Immobilization allows one to re-use the enzyme for an extended period of time and enables easier separation of the catalyst from the product. Additionally, immobilization improves many properties of enzymes such as performance in organic solvents, pH tolerance, heat stability or the functional stability. Increasing the structural rigidity of the protein and stabilization of multimeric enzymes which prevents dissociation-related inactivation. In the last decade, several papers about immobilization methods have been published. In our work, we present a relation between the influence of immobilization on the improvement of the properties of selected oxidoreductases and their commercial value. We also present our view on the role that different immobilization methods play in the reduction of enzyme inhibition during biotechnological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urszula Guzik
- University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Biochemistry, Jagiellonska 28, 40-032 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Hupert-Kocurek
- University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Biochemistry, Jagiellonska 28, 40-032 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Danuta Wojcieszyńska
- University of Silesia in Katowice, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Biochemistry, Jagiellonska 28, 40-032 Katowice, Poland.
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Degradation potential of protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase from crude extract of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain KB2 immobilized in calcium alginate hydrogels and on glyoxyl agarose. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:138768. [PMID: 24693536 PMCID: PMC3944718 DOI: 10.1155/2014/138768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Microbial intradiol dioxygenases have been shown to have a great potential for bioremediation; however, their structure is sensitive to various environmental and chemical agents. Immobilization techniques allow for the improvement of enzyme properties. This is the first report on use of glyoxyl agarose and calcium alginate as matrixes for the immobilization of protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase. Multipoint attachment of the enzyme to the carrier caused maintenance of its initial activity during the 21 days. Immobilization of dioxygenase in calcium alginate or on glyoxyl agarose resulted in decrease in the optimum temperature by 5 °C and 10 °C, respectively. Entrapment of the enzyme in alginate gel shifted its optimum pH towards high-alkaline pH while immobilization of the enzyme on glyoxyl agarose did not influence pH profile of the enzyme. Protocatechuate 3,4-dioygenase immobilized in calcium alginate showed increased activity towards 2,5-dihydroxybenzoate, caffeic acid, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate, and 3,5-dihydroxybenzoate. Slightly lower activity of the enzyme was observed after its immobilization on glyoxyl agarose. Entrapment of the enzyme in alginate gel protected it against chelators and aliphatic alcohols while its immobilization on glyoxyl agarose enhanced enzyme resistance to inactivation by metal ions.
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