Adenosine receptors regulate exosome production

Production cell analysis and compound-based boosting of small extracellular vesicle secretion using a generic and scalable production platform

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a novel format of advanced therapeutical medicinal products (ATMPs). They can act regenerative or immune-modulatory as cell therapy substitutes or as a platform for designer exosomes. The biotechnological production of therapeutic EVs is still very much uncharted territory so standardized host cells, production setups, and isolation methods are not yet implemented. In this work, we present a tangential flow filtration (TFF) and fast-performance liquid chromatography (FPLC)-based size exclusion chromatography (SEC) purification setup that is compatible for industry applications. Moreover, we evaluated a series of potential host cell lines regarding their EV productivity, characteristics, and biological functionality. It was found that telomerase-immortalized Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stromal cells (WJ-MSC/TERT273) secrete high amounts of EVs per cell with regenerative capabilities. On the other hand, Cevec's amniocyte producer cells® (CAP®) and human embryonic kidney (HEK293) suspension cells are suitable platforms for designer EVs with high yields. Finally, we aimed to boost the EV secretion of HEK293 cells via chemical adjuvants and verified four compounds that heighten cellular EV secretion in a presumably cAMP-dependent manner. A combination of fenoterol, iodoacetamide, and dinitrophenol increased the EV yield in HEK293 cells threefold and cellular secretion rate fivefold.

Mechanical stimulation on a microfluidic device to highly enhance small extracellular vesicle secretion of mesenchymal stem cells

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are recognized as promising detection biomarkers and attractive delivery vehicles, showing great potential in diagnosis and treatment of diseases. However, the applications of sEVs are usually restricted by their poor secretion amount from donor cells under routine cell culture conditions, which is especially true for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) due to their limited expansion and early senescence. Here, a microfluidic device is proposed for boosting sEV secretion from MSCs derived from human fetal bone marrow (BM-MSCs). As the cells rapidly pass through a microfluidic channel with a series of narrow squeezing ridges, mechanical stimulation permeabilizes the cell membrane, thus promoting them to secrete more sEVs into extracellular space. In this study, the microfluidic device demonstrates that mechanical-squeezing effect could increase the secretion amount of sEVs from the BM-MSCs by approximately 4-fold, while maintaining cellular growth state of the stem cells. Further, the secreted sEVs are efficiently taken up by immortalized human corneal epithelial cells and accelerate corneal epithelial wound healing in vitro, indicating that this technique wound not affect the functionality of sEVs and demonstrating the application potentials of this technique.

Differential Immunomodulatory Effects of Head and Neck Cancer-Derived Exosomes on B Cells in the Presence of ATP

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an aggressive malignancy. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEX) have immunoregulatory properties. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its immunosuppressive precursor adenosine (ADO) have been found in cancerous tissue. We investigated the effect of TEX on B cells in the presence of ATP. TEX were isolated from human HNSCC cell line (PCI-13) cultures and co-cultured with peripheral blood B cells of healthy donors, with or without TEX in different concentrations and with or without a low (20 µM) or high (2000 µM) ATP dose. We were able to demonstrate that TEX inhibit B-cell proliferation. The addition of TEX to either ATP concentration showed a decreasing trend in CD39 expression on B cells in a dose-dependent manner. High ATP levels (2000 µM) increased apoptosis and necrosis, and analysis of apoptosis-associated proteins revealed dose-dependent effects of ATP, which were modified by TEX. Altogether, TEX exhibited dual immunomodulatory effects on B cells. TEX were immunosuppressive by inhibiting B-cell proliferation; they were immunostimulatory by downregulating CD39 expression. Furthermore, TEX were able to modulate the expression of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins. In conclusion, our data indicate that TEX play an important, but complex, role in the tumor microenvironment.

Exosomes and mimics as novel delivery platform for cancer therapy

Exosomes are nano-sized biological extracellular vesicles transmitting information between cells and constituting a new intercellular communication mode. Exosomes have many advantages as an ideal drug delivery nanocarrier, including good biocompatibility, permeability, low toxicity, and low immunogenicity. Recently, exosomes have been used to deliver chemotherapeutic agents, natural drugs, nucleic acid drugs, and other antitumor drugs to treat many types of tumors. Due to the limited production of exosomes, synthetic exosome-mimics have been developed as an ideal platform for drug delivery. This review summarizes recent advances in the application of exosomes and exosome-mimics delivering therapeutic drugs in treating cancers.

Interplay between purinergic signalling and extracellular vesicles in health and disease

Purinergic signalling is a receptor-mediated process characterized by the binding of extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides to purinergic receptors, which results in the activation intracellular signalling pathways, and, ultimately, leads to changes in cell physiology. Purinergic signalling has been related to the regulation of important physiological processes (e.g., renal electrolyte reabsorption; platelet aggregation; immune response). In addition, it has been associated with pathophysiological situations such as cancer and inflammation. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoparticles released by all cells of the organism, which play a key role in cell-cell communication. In this regard, EVs can mediate effects on target cells located at distant locations. Within their cargo, EVs contain molecules with the potential to affect purinergic signalling at the target cells and tissues. Here, we review the studies addressing the regulation of purinergic signalling by EVs based on the cell type or tissue where the regulation takes place. In this regard, EVs are found to play a major role in modulating the extracellular ATP levels and, specially, adenosine. This has a clear impact on, for instance, the inflammatory and immune response against cancer cells. Furthermore, we discuss the data available on the regulation of EV secretion and its cargo by purinergic signalling. Here, a major role of the purinergic receptor P2X7 and again, an impact on processes such as inflammation, immune response and cancer pathogenesis has been established. Finally, we highlight uninvestigated aspects of these two regulatory networks and address their potential as therapeutic targets.

Current Adenosinergic Therapies: What Do Cancer Cells Stand to Gain and Lose?

A key objective in immuno-oncology is to reactivate the dormant immune system and increase tumour immunogenicity. Adenosine is an omnipresent purine that is formed in response to stress stimuli in order to restore physiological balance, mainly via anti-inflammatory, tissue-protective, and anti-nociceptive mechanisms. Adenosine overproduction occurs in all stages of tumorigenesis, from the initial inflammation/local tissue damage to the precancerous niche and the developed tumour, making the adenosinergic pathway an attractive but challenging therapeutic target. Many current efforts in immuno-oncology are focused on restoring immunosurveillance, largely by blocking adenosine-producing enzymes in the tumour microenvironment (TME) and adenosine receptors on immune cells either alone or combined with chemotherapy and/or immunotherapy. However, the effects of adenosinergic immunotherapy are not restricted to immune cells; other cells in the TME including cancer and stromal cells are also affected. Here we summarise recent advancements in the understanding of the tumour adenosinergic system and highlight the impact of current and prospective immunomodulatory therapies on other cell types within the TME, focusing on adenosine receptors in tumour cells. In addition, we evaluate the structure- and context-related limitations of targeting this pathway and highlight avenues that could possibly be exploited in future adenosinergic therapies.

Tumor-Derived Exosomes: Hidden Players in PD-1/PD-L1 Resistance

Simple Summary

Immunotherapies such as anti-PD-1/PD-L1 have garnered increasing importance in cancer therapy, leading to substantial improvements in patient care and survival. However, a certain proportion of patients present tumors that resist these treatments. Exosomes, small vesicles secreted by almost every cell, including tumor cells, have proven to be key actors in this resistance. In this review, we describe the involvement of immune checkpoints and immune modulators in tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) in the context of cancer. We will focus on the most promising proteins under scrutiny for use in combination with PD-1 blockade therapy in a clinical setting: PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM-3, CD73/39, LAG-3, and TIGIT. Finally, we will discuss how they can change the game in immunotherapy, notably through their role in immunoresistance and how they can guide therapeutic decisions, as well as the current obstacles in the field.

Abstract

Recently, immunotherapy has garnered increasing importance in cancer therapy, leading to substantial improvements in patient care and survival. By blocking the immune checkpoints—protein regulators of the immune system—immunotherapy prevents immune tolerance toward tumors and reactivates the immune system, prompting it to fight cancer cell growth and diffusion. A widespread strategy for this is the blockade of the interaction between PD-L1 and PD-1. However, while patients generally respond well to immunotherapy, a certain proportion of patients present tumors that resist these treatments. This portion can be very high in some cancers and hinders cancer curability. For this reason, current efforts are focusing on combining PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy with the targeting of other immune checkpoints to counter resistance and achieve better results. Exosomes, small vesicles secreted by almost any cell, including tumor cells, have proven to be key actors in this resistance. The exosomes released by tumor cells spread the immune-suppressive properties of the tumor throughout the tumor microenvironment and participate in establishing metastatic niches. In this review, we will describe immune checkpoints and immune modulators whose presence in tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) has been established. We will focus on the most promising proteins under scrutiny for use in combination with PD-1 blockade therapy in a clinical setting, such as PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM-3, CD73/39, LAG-3, and TIGIT. We will explore the immunosuppressive impact of these exosomal proteins on a variety of immune cells. Finally, we will discuss how they can change the game in immunotherapy and guide therapeutic decisions, as well as the current limits of this approach. Depending on the viewpoint, these exosomal proteins may either provide key missing information on tumor growth and resistance mechanisms or they may be the next big challenge to overcome in improving cancer treatment.

Small extracellular vesicle-mediated bidirectional crosstalk between neutrophils and tumor cells

Neutrophils are the first line of defense against tissue injury and play an important role in tumor progression. Tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) mediate pro-tumor immunosuppressive activity and their infiltration into tumors is associated with poor outcome in a variety of malignant diseases. The tumor cell-neutrophil crosstalk is mediated by small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) also referred to as exosomes which represent a major mechanism for intercellular communication. This review will address the role of neutrophil-derived sEVs (NEX) in reprogramming the TME and on mechanisms that regulate the dual potential of NEX to promote tumor progression on one hand and suppress tumor growth on the other. Emerging data suggest that both, NEX and tumor-derived sEVs (TEX) carry complex molecular cargos which upon delivery to recipient cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME) modulate their behavior and reprogram them to mediate pro-inflammatory or immunosuppressive responses. Although it remains unknown how the balance between the often conflicting signaling of TEX and NEX is regulated, this review is an attempt to provide insights into mechanisms that underpin this complex bidirectional crosstalk. A better understanding of the signals NEX process or deliver in the TME might lead to the development of novel approaches to the control of tumor progression in the future.

Characterization of systemic immunosuppression by IDH mutant glioma small extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors and are universally fatal. Mutations in the isocitrate dehydrogenase genes (IDH1 and IDH2) define a distinct glioma subtype associated with an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Mechanisms underlying systemic immunosuppression in IDH mutant (mutIDH) gliomas are largely unknown. Here, we define genotype-specific local and systemic tumor immunomodulatory functions of tumor-derived glioma exosomes (TEX).

METHODS

TEX produced by human and murine wildtype and mutant IDH glioma cells (wtIDH and mutIDH, respectively) were isolated by size exclusion chromatography (SEC). TEX morphology, size, quantity, molecular profiles and biodistribution were characterized. TEX were injected into naive and tumor-bearing mice, and the local and systemic immune microenvironment composition was characterized.

RESULTS

Using in vitro and in vivo glioma models, we show that mutIDH TEX are more numerous, possess distinct morphological features and are more immunosuppressive than wtIDH TEX. mutIDH TEX cargo mimics their parental cells, and induces systemic immune suppression in naive and tumor-bearing mice. TEX derived from mutIDH gliomas and injected into wtIDH tumor-bearing mice reduce tumor-infiltrating effector lymphocytes, dendritic cells and macrophages, and increase circulating monocytes. Astonishingly, mutIDH TEX injected into brain tumor-bearing syngeneic mice accelerate tumor growth and increase mortality compared with wtIDH TEX.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeting of mutIDH TEX represents a novel therapeutic approach in gliomas.

Exosomes: Small EVs with Large Immunomodulatory Effect in Glioblastoma

Glioblastomas are among the most aggressive tumors, and with low survival rates. They are characterized by the ability to create a highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Exosomes, small extracellular vesicles (EVs), mediate intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment by transporting various biomolecules (RNA, DNA, proteins, and lipids), therefore playing a prominent role in tumor proliferation, differentiation, metastasis, and resistance to chemotherapy or radiation. Exosomes are found in all body fluids and can cross the blood-brain barrier due to their nanoscale size. Recent studies have highlighted the multiple influences of tumor-derived exosomes on immune cells. Owing to their structural and functional properties, exosomes can be an important instrument for gaining a better molecular understanding of tumors. Furthermore, they qualify not only as diagnostic and prognostic markers, but also as tools in therapies specifically targeting aggressive tumor cells, like glioblastomas.

Vesicular Transport of Encapsulated microRNA between Glial and Neuronal Cells

Exosomes (EXs) and extracellular microvesicles (EMVs) represent a diverse assortment of plasma membrane-derived nanovesicles, 30–1000 nm in diameter, released by all cell lineages of the central nervous system (CNS). They are examples of a very active and dynamic form of extracellular communication and the conveyance of biological information transfer essential to maintain homeostatic neurological functions and contain complex molecular cargoes representative of the cytoplasm of their cells of origin. These molecular cargoes include various mixtures of proteins, lipids, proteolipids, cytokines, chemokines, carbohydrates, microRNAs (miRNA) and messenger RNAs (mRNA) and other components, including end-stage neurotoxic and pathogenic metabolic products, such as amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides. Brain microglia, for example, respond to both acute CNS injuries and degenerative diseases with complex reactions via the induction of a pro-inflammatory phenotype, and secrete EXs and EMVs enriched in selective pathogenic microRNAs (miRNAs) such as miRNA-34a, miRNA-125b, miRNA-146a, miRNA-155, and others that are known to promote neuro-inflammation, induce complement activation, disrupt innate–immune signaling and deregulate the expression of neuron-specific phosphoproteins involved in neurotropism and synaptic signaling. This communication will review our current understanding of the trafficking of miRNA-containing EXs and EMVs from astrocytes and “activated pro-inflammatory” microglia to target neurons in neurodegenerative diseases with an emphasis on Alzheimer’s disease wherever possible.

Adenosine and Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors Are Present in Blood Serum and Exosomes from SAMP8 Mice: Modulation by Aging and Resveratrol

Adenosine (ARs) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are modulated in the brain of SAMP8 mice, an animal model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In the present work, it is shown the presence of ARs and mGluRs in blood serum and derived exosomes from SAMP8 mice as well as its possible modulation by aging and resveratrol (RSV) consumption. In blood serum, adenosine A₁ and A_2A receptors remained unaltered from 5 to 7 months of age. However, an age-related decrease in adenosine level was observed, while 5'-Nucleotidase activity was not modulated. Regarding the glutamatergic system, it was observed a decrease in mGluR₅ density and glutamate levels in older mice. In addition, dietary RSV supplementation caused an age-dependent modulation in both adenosinergic and glutamatergic systems. These GPCRs were also found in blood serum-derived exosomes, which might suggest that these receptors could be released into circulation via exosomes. Interestingly, changes elicited by age and RSV supplementation on mGluR₅ density, and adenosine and glutamate levels were similar to that detected in whole-brain. Therefore, we might suggest that the quantification of these receptors, and their corresponding endogenous ligands, in blood serum could have predictive value for early diagnosis in combination with other distinctive hallmarks of AD.

Purine Metabolites in Tumor-Derived Exosomes May Facilitate Immune Escape of Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Body fluids of patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are enriched in exosomes that reflect properties of the tumor. The aim of this study was to determine whether purine metabolites are carried by exosomes and evaluate their role as potential contributors to tumor immune escape. The gene expression levels of the purine synthesis pathway were studied using the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) Head and Neck Cancer database. Exosomes were isolated from supernatants of UMSCC47 cells and from the plasma of HNSCC patients (n = 26) or normal donors (NDs; n = 5) using size exclusion chromatography. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was used to assess levels of 19 purine metabolites carried by exosomes. In HNSCC tissues, expression levels of genes involved in the purinergic pathway were upregulated indicating an accelerated purine metabolism compared to normal tissues. Exosomes from supernatants of UMSCC47 cells contained several purine metabolites, predominantly adenosine and inosine. Purine metabolite levels were enriched in exosomes isolated from the plasma of HNSCC patients compared to those isolated from NDs and carried elevated levels of adenosine (p = 0.0223). Exosomes of patients with early-stage disease and no lymph node metastasis contained significantly elevated levels of adenosine and 5'-GMP (p = 0.0247 and p = 0.0229, respectively). The purine metabolite levels in exosomes decreased in patients with advanced cancer and nodal involvement. This report provides the first evidence that HNSCC cells shuttle purine metabolites in exosomes, with immunosuppressive adenosine being the most prominent purine. Changes in the content and levels of purine metabolites in circulating exosomes reflect disease progression in HNSCC patients.