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Khan R, Habib MA, Tamim U, Kormoker T, Khan MHR, Rashid MB, Idris AM, Aldawood S, Hossain SM, Islam MS. Fractionation of environmental radioactivity in road dust from a megacity: external and internal health risks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:8254-8273. [PMID: 38175520 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-31657-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs: 232Th, 226Ra, 40K) can reach our respiratory system by breathing of road dust which can cause severe health risks. Targeting the pioneering consideration of health risks from the NORMs in road dust, this work reveals the radioactivity abundances of NORMs in road dust from a megacity (Dhaka) of a developing country (Bangladesh). Bulk chemical compositions of U, Th, and K obtained from neutron activation analysis were converted to the equivalent radioactivities. Radioactivity concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in road dust ranged from 60-106, 110-159, and 488-709 Bq kg-1 with an average of 84.4 ± 13.1, 126 ± 11, and 549 ± 48 Bq kg-1, respectively. Estimated 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K radioactivities were, respectively, 1.7-3.0-, 3.7-5.3-, and 1.2-1.8-folds greater than the affiliated world average values. Mechanistic pathway of NORMs' enrichment and fractionation relative to the major origin (pedosphere) were evaluated concerning the water logging, relative solubility-controlled leaching and translocation, climatic conditions, and aerodynamic fractionations (dry and wet atmospheric depositions). Computation of customary radiological risk indices invokes health risks. Noticing the ingress of NOMR-holding dust into the human respiratory system along with the associated ionizing radiations, the computed radiological indices represent only the least probable health hazards. Nevertheless, in real situations, α-particles from the radioactive decay products of 232Th and 238U can create acute radiation damages of respiratory system. Policymakers should emphasize on limiting the dust particle evolution, and public awareness is required to alleviate the health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahat Khan
- Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Savar, Dhaka, 1349, Bangladesh.
| | - Md Ahosan Habib
- Geological Survey of Bangladesh, Segunbaghicha, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Umma Tamim
- Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Savar, Dhaka, 1349, Bangladesh
| | - Tapos Kormoker
- Department of Emergency Management, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali, 8602, Bangladesh
- Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong
| | | | - Md Bazlar Rashid
- Geological Survey of Bangladesh, Segunbaghicha, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Abubakr M Idris
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Khalid University, 62529, Abha, Saudi Arabia
- Research Center for Advanced Materials Science (RCAMS), King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Saad Aldawood
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. BOX 2455, 11451, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syed Mohammod Hossain
- Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission, Savar, Dhaka, 1349, Bangladesh
| | - Md Saiful Islam
- Department of Soil Science, Patuakhali Science and Technology University, Dumki, Patuakhali, 8602, Bangladesh
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Yang Y, Lu X, Fan P, Yu B, Wang L, Lei K, Zuo L. Multi-element features and trace metal sources of road sediment from a mega heavy industrial city in North China. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 311:137093. [PMID: 36332740 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
As the primary carrier of harmful elements, road sediment poses severe hazards to human health and ecological environment, especially in megacities. Based on the industrial cities in North China, this research focused on the multi-element features and the pollution levels, sources, and spatial distributions of trace metals in road sediment of Shijiazhuang. The mean levels of P (928.4 mg kg-1), S (1446.2 mg kg-1), Cl (783.9 mg kg-1), Br (5.3 mg kg-1), Na2O (2.0%), CaO (9.9%), Co (36.0 mg kg-1), Pb (38.0 mg kg-1), Cu (34.7 mg g-1), Zn (149.1 mg kg-1), Ba (518.1 mg kg-1), and Sr (224.9 mg kg-1) in road sediment were greater than their soil background values. Trace metals in most samples was moderately (75%) and heavily contaminated (15.6%). The industrial areas, congested roads, and residential areas in the northeast, middle and south of Shijiazhuang are the hotspots of trace metals pollution. A comprehensive analysis of trace metals sources indicated that Ni, V, Ga, Rb, Y, Sc, La, Ce, Zr, and Hf were mainly from natural source, which contributed to 34.2% of the total trace metals concentrations. Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Ba, Sr, and Mn primarily originated from mixed source, which accounted for 46.5%. Co principally came from building source, which accounted for 19.3%. This study shows that industrial discharges, construction dust and traffic emissions are the primary anthropogenic sources of trace metals in road sediment in the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufan Yang
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Xinwei Lu
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China.
| | - Peng Fan
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Bo Yu
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Lingqing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Kai Lei
- School of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Xi'an University, Xi'an 710065, China
| | - Ling Zuo
- Department of Environmental Science, School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
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Abou-Ghanem M, Nodeh-Farahani D, McGrath DT, VandenBoer TC, Styler SA. Emerging investigator series: ozone uptake by urban road dust and first evidence for chlorine activation during ozone uptake by agro-based anti-icer: implications for wintertime air quality in high-latitude urban environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:2070-2084. [PMID: 36044235 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00393c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
High-latitude urban regions provide a unique and complex range of environmental surfaces for uptake of trace pollutant gases, including winter road maintenance materials (e.g., gravel, rock salts, and anti-icer, a saline solution applied to roads during winter). In an effort to reduce the negative environmental and economic impacts of road salts, many municipalities have turned to agro-based anti-icing materials that are rich in organic material. To date, the reactivity of both anti-icer and saline road dust with pollutant gases remain unexplored, which limits our ability to assess the potential impacts of these materials on air quality in high-latitude regions. Here, we used a coated-wall flow tube to investigate the uptake of ozone, an important air pollutant, by road dust collected in Edmonton, Canada. At 25% relative humidity (RH) and 50 ppb ozone, γBET for ozone uptake by this sample is (8.0 ± 0.7) × 10-8 under dark conditions and (2.1 ± 0.1) × 10-7 under illuminated conditions. These values are 2-4× higher than those previously obtained by our group for natural mineral dusts, but are not large enough for suspended road dust to influence local ozone mixing ratios. In a separate set of experiments, we also investigated the uptake of ozone by calcium chloride (i.e., road salt) and commercial anti-icer solution. Although ozone uptake by pure calcium chloride was negligible, ozone uptake by anti-icer was significant, which implies that the reactivity of anti-icer is conferred by its organic content. Importantly, ozone uptake by anti-icer-and, to a lesser extent, road dust doped with anti-icer-leads to the release of inorganic chlorine gas, which we collected using inline reductive trapping and quantified using ion chromatography. To explain these results, we propose a novel pathway for chlorine activation: here, ozone oxidation of the anti-icer organic fraction (in this case, molasses) yields reactive OH radicals that can oxidize chloride. In summary, this study demonstrates the ability of road dust and anti-icer to influence atmospheric oxidant mixing ratios in cold-climate urban areas, and highlights previously unidentified air quality impacts of winter road maintenance decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Abou-Ghanem
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Devon T McGrath
- Department of Chemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
| | | | - Sarah A Styler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
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Yang X, Eziz M, Hayrat A, Ma X, Yan W, Qian K, Li J, Liu Y, Wang Y. Heavy Metal Pollution and Risk Assessment of Surface Dust in the Arid NW China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13296. [PMID: 36293878 PMCID: PMC9603297 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
High concentrations of heavy metals (HMs) in urban surface dust (USD) can be extremely hazardous to urban ecology and human health. Oasis cities are located at the edge of deserts and are more exposed to salt/sandstorms, and they face a significantly higher accumulation of USD than wet or semi-humid areas. However, systematic studies on the pollution and risk assessment of HMs in USD in oasis cities have rarely been conducted. This study systematically analyzed the enrichment status, spatial distribution, pollution levels, health risks, and sources of HMs in USD in a typical oasis city (Changji city). The results showed that the average concentrations of Pb, Ni, As, Cd, Hg, and Cu in the USD of Changji city were 46.83, 26.35, 9.92, 0.21, 0.047, and 59.33 mg/kg, respectively, and the results of the pollution index evaluation showed moderate Pb, Hg, and Cu pollution, mild Cd pollution, and no Ni or As pollution. The spatial distribution of HM concentrations in the USD was substantially heterogeneous. High values of Pb, Hg, and Cu concentrations were mainly observed in areas with relatively intensive transportation and commercial activities, and high values of Cd and Ni were observed in industrial areas. The health risk assessment showed that HMs do not pose non-carcinogenic risks to humans at their current level, but they pose a carcinogenic risk to children, with As contributing the largest carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks. The source identification of HMs showed that the main pollution of HMs were traffic sources for Pb and Cu, industrial sources for Ni and Cd, natural sources for As, and coal-fired sources for Hg. According to the results of the quantitative analysis with the positive matrix factorization, the contribution of pollution sources followed this order: industrial sources (31.08%) > traffic sources (26.80%) > coal-fired sources (23.31%) > natural sources (18.81%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuyun Yang
- College of Geographical Science and Tourism, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi 830054, China
- China State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - Mamattursun Eziz
- College of Geographical Science and Tourism, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Adila Hayrat
- College of Geographical Science and Tourism, Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi 830054, China
| | - Xiaofei Ma
- China State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
- Research Centre for Ecology and Environment of CA, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - Wei Yan
- School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang 464000, China
| | - Kaixuan Qian
- China State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - Jiaxin Li
- China State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Smart City and Environment Modelling of Higher Education Institute, College of Resources and Environment Science, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830046, China
| | - Yifan Wang
- School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang 464000, China
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Mohammed S, Mohammed FK. Pollution characteristics, risk assessment, and source apportionment of potentially toxic elements in road dust at two industrial parks in Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2022; 194:445. [PMID: 35604459 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-10109-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Potentially toxic elements can enter the environment through natural and anthropogenic processes, with the latter considered the primary contributor. Road dust samples from two industrial parks on the island of Trinidad were investigated for heavy metal content, and the pollution status, potential health risks, and source apportionment were evaluated. Samples were acid-digested and analysed by flame atomic absorption spectroscopy. The average levels of cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, lead, and zinc in road dust at the Frederick Settlement Industrial Park were 1.14 μg/g, 15.13 μg/g, 66.42 μg/g, 768.49 μg/g, 37.95 μg/g, 55.90 μg/g, and 573.04 μg/g, respectively, while average concentrations at the O'Meara Industrial Park were 1.20 μg/g, 16.97 μg/g, 42.72 μg/g, 482.65 μg/g, 21.12 μg/g, 136.77 μg/g, and 358.70 μg/g, respectively. Contamination assessments evaluated both Fredrick Settlement and O'Meara as typically uncontaminated to moderately polluted, with the overall ecological risk deemed low at all locations. Hazard index values at all sampling areas were lower than 1, indicating no potential non-carcinogenic risks to children or adults, while the carcinogenic exposure risks for cadmium, chromium, and nickel were considered low. Principal component analysis and cluster analysis revealed two main sources of contamination for Fredrick Settlement, and three main sources for O'Meara. Based on the groupings obtained, the presence of potentially toxic elements was attributed primarily to specific anthropogenic activities within the industrial parks, with lesser contributions from vehicular-related sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saleema Mohammed
- Department of Chemistry, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
| | - Faisal K Mohammed
- Department of Chemistry, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago.
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Luo W, Deng Z, Zhong S, Deng M. Trends, Issues and Future Directions of Urban Health Impact Assessment Research: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19105957. [PMID: 35627492 PMCID: PMC9141375 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19105957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Health impact assessment (HIA) has been regarded as an important means and tool for urban planning to promote public health and further promote the integration of health concept. This paper aimed to help scientifically to understand the current situation of urban HIA research, analyze its discipline co-occurrence, publication characteristics, partnership, influence, keyword co-occurrence, co-citation, and structural variation. Based on the ISI Web database, this paper used a bibliometric method to analyze 2215 articles related to urban HIA published from 2012 to 2021. We found that the main research directions in the field were Environmental Sciences and Public Environmental Occupational Health; China contributed most articles, the Tehran University of Medical Sciences was the most influential institution, Science of the Total Environment was the most influential journal, Yousefi M was the most influential author. The main hotspots include health risk assessment, source appointment, contamination, exposure, particulate matter, heavy metals and urban soils in 2012–2021; road dust, source apposition, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, air pollution, urban topsoil and the north China plain were always hot research topics in 2012–2021, drinking water and water quality became research topics of great concern in 2017–2021. There were 25 articles with strong transformation potential during 2020–2021, but most papers carried out research on the health risk assessment of toxic elements in soil and dust. Finally, we also discussed the limitations of this paper and the direction of bibliometric analysis of urban HIA in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbing Luo
- School of Business, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China; (W.L.); (Z.D.)
- School of Accounting, Hunan University of Technology and Business, Changsha 410205, China
| | - Zhongping Deng
- School of Business, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China; (W.L.); (Z.D.)
| | - Shihu Zhong
- Shanghai National Accounting Institute, Shanghai 201702, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Mingjun Deng
- Big Data and Intelligent Decision Research Center, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan 411201, China;
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Moskovchenko D, Pozhitkov R, Ukarkhanova D. Geochemistry of street dust in Tyumen, Russia: influence of traffic load. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:31180-31197. [PMID: 35001261 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-18013-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates the elemental composition, organic carbon content, pH values, and particle size characteristics in 50 road dust samples collected from Tyumen, a large city in Western Siberia (Russia). The content of 62 major and trace elements was studied using atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES) и inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP-MS). It was revealed that the dust has an alkaline reaction pH = 7.4-10.2 and low organic carbon content (0.07-2.9%). The grain size distribution of the road dust samples revealed that the predominant grain size fraction was of 100-250 μm. The content of small particles (PM2 and PM10) representing the greatest environmental hazard is minimal on roads with an average traffic intensity. Studies have shown that the main road dust pollutants in Tyumen are Ni, Sb, Cr, Zn, and Co. The average geoaccumulation index (Igeo) values are ranked as Ni (2.2) > Sb (1.5) > Cr (1.3) > Zn (0.4) > Co (0.4) > Cu (0.2). The contamination evaluation through enrichment factor (EF) calculation showed that road dust is highly enriched in Ni and significantly in Cr and Sb. More than 80% of Zn, Co, and Cu and more than 90% of Ni, Sb, and Cr come from anthropogenic sources. The average concentration of Ni and Cr in the road dust of Tyumen is one order of magnitude higher than in other cities of the Earth where similar studies were carried out. The high Ni content is associated with the composition of local soils and roadways, increased content in vehicle exhaust gasses, and abrasion of metal parts. Calculations of the total enrichment index Ze showed that the level of road dust pollution in most of Tyumen's territory is hazardous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy Moskovchenko
- Tyumen Scientific Centre, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Malygina st., 86, Tyumen, 625026, Russia.
| | - Roman Pozhitkov
- Tyumen Scientific Centre, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Malygina st., 86, Tyumen, 625026, Russia
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Chen L, Wang J, Beiyuan J, Guo X, Wu H, Fang L. Environmental and health risk assessment of potentially toxic trace elements in soils near uranium (U) mines: A global meta-analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 816:151556. [PMID: 34752878 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Soil pollution by potentially toxic trace elements (PTEs) near uranium (U) mines arouses a growing interest worldwide. However, nearly all studies have focused on a single site or only a few sites, which may not fully represent the soil pollution status at the global scale. In this study, data of U, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Mn, and Ni contents in U mine-associated soils were collected and screened from published articles (2006-2021). Assessments of pollution levels, distributions, ecological, and human health risks of the nine PTEs were analysed. The results revealed that the average contents of the U, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn, As, Mn, and Ni were 39.88-, 55.33-, 0.88-, 3.81-, 3.12-, 3.07-, 9.26-, 1.83-, and 1.17-fold greater than those in the upper continental crust, respectively. The pollution assessment showed that most of the studied soils were heavily polluted by U and Cd. Among them, the U mine-associated soils in France, Portugal, and Bulgaria exhibited significantly higher pollution levels of U and Cd when compared to other regions. The average potential ecological risk value for all PTEs was 3358.83, which indicated the presence of remarkably high risks. Among the PTEs, Cd and U contributed more to the potential ecological risk than the other elements. The health risk assessment showed that oral ingestion was the main exposure route for soil PTEs; and the hazard index (HI) values for children were higher than those for adult males and females. For adult males and females, all hazard index values for the noncarcinogenic risks were below the safe level of 1.00. For children, none of the HI values exceeded the safe level, with the exception of U (HI = 3.56) and As (HI = 1.83), but Cu presented unacceptable carcinogenic risks. This study provides a comprehensive analysis that demonstrates the urgent necessity for treating PTE pollution in U mine-associated soils worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation CAS and MWR, Yangling 712100, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Quaternary Science and Global Change, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Jingzhe Wang
- MNR Key Laboratory for Geo-Environmental Monitoring of Great Bay Area & Guangdong Key Laboratory of Urban Informatics & Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Spatial Smart Sensing and Services, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Jingzi Beiyuan
- School of Environment and Chemical Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Xuetao Guo
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Hao Wu
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 420100, China
| | - Linchuan Fang
- State Key Laboratory of soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau, Institute of Soil and Water Conservation CAS and MWR, Yangling 712100, China; CAS Center for Excellence in Quaternary Science and Global Change, Xi'an 710061, China.
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Tashakor M, Modabberi S, Argyraki A. Assessing the contamination level, sources and risk of potentially toxic elements in urban soil and dust of Iranian cities using secondary data of published literature. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2022; 44:645-675. [PMID: 34115271 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-021-00994-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Research in urban geochemistry has been expanding globally in recent years, following the trend of the ever-increasing human population living in cities. Environmental problems caused by non-degradable pollutants such as metals and metalloids are of particular interest considering the potential to affect the health of current and future urban residents. In comparison with the extensive global research on urban geochemistry, Iranian cities have not received sufficient study. However, rapid and often uncontrolled urban expansion in Iran over recent years has contributed to an increasing number of studies concerning contamination of urban soil and dust. The present work is based on a comprehensive nationwide evaluation and intercomparison of published quantitative datasets to determine the contamination levels of Iranian cities with respect to potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and assess health risks for urban population. Calculation of geoaccumulation, pollution, and integrated pollution indices facilitated the identification of the elements of most concern in the cities, while both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks have been assessed using a widely accepted health-risk model. The analysis of secondary, literature data revealed a trend of contamination, particularly in old and industrial cities with some alarming levels of health risks. Among the elements of concern, As, Cd, Cu, and Pb were found to be most enriched in soils and dusts of the studied cities based on the calculated geochemical indices. The necessity of designing strategic plans to mitigate possible adverse effects of elevated PTE concentrations in urban environments is emphasized considering the role of long-term exposure in the occurrence of chronic carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahsa Tashakor
- School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, 16th Azar St., Tehran, Iran.
| | - Soroush Modabberi
- School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, 16th Azar St., Tehran, Iran
| | - Ariadne Argyraki
- Department of Geology and Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zographou, 15784, Athens, Greece
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Influence of Plastic Waste on the Workability and Mechanical Behaviour of Asphalt Concrete. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12042146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The use of plastic waste as a bitumen extender added throughout the manufacturing process of asphalt concrete contributes value to that type of waste. Moreover, this type of polymer can improve some mechanical properties of asphalt concrete without weakening its workability and other mechanical characteristics too much. The study aimed to address these issues for four types of plastic waste, using different plastic contents added by the dry process and compared the results with a conventional mixture without plastic. A set of laboratory tests, such as volumetric parameter evaluation, the Marshall, gyratory compactor, and indirect tensile tests, repetitive four-point bending; and repetitive compression, assessed the workability and mechanical behavior of the studied materials. The results show that, although the addition of plastic waste reduces workability, the asphalt concrete retains satisfactory handling conditions. By adding plastic waste, the asphalt concrete becomes more elastic, and the stiffness values of the material are adequate to apply the material in a pavement surface layer. The resistance to fatigue cracking was at a suitable level for the asphalt mixtures studied. Adding the plastic waste in the study generally improved resistance to permanent deformation, although the performance was plastic type and content dependent.
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Cai K, Li C. Ecological Risk, Input Flux, and Source of Heavy Metals in the Agricultural Plain of Hebei Province, China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:2288. [PMID: 35206489 PMCID: PMC8872327 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19042288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A large amount of heavy metal (HM) inputs exists in the farming areas of the Hebei plain of northern China. However, the potential ecological risk, source, and input flux of HMs in these areas have not been well-investigated. In this study, atmospheric deposition, fertilizer, irrigation water, and agricultural soil samples were collected from farming areas (~74,111 km2) in Hebei Province, China. The HM index of geoaccumulation (Igeo) and potential ecological risk index (RI) of soil was calculated for eight HMs. The source and input flux of each element were predicted using the input flux and principal component score-multiple linear regression (PCS-MLR) methods. The results showed that Cd and Hg increased Igeo values, and the maximum levels of As (29.5 mg/kg), Cu (228.9 mg/kg), Cd (4.52 mg/kg), and Zn (879.0 mg/kg) were greater than the health risk screening values in the soil quality standard of China. The potential ecological risk factor (Er) of Cd demonstrated a moderately potential ecological risk, accounting for 67.72%. The distribution map showed that Cd was mainly concentrated in eastern area of Baoding (BD) in the study area. The result of the atmospheric dry and wet deposition contributed more to soil pollution than the usage of fertilizer or irrigation water by calculating the input flux. The order was Zn (94%) > Cu (92%) > Pb (89%) > Cr (86%) > Cd (72%) > Hg = Ni (71%) > As (59%). Principal component analysis (PCA) results showed that there were four sources of HMs in soil. Geological sources contribute to the accumulation of As, Cr, and Ni in soil. Cu and Pb in the soil were attributable to the input from vehicular emissions and irrigation water. Cd and Zn in the soil were attributable to the farming activity, whereas Hg originates from the combustion of coal. The results of PCS-MLR demonstrated that the contribution rate of As, Ni, and Cr in the study area was 30.06%, 71.86%, 57.71% for the first group (natural source); Cu, Pb and Zn were 71.78%, 63.59%, and 30.72% for the second group (vehicle emissions); Zn was 60.93% for the third group (fertilizer application and irrigation water); and Hg was 85.16%, for the fourth group (coal combustion). These factors provide a valuable reference for remediating HM pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kui Cai
- Institute of Geological Survey, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang 050031, China;
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Strategic Critical Mineral Resources, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang 050031, China
| | - Chang Li
- School of Economics and Management, Hebei University of Science & Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, China
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The Content and Sources of Potentially Toxic Elements in the Road Dust of Surgut (Russia). ATMOSPHERE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The chemical and particle size composition of road dust in Surgut, which is a rapidly developing city in Western Siberia, was studied for the first time. Contents of major and trace elements were determined using ICP-MS and ICP-AES, respectively. It was found that the road dust had an alkaline pH (from 7.54 to 9.38) and that the particle size composition was dominated by the 100–250-μm fraction. The contamination assessment based on calculations of the enrichment factor (EF) showed that the road dust was significantly enriched in Sb and Cu and moderately enriched in Zn, Pb, Mo, Ni and W. The sources of these elements are probably associated with the abrasion of car tires and brake pads. Based on calculations of global pollution index (PIr) and total enrichment factor (Ze), the road dust of Surgut was characterized by a generally low level of potential ecological risk, except for stretches of road subject to regular traffic jams, where a moderate ecological risk level was identified. In comparison to the other Russian cities (Moscow, Chelyabinsk, Tyumen, etc.) where studies of road dust composition have been carried out, Surgut had similar contents of Cr and Cu and relatively lower contents of Sb, Cd, As and Pb.
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Zhao G, Zhang R, Han Y, Meng J, Qiao Q, Li H. Pollution characteristics, spatial distribution, and source identification of heavy metals in road dust in a central eastern city in China: a comprehensive survey. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2021; 193:796. [PMID: 34773145 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-021-09584-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Road dust enriched with heavy metals (HMs) is detrimental to ecosystems and human health in urban environments. In this study, it is to explore the concentrations, spatial distribution, contaminated levels, and source identification of six HMs (lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni)) based on 130 road dusts in Xinyang urban area. The results indicated that the contents of Pb, Zn, Cu, and Co were higher than the background values in more than 99% of the samples, and their average concentrations were 15.2, 9.2, 8.6, and 6.3 times the background value, respectively. The spatial distribution of high-value areas for Pb, Zn, Cu, Cr, and Ni was more similar, which was associated with traffic density near major roads and population and settlement patterns. Co was relatively different from the five elements, which was distributed in the areas of residence, commerce, and industry. Furthermore, the investigated HMs were clearly polluted, with Pb, Zn, Cu, and Co indicating high levels of contamination, while Cr and Ni were moderately polluted. The comprehensive pollution of the six HMs was mostly moderate to heavy in this study. Moreover, three sources of HMs designated by correlation analysis (CA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were mixed traffic emissions and industrial waste for Cu and Cr; automotive emissions for Pb, Ni, and Zn; and mixed domestic waste and industrial activities for Co, with contributions of 42.3%, 46.4%, and 11.3% via the principal component analysis-multiple linear regression (PCA-MLR) model. The multi-factor index for pollution assessment combined with source identification is extremely effective and practical for providing reliable data support and a theoretical reference for pollution monitoring and governance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoyong Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China
- State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, CAS, Xian, Shanxi, 710054, China
| | - Ronglei Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China
| | - Yan Han
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China.
| | - Jianing Meng
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China
| | - Qiang Qiao
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China
| | - Hetan Li
- Key Laboratory for Synergistic Prevention of Water and Soil Environmental Pollution (Henan Province), School of Geographic Sciences, Xinyang Normal University, Henan, 464000, China
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Suhaimi NF, Jalaludin J, Abu Bakar S. The Influence of Traffic-Related Air Pollution (TRAP) in Primary Schools and Residential Proximity to Traffic Sources on Histone H3 Level in Selected Malaysian Children. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18157995. [PMID: 34360284 PMCID: PMC8345469 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18157995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the association between traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) exposure and histone H3 modification among school children in high-traffic (HT) and low-traffic (LT) areas in Malaysia. Respondents' background information and personal exposure to traffic sources were obtained from questionnaires distributed to randomly selected school children. Real-time monitoring instruments were used for 6-h measurements of PM10, PM2.5, PM1, NO2, SO2, O3, CO, and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC). Meanwhile, 24-h measurements of PM2.5-bound black carbon (BC) were performed using air sampling pumps. The salivary histone H3 level was captured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). HT schools had significantly higher PM10, PM2.5, PM1, BC, NO2, SO2, O3, CO, and TVOC than LT schools, all at p < 0.001. Children in the HT area were more likely to get higher histone H3 levels (z = -5.13). There were positive weak correlations between histone H3 level and concentrations of NO2 (r = 0.37), CO (r = 0.36), PM1 (r = 0.35), PM2.5 (r = 0.34), SO2 (r = 0.34), PM10 (r = 0.33), O3 (r = 0.33), TVOC (r = 0.25), and BC (r = 0.19). Overall, this study proposes the possible role of histone H3 modification in interpreting the effects of TRAP exposure via non-genotoxic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Faseeha Suhaimi
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Juliana Jalaludin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
- Department of Occupational Health and Safety, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-97692401
| | - Suhaili Abu Bakar
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
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Phan Dinh Q, Addai-Arhin S, Jeong H, Cahya Nugraha W, Viet PH, Tominaga N, Ishibashi Y, Arizono K. Human health risk of mercury in street dust: A case study of children in the vicinity of compact fluorescence lamp factory, Hanoi, Vietnam. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 42:371-379. [PMID: 34288012 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Urban dust has been contaminated with toxic heavy metals from various diffused sources. On August 28, 2019, the compact fluorescence lamp (CFL) factory that generates light for Rang Dong Light Source and Vacuum Flask in Hanoi City in Vietnam was accidentally fired. The assessment for Hg contamination and its human health impact 2 months after the incident was conducted in autumn 2019. The heavy Hg pollution is still found near CFL. Additionally, localized Hg pollution by air and wind direction was identified at sites in the northeast direction from CFL. Namely, in the area located downstream of the southwest monsoon wind, Hg had a trend higher than other directions. The hazard quotient (HQ) and the hazard index (HI) were evaluated by four routes of Hg exposure pathways. The HI values for children and adults in the most polluted site (Site 15) were 0.968 and 0.468, respectively. This meant that children who lived around this site and commuted to schools were the most at risk regarding the potential adverse health effects of Hg in street dust around the polluted areas. This study also showed that Hg levels were affected by wind direction and that the higher Hg levels in the most polluted sites resulted from the wind flow to the sites. This study revealed that street dust may be a useful tool for the assessment of human and environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quang Phan Dinh
- Graduate School of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan.,VNU University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Sylvester Addai-Arhin
- Graduate School of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Huiho Jeong
- Graduate School of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Willy Cahya Nugraha
- Graduate School of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Pham Hung Viet
- VNU University of Science, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Nobuaki Tominaga
- Department of Creative Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Ariake College, Omuta, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Ishibashi
- Faculty of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Koji Arizono
- Faculty of Environmental and Symbiotic Sciences, Prefectural University of Kumamoto, Kumamoto, Japan
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16
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Dahmardeh Behrooz R, Kaskaoutis DG, Grivas G, Mihalopoulos N. Human health risk assessment for toxic elements in the extreme ambient dust conditions observed in Sistan, Iran. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:127835. [PMID: 32763581 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluates the bioaccessibility and health risks related to heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn and metalloid As) in airborne dust samples (TSP and PM2.5) in Zabol, Iran during the summer dust period, when peak concentration levels of PM are typically observed. High bioaccessibilities of carcinogenic metals in PM2.5 (i.e. 53.3%, 48.6% and 47.6% for Ni, Cr and As, respectively) were calculated. The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks were assessed for three exposure pathways (inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact), separately for children and adults. Non-carcinogenic inhalation risks were very high (Hazard Index: HI > 1) both for children and adults, while the carcinogenic risks were above the upper acceptable threshold of 10-4 for adults and marginally close (5.0-8.4 × 10-5) for children. High carcinogenic risks (>10-4) were found for the ingestion pathway both for children and adults, while HI values > 1 (8.2) were estimated for children. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk estimates for dermal contact were also above the limits considered acceptable, except for the carcinogenic risk for children (7.6 × 10-5). Higher non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks (integrated for all elements) were associated with the inhalation pathway in adults and children with the exception of carcinogenic risk for children, where the ingestion route remains the most important, while As was linked with the highest risks for nearly all exposure pathways. A comparative evaluation shows that health risks related with toxic elements in airborne particles in Sistan are among the highest reported in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reza Dahmardeh Behrooz
- Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Natural Resources, University of Zabol, P.O. Box 98615-538, Zabol, Iran.
| | - D G Kaskaoutis
- Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, 15236, P. Penteli, Greece; Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete, 71003, Crete, Greece
| | - G Grivas
- Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, 15236, P. Penteli, Greece
| | - N Mihalopoulos
- Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development, National Observatory of Athens, 15236, P. Penteli, Greece; Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete, 71003, Crete, Greece
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Othman M, Latif MT, Jamhari AA, Abd Hamid HH, Uning R, Khan MF, Mohd Nadzir MS, Sahani M, Abdul Wahab MI, Chan KM. Spatial distribution of fine and coarse particulate matter during a southwest monsoon in Peninsular Malaysia. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:127767. [PMID: 32763576 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the spatial distribution of PM2.5 and PM10 collected in four regions (North, Central, South and East Coast) of Peninsular Malaysia during the southwest monsoon. Concurrent measurements of PM2.5 and PM10 were performed using a high volume sampler (HVS) for 24 h (August to September 2018) collecting a total of 104 samples. All samples were then analysed for water soluble inorganic ions (WSII) using ion chromatography, trace metals using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs) using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). The results showed that the highest average PM2.5 concentration during the sampling campaign was in the North region (33.2 ± 5.3 μg m-3) while for PM10 the highest was in the Central region (38.6 ± 7.70 μg m-3). WSII recorded contributions of 22% for PM2.5 and 20% for PM10 mass, with SO42- the most abundant species with average concentrations of 1.83 ± 0.42 μg m-3 (PM2.5) and 2.19 ± 0.27 μg m-3 (PM10). Using a Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) model, soil fertilizer (23%) was identified as the major source of PM2.5 while industrial activity (25%) was identified as the major source of PM10. Overall, the studied metals had hazard quotients (HQ) value of <1 indicating a very low risk of non-carcinogenic elements while the highest excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was recorded for Cr VI in the South region with values of 8.4E-06 (PM2.5) and 6.6E-05 (PM10). The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) calculated from the PAH concentrations was within the acceptable range for all regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murnira Othman
- Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Mohd Talib Latif
- Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Anas Ahmad Jamhari
- Centre for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Haris Hafizal Abd Hamid
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Royston Uning
- Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Md Firoz Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Shahrul Mohd Nadzir
- Department of Earth Sciences and Environment, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mazrura Sahani
- Centre for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Ikram Abdul Wahab
- Centre for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kok Meng Chan
- Centre for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Jalan Raja Muda Abdul Aziz, 50300, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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