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Turnaturi R, Piana S, Spoto S, Costanzo G, Reina L, Pasquinucci L, Parenti C. From Plant to Chemistry: Sources of Active Opioid Antinociceptive Principles for Medicinal Chemistry and Drug Design. Molecules 2023; 28:7089. [PMID: 37894567 PMCID: PMC10609244 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28207089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain continues to be an enormous global health challenge, with millions of new untreated or inadequately treated patients reported annually. With respect to current clinical applications, opioids remain the mainstay for the treatment of pain, although they are often associated with serious side effects. To optimize their tolerability profiles, medicinal chemistry continues to study novel ligands and innovative approaches. Among them, natural products are known to be a rich source of lead compounds for drug discovery, and they hold potential for pain management. Traditional medicine has had a long history in clinical practice due to the fact that nature provides a rich source of active principles. For instance, opium had been used for pain management until the 19th century when its individual components, such as morphine, were purified and identified. In this review article, we conducted a literature survey aimed at identifying natural products interacting either directly with opioid receptors or indirectly through other mechanisms controlling opioid receptor signaling, whose structures could be interesting from a drug design perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Turnaturi
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Silvia Piana
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Salvatore Spoto
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.S.); (C.P.)
| | - Giuliana Costanzo
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 97, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Lorena Reina
- Postgraduate School of Clinical Pharmacology, Toxicology University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia n. 97, 95100 Catania, Italy;
| | - Lorella Pasquinucci
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Medicinal Chemistry Section, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy;
| | - Carmela Parenti
- Department of Drug and Health Sciences, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Catania, 95125 Catania, Italy; (S.S.); (C.P.)
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Sakamoto J, Kitajima M, Ishikawa H. Asymmetric Total Syntheses of Mitragynine, Speciogynine, and 7-Hydroxymitragynine. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2022; 70:662-668. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c22-00441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jukiya Sakamoto
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
| | - Mariko Kitajima
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
| | - Hayato Ishikawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University
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Mathada BS, Somappa SB. An insight into the recent developments in anti-infective potential of indole and associated hybrids. J Mol Struct 2022; 1261:132808. [PMID: 35291692 PMCID: PMC8913251 DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.132808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Prevention, accurate diagnosis, and effective treatment of infections are the main challenges in the overall management of infectious diseases. The best example is the ongoing SARs-COV-2(COVID-19) pandemic; the entire world is extremely worried about at present. Interestingly, heterocyclic moieties provide an ideal scaffold on which suitable pharmacophores can be designed to construct novel drugs. Indoles are amongst the most essential class of heteroaromatics in medicinal chemistry, which are ubiquitous across natural sources. The aforesaid derivatives have become invaluable scaffolds because of their wide spectrum therapeutic applications. Therefore, many researchers are focused on the design and synthesis of indole and associated hybrids of biological relevance. Hence, in the present review, we concisely discuss the indole containing natural sources, marketed drugs, clinical candidates, and their biological activities like antibacterial, antifungal, anti-TB, antiviral, antimalarial, and anti-leishmanial activities. The structure-activity relationships study of indole derivatives is also presented for a better understanding of the identified structures. The literature data presented for the anti-infective agents herein covers largely for the last twelve years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sasidhar B Somappa
- Organic Chemistry Section, Chemical Sciences and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology (NIIST), Thiruvananthapuram 695 019, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, India
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Kamble SH, Berthold EC, Kanumuri SRR, King TI, Kuntz MA, León F, Mottinelli M, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Metabolism of Speciociliatine, an Overlooked Kratom Alkaloid for its Potential Pharmacological Effects. AAPS J 2022; 24:86. [PMID: 35854066 PMCID: PMC9932950 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-022-00736-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Speciociliatine, a diastereomer of mitragynine, is an indole-based alkaloid found in kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). Kratom has been widely used for the mitigation of pain and opioid dependence, as a mood enhancer, and/or as an energy booster. Speciociliatine is a partial µ-opioid agonist with a 3-fold higher binding affinity than mitragynine. Speciociliatine has been found to be a major circulating alkaloid in humans following oral administration of a kratom product. In this report, we have characterized the metabolism of speciociliatine in human and preclinical species (mouse, rat, dog, and cynomolgus monkey) liver microsomes and hepatocytes. Speciociliatine metabolized rapidly in monkey, rat, and mouse hepatocytes (in vitro half-life was 6.6 ± 0.2, 8.3 ± 1.1, 11.2 ± 0.7 min, respectively), while a slower metabolism was observed in human and dog hepatocytes (91.7 ± 12.8 and > 120 min, respectively). Speciociliatine underwent extensive metabolism, primarily through monooxidation and O-demethylation metabolic pathways in liver microsomes and hepatocytes across species. No human-specific or disproportionate metabolites of speciociliatine were found in human liver microsomes. The metabolism of speciociliatine was predominantly mediated by CYP3A4 with minor contributions by CYP2D6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam H. Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Erin C. Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tamara I. King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michelle A. Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA,Corresponding Author Abhisheak Sharma, M. Pharm., Ph.D., UF CTSI, Translational Drug Development Core, Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. , Phone: 352-294-8690, Christopher R. McCurdy, Ph.D., FAAPS, UF CTSI, Translational Drug Development Core, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA. , Phone: 352-294-8691
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA. .,Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610, USA.
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Nukitram J, Cheaha D, Sengnon N, Wungsintaweekul J, Limsuwanchote S, Kumarnsit E. Ameliorative effects of alkaloid extract from Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Leaves on methamphetamine conditioned place preference in mice. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 284:114824. [PMID: 34763040 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil., popularly known as Kratom (KT), is a medicinal plant used for pain suppression in Southeast Asia. It has been claimed to assist drug users withdraw from methamphetamine (METH) dependence. However, its use was controversial and not approved yet. AIM OF THE STUDY This study was conducted to characterize local field potential (LFP) patterns in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the hippocampus (HP) in mice with METH conditioned place preference (CPP) that were treated with KT alkaloid extract. MATERIALS AND METHODS Male Swiss albino ICR mice were implanted with intracraneal electrodes into the NAc and HP. To induce METH CPP, animals were injected intraperitoneally once a day with METH (1 mg/kg) and saline (0.9% w/v) alternately and put into METH/saline compartments to experience the associations between drug/saline injection and the unique environmental contexts for 10 sessions. Control group received saline injection paired with both saline/saline compartments. On post-conditioning day, effects of 40 (KT40), 80 (KT80) mg/kg KT alkaloid extract and 20 mg/kg bupropion (BP) on CPP scores and LFP powers and NAc-HP coherence were tested. RESULTS Two-way ANOVA revealed significant induction of CPP by METH sessions (P < 0.01). Multiple comparisons indicated that METH CPP was completely abolished by KT80 (P < 0.001). NAc gamma I (30.0-44.9 Hz) and HP delta (1.0-3.9 Hz) powers were significantly increased in mice with METH CPP (P < 0.01). The elevated NAc gamma I was significantly suppressed by KT80 (P < 0.05) and the increased HP delta was significantly reversed by KT40 (P < 0.01) and KT80 (P < 0.001). In addition, NAc-HP coherence was also significantly increased in gamma I (30.0-44.9 Hz) frequency range (P < 0.05) but it was reversed by KT80 (P < 0.05). Treatment with BP did not produce significant effect on these parameters. CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrated that KT alkaloid extract significantly reversed CPP scores and LFP patterns induced by METH administration. The ameliorative effects of the extract might be beneficial for treatment of METH craving and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakkrit Nukitram
- Physiology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Dania Cheaha
- Biology Program, Division of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Narumon Sengnon
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Juraithip Wungsintaweekul
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Supattra Limsuwanchote
- Pharmacology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Ekkasit Kumarnsit
- Physiology Program, Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand; Biosignal Research Center for Health, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai Campus, Hatyai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand.
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Sakamoto J, Ishikawa H. Bioinspired Transformations Using Strictosidine Aglycones: Divergent Total Syntheses of Monoterpenoid Indole Alkaloids in the Early Stage of Biosynthesis. Chemistry 2021; 28:e202104052. [PMID: 34854134 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202104052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A series of bioinspired transformations that are applied to convert strictosidine aglycones into monoterpenoid indole alkaloids is reported. The highly reactive key intermediates, strictosidine aglycones, were prepared in situ by simple removal of a silyl protecting group from the silyl ether derivatives, and converted selectively via bioinspired transformations under substrate control into heteroyohimbine- and corynantheine-type, and akagerine and naucleaoral related alkaloids. Thus, concise, divergent total syntheses of 13 monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, (-)-cathenamine, (-)-tetrahydroalstonine, (+)-dihydrocorynantheine, (-)-corynantheidine, (-)-akagerine, (-)-dihydrocycloakagerine, (-)-naucleaoral B, (+)-naucleidinal, (-)-naucleofficines D and III, (-)-nauclefiline, and (-)-naucleamides A and E, were accomplished in fewer than 13 steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jukiya Sakamoto
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan
| | - Hayato Ishikawa
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 1-8-1, Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8675, Japan
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7
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León F, Obeng S, Mottinelli M, Chen Y, King TI, Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Restrepo LF, Patel A, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Lopera-Londoño C, Hiranita T, Sharma A, Hampson AJ, Canal CE, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Activity of Mitragyna speciosa ("Kratom") Alkaloids at Serotonin Receptors. J Med Chem 2021; 64:13510-13523. [PMID: 34467758 PMCID: PMC9235362 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Kratom alkaloids have mostly been evaluated for their opioid activity but less at other targets that could contribute to their physiological effects. Here, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo activity of kratom alkaloids at serotonin receptors (5-HTRs). Paynantheine and speciogynine exhibited high affinity for 5-HT1ARs and 5-HT2BRs, unlike the principal kratom alkaloid mitragynine. Both alkaloids produced antinociceptive properties in rats via an opioid receptor-independent mechanism, and neither activated 5-HT2BRs in vitro. Paynantheine, speciogynine, and mitragynine induced lower lip retraction and antinociception in rats, effects blocked by a selective 5-HT1AR antagonist. In vitro functional assays revealed that the in vivo 5-HT1AR agonistic effects may be due to the metabolites 9-O-desmethylspeciogynine and 9-O-desmethylpaynantheine and not the parent compounds. Both metabolites did not activate 5-HT2BR, suggesting low inherent risk of causing valvulopathy. The 5-HT1AR agonism by kratom alkaloids may contribute to the mood-enhancing effects associated with kratom use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Yiming Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Carolina Lopera-Londoño
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Aidan J Hampson
- Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Clinton E Canal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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Chear NJY, León F, Sharma A, Kanumuri SRR, Zwolinski G, Abboud KA, Singh D, Restrepo LF, Patel A, Hiranita T, Ramanathan S, Hampson AJ, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Exploring the Chemistry of Alkaloids from Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) and the Role of Oxindoles on Human Opioid Receptors. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:1034-1043. [PMID: 33635670 PMCID: PMC8693998 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Ten indole and oxindole alkaloids (1-10) were isolated from the freshly collected leaves of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom). The chemical structures of these compounds were established on the basis of extensive 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS data analysis. The spectroscopic data of mitragynine oxindole B (4) are reported herein for the first time. The spatial configuration of mitragynine oxindole B (4) was confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Simultaneous quantification of the isolated alkaloids in the M. speciosa leaf specimens collected from different locations in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia was also performed using UPLC-MS/MS. The oxindole alkaloids (1-4) and the indole alkaloid (10) were assessed for binding affinity at opioid receptors. Corynoxine (1) showed high binding affinity to μ-opioid receptors with a Ki value of 16.4 nM. Further, corynoxine (1) was 1.8-fold more potent than morphine in rats subjected to a nociceptive hot plate assay. These findings have important implications for evaluating the combined effects of the minor oxindole alkaloids in the overall therapeutic activity of M. speciosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Jeng-Yeou Chear
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Grant Zwolinski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Khalil A Abboud
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Aidan J Hampson
- Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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Kamble SH, Berthold EC, King TI, Raju Kanumuri SR, Popa R, Herting JR, León F, Sharma A, McMahon LR, Avery BA, McCurdy CR. Pharmacokinetics of Eleven Kratom Alkaloids Following an Oral Dose of Either Traditional or Commercial Kratom Products in Rats. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2021; 84:1104-1112. [PMID: 33620222 PMCID: PMC8694001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Kratom, Mitragyna speciosa Korth., is being widely consumed in the United States for pain management and the reduction of opioid withdrawal symptoms. The central nervous system (CNS) active alkaloids of kratom, including mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, and numerous additional compounds, are believed to derive their effects through opioid receptor activity. There is no literature describing the systemic exposure of many of these alkaloids after the consumption of kratom. Therefore, we have developed and validated a bioanalytical method for the simultaneous quantitation of 11 kratom alkaloids (mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, corynantheidine, speciogynine, speciociliatine, paynantheine, corynoxine, corynoxine-B, mitraphylline, ajmalicine, and isospeciofoline) in rat plasma. The validated method was used to analyze oral pharmacokinetic study samples of lyophilized kratom tea (LKT) and a marketed product, OPMS liquid shot, in rats. Among the 11 alkaloids, only mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine, speciociliatine, and corynantheidine showed systemic exposure 8 h postdose, and the dose-normalized systemic exposure of these four alkaloids was higher (1.6-2.4-fold) following the administration of the commercial OPMS liquid. Paynantheine and speciogynine levels were quantifiable up to 1 h postdose, whereas none of the other alkaloids were detected. In summary, the method was successfully applied to quantify the exposure of individual kratom alkaloids after an oral dose of traditional or commercial products. This information will contribute to understanding the role of each alkaloid in the overall pharmacology of kratom and elucidating the pharmacokinetic differences between traditional and commercial kratom products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Raluca Popa
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Julius R Herting
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Bonnie A Avery
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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Flores-Bocanegra L, Raja HA, Graf TN, Augustinović M, Wallace ED, Hematian S, Kellogg JJ, Todd DA, Cech NB, Oberlies NH. The Chemistry of Kratom [ Mitragyna speciosa]: Updated Characterization Data and Methods to Elucidate Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:2165-2177. [PMID: 32597657 PMCID: PMC7718854 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Two separate commercial products of kratom [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Rubiaceae] were used to generate reference standards of its indole and oxindole alkaloids. While kratom has been studied for over a century, the characterization data in the literature for many of the alkaloids are either incomplete or inconsistent with modern standards. As such, full 1H and 13C NMR spectra, along with HRESIMS and ECD data, are reported for alkaloids 1-19. Of these, four new alkaloids (7, 11, 17, and 18) were characterized using 2D NMR data, and the absolute configurations of 7, 17, and 18 were established by comparison of experimental and calculated ECD spectra. The absolute configuration for the N(4)-oxide (11) was established by comparison of NMR and ECD spectra of its reduced product with those for compound 7. In total, 19 alkaloids were characterized, including the indole alkaloid mitragynine (1) and its diastereoisomers speciociliatine (2), speciogynine (3), and mitraciliatine (4); the indole alkaloid paynantheine (5) and its diastereoisomers isopaynantheine (6) and epiallo-isopaynantheine (7); the N(4)-oxides mitragynine-N(4)-oxide (8), speciociliatine-N(4)-oxide (9), isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide (10), and epiallo-isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide (11); the 9-hydroxylated oxindole alkaloids speciofoline (12), isorotundifoleine (13), and isospeciofoleine (14); and the 9-unsubstituted oxindoles corynoxine A (15), corynoxine B (16), 3-epirhynchophylline (17), 3-epicorynoxine B (18), and corynoxeine (19). With the ability to analyze the spectroscopic data of all of these compounds concomitantly, a decision tree was developed to differentiate these kratom alkaloids based on a few key chemical shifts in the 1H and/or 13C NMR spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Flores-Bocanegra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Huzefa A Raja
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Tyler N Graf
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Mario Augustinović
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - E Diane Wallace
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Shabnam Hematian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Joshua J Kellogg
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Daniel A Todd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Nadja B Cech
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Nicholas H Oberlies
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
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11
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Basiliere S, Kerrigan S. Identification of metabolites and potential biomarkers of kratom in urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2020; 1140:121971. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2020.121971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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12
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Saref A, Suraya S, Singh D, Grundmann O, Narayanan S, Swogger MT, Prozialeck WC, Boyer E, Chear NJY, Balasingam V. Self-reported prevalence and severity of opioid and kratom (Mitragyna speciosa korth.) side effects. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 238:111876. [PMID: 31014959 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.111876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) is a traditional medicinal plant widely used in Southeast Asia for its opioid-like effects. Although kratom produces analgesia through binding of mitragynine and other alkaloids at the mu-opioid receptor (MOR), the association of long-term kratom use with adverse opioid-like effects remains unknown. AIM OF THE STUDY To determine the self-reported prevalence and severity of opioid-related adverse effects after kratom initiation in a cohort of illicit opioid users. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 163 illicit opioid users with current kratom use history were recruited through convenience sampling from the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia. Face-to-face interviews were conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire. RESULTS Respondents were all males, majority Malays (94%, n = 154/163), with a mean age of 37.10 years (SD = 10.9). Most were single (65%, n = 106/163), had 11 years of education (52%, n = 85/163) and employed (88%, n = 144/163). Half reported using kratom for over >6 years (50%, n = 81/163), and 41% consumed >3 glasses of kratom daily (n = 67/163). Results from Chi-square analysis showed kratom initiation was associated with decreased prevalence of respiratory depression, constipation, physical pain, insomnia, depression, loss of appetite, craving, decreased sexual performance, weight loss and fatigue. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that kratom initiation (approximately 214.29 mg of mitragynine) was associated with significant decreases in the prevalence and severity of opioid adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azlin Saref
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Sharifah Suraya
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 1345 Center Drive, Room P6-20, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
| | - Suresh Narayanan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Marc T Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Walter C Prozialeck
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL, USA, 60515
| | - Edward Boyer
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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13
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Sharma A, Kamble SH, León F, Chear NJY, King TI, Berthold EC, Ramanathan S, McCurdy CR, Avery BA. Simultaneous quantification of ten key Kratom alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa leaf extracts and commercial products by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1162-1171. [PMID: 30997725 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a psychoactive plant popular in the United States for the self-treatment of pain and opioid addiction. For standardization and quality control of raw and commercial kratom products, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the quantification of ten key alkaloids, namely: corynantheidine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, 7-hydroxymitragynine, isocorynantheidine, mitragynine, mitraphylline, paynantheine, speciociliatine, and speciogynine. Chromatographic separation of diastereomers, or alkaloids sharing same ion transitions, was achieved on an Acquity BEH C18 column with a gradient elution using a mobile phase containing acetonitrile and aqueous ammonium acetate buffer (10mM, pH 3.5). The developed method was linear over a concentration range of 1-200 ng/mL for each alkaloid. The total analysis time per sample was 22.5 minutes. The analytical method was validated for accuracy, precision, robustness, and stability. After successful validation, the method was applied for the quantification of kratom alkaloids in alkaloid-rich fractions, ethanolic extracts, lyophilized teas, and commercial products. Mitragynine (0.7%-38.7% w/w), paynantheine (0.3%-12.8% w/w), speciociliatine (0.4%-12.3% w/w), and speciogynine (0.1%-5.3% w/w) were the major alkaloids in the analyzed kratom products/extracts. Minor kratom alkaloids (corynantheidine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, 7-hydroxymitragynine, isocorynantheidine) were also quantified (0.01%-2.8% w/w) in the analyzed products; however mitraphylline was below the lower limit of quantification in all analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Nelson J-Y Chear
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Bonnie A Avery
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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14
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Singh D, Narayanan S, Müller CP, Swogger MT, Chear NJY, Dzulkapli EB, Yusoff NSM, Ramachandram DS, León F, McCurdy CR, Vicknasingam B. Motives for using Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) among regular users in Malaysia. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 233:34-40. [PMID: 30594604 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2018.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) or kratom have been traditionally used in Malaysia and Thailand mainly to enhance work productivity, as a folk remedy for treating common ailments, and as a mood enhancer. AIM OF THE STUDY This present study sought to investigate kratom use motives among regular kratom users in Malaysia. MATERIALS AND METHODS A total of 116 regular kratom users were recruited for this cross-sectional survey. The Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ) was administered to measure kratom use motives. RESULTS Our results indicate that heavy (>3 glasses daily, each glass contains 48.24-50.4 mg of mitragynine) kratom use was associated with coping (t87.09 =3.544, p < 0.001), and enhancement (t114 =2.180, p = 003). Single subjects had higher mean scores on the coping domain, relative to married subject (t113.89 =3.029, p < 0.003), while those earning more than RM1500 per month had higher mean scores on the enhancement domain, compare to those earning less than RM1500 per month (t107 =2.151, p < 0.034). Higher scores on the coping domain was significantly associated with higher (>3 glasses daily) kratom consumption (p < 0.0045). CONCLUSIONS Coping was associated with high (>3 glasses daily) kratom consumption among regular kratom users in traditional, rural settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, University Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Suresh Narayanan
- School of Social Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marc T Swogger
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical School, United States
| | | | - Eshal Bin Dzulkapli
- Centre for Drug Research, University Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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15
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Chemical constituents and nitric oxide inhibitory activity of supercritical carbon dioxide extracts from Mitragyna speciosa leaves. ARAB J CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2016.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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16
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Boffa L, Ghè C, Barge A, Muccioli G, Cravotto G. Alkaloid Profiles and Activity in Different Mitragyna speciosa Strains. Nat Prod Commun 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x1801300904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (K.) H. (Kratom) is a tree that possesses stimulant and opioid-like analgesic effects, and is indigenous to Southeast Asia and Indochina, where it has seen widespread use for hundreds of years. The principal pharmacologically active alkaloids in kratom leaves include mitragynine (MG), 7-hydroxymitragynine (HMG), speciociliatine (SC), speciogynine (SG) and paynantheine (P). The pharmacological effects induced and their potency can vary dramatically according to variations in the proportions of alkaloid compounds present, which are related to geographic origin, stage of maturity and ecotype. Much of the analgesic and opiate-like psychoactive effect of kratom has been associated with the MG and HMG detected in M. speciosa (K.). H. Five different strains of M. speciosa (K.) H., which present differing vein colours and geographic origin, have been studied herein; red vein strains from Thailand, Malaysia and Bali, named Red Thai, Red Malay and Red Bali, a white vein strain from Borneo (White Borneo) and a green vein strain from Malaysia (Green Malay) were included in the study. Plant leaves were extracted under magnetic stirring at room temperature in a MeOH/H2O 1:1 mixture. Purified alkaloids were isolated in a number of organic extraction steps, from either aqueous basic or acidic phases, that culminated in precipitation (yields between 0.94 and 1.43%). These samples have been analysed using HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS to optimize the identification and quantification of the principal alkaloids present in the different strains. 24 alkaloids were detected in Red Bali whereas 11 compounds were found in the other varieties. Red Thai, Red Bali, Green Malay and White Borneo strains had a higher w/w percentage for MG than for P, while P was more abundant in Red Malay. The Green Malay variety (GMK) showed the highest w/w percentages for MG and total alkaloids in its extracts (59.7 and 94.9% respectively). The Green Malay variety was therefore chosen for in vivo pharmacological studies. The Green Malay extract has shown remarkable and significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity in mouse hot plate and carrageenan-induced paw edema tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Boffa
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Corrado Ghè
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandro Barge
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giampiero Muccioli
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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17
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Affiliation(s)
- O. Hayden Griffin
- Associate Professor, Department of Criminal Justice, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Megan E. Webb
- Doctoral Student, Department of Sociology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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18
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Mitragynine concentrations in two fatalities. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 271:e1-e7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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19
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Griffin OH, Daniels JA, Gardner EA. Do You Get What You Paid For? An Examination of Products Advertised as Kratom. J Psychoactive Drugs 2016; 48:330-335. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2016.1229876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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20
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Pantano F, Tittarelli R, Mannocchi G, Zaami S, Ricci S, Giorgetti R, Terranova D, Busardò FP, Marinelli E. Hepatotoxicity Induced by "the 3Ks": Kava, Kratom and Khat. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:580. [PMID: 27092496 PMCID: PMC4849036 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The 3Ks (kava, kratom and khat) are herbals that can potentially induce liver injuries. On the one hand, growing controversial data have been reported about the hepatotoxicity of kratom, while, on the other hand, even though kava and khat hepatotoxicity has been investigated, the hepatotoxic effects are still not clear. Chronic recreational use of kratom has been associated with rare instances of acute liver injury. Several studies and case reports have suggested that khat is hepatotoxic, leading to deranged liver enzymes and also histopathological evidence of acute hepatocellular degeneration. Numerous reports of severe hepatotoxicity potentially induced by kava have also been highlighted, both in the USA and Europe. The aim of this review is to focus on the different patterns and the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by “the 3Ks”, while trying to clarify the numerous aspects that still need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flaminia Pantano
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Roberta Tittarelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giulio Mannocchi
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Simona Zaami
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Serafino Ricci
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Raffaele Giorgetti
- Section of Legal Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60121 Ancona, Italy.
| | - Daniela Terranova
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco P Busardò
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Enrico Marinelli
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic and Orthopedic Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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21
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Suhaimi FW, Yusoff NHM, Hassan R, Mansor SM, Navaratnam V, Müller CP, Hassan Z. Neurobiology of Kratom and its main alkaloid mitragynine. Brain Res Bull 2016; 126:29-40. [PMID: 27018165 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom or its main alkaloid, mitragynine is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth which is indigenous to Southeast Asian countries. This substance has become widely available in other countries like Europe and United States due to its opium- and coca-like effects. In this article, we have reviewed available reports on mitragynine and other M. speciosa extracts. M. speciosa has been proven to have a rewarding effect and is effective in alleviating the morphine and ethanol withdrawal effects. However, studies in human revealed that prolonged consumption of this plant led to dependence and tolerance while cessation caused a series of aversive withdrawal symptoms. Findings also showed that M. speciosa extracts possess antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, and muscle relaxant properties. Available evidence further supports the adverse effects of M. speciosa preparations, mitragynine on cognition. Pharmacological activities are mainly mediated via opioid receptors as well as neuronal Ca2+ channels, expression of cAMP and CREB protein and via descending monoaminergic system. Physicochemical properties of mitragynine have been documented which may further explain the variation in pharmacological responses. In summary, current researchs on its main indole alkaloid, mitragynine suggest both therapeutic and addictive potential but further research on its molecular effects is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah W Suhaimi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nurul H M Yusoff
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rahimah Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Sharif M Mansor
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | | | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia.
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22
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Carpenter JM, Criddle CA, Craig HK, Ali Z, Zhang Z, Khan IA, Sufka KJ. Comparative effects of Mitragyna speciosa extract, mitragynine, and opioid agonists on thermal nociception in rats. Fitoterapia 2016; 109:87-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2015.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Indole alkaloids from marine sources as potential leads against infectious diseases. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:375423. [PMID: 24995289 PMCID: PMC4066687 DOI: 10.1155/2014/375423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Revised: 04/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Indole alkaloids comprise a large and complex class of natural products found in a variety of marine sources. Infectious diseases remain a major threat to public health, and in the absence of long-term protective vaccines, the control of these infectious diseases is based on a small number of chemotherapeutic agents. Furthermore, the emerging resistance against these drugs makes it urgently necessary to discover and develop new, safe and, effective anti-infective agents. In this regard, the aim of this review is to highlight indole alkaloids from marine sources which have been shown to demonstrate activity against infectious diseases.
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24
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Ali Z, Demiray H, Khan IA. Isolation, characterization, and NMR spectroscopic data of indole and oxindole alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2013.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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25
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Cao XF, Wang JS, Wang XB, Luo J, Wang HY, Kong LY. Monoterpene indole alkaloids from the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia and their acetylcholine esterase inhibitory effects. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 96:389-96. [PMID: 24169379 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Five monoterpene indole alkaloids, mitradiversifoline, with a unique rearranged skeleton, specionoxeine-N(4)-oxide, 7-hydroxyisopaynantheine, 3-dehydropaynantheine, and 3-isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide, and 10 known ones, were isolated from Mitragyna diversifolia. All the isolates were evaluated for their inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activities, and four showed moderate activities, with IC50 values of 4.1, 5.2, 10.2, and 10.3 μM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Fen Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tong Jia Xiang, Nanjing 210009, People's Republic of China
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26
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Raffa RB, Beckett JR, Brahmbhatt VN, Ebinger TM, Fabian CA, Nixon JR, Orlando ST, Rana CA, Tejani AH, Tomazic RJ. Orally active opioid compounds from a non-poppy source. J Med Chem 2013; 56:4840-8. [PMID: 23517479 DOI: 10.1021/jm400143z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The basic science and clinical use of morphine and other "opioid" drugs are based almost exclusively on the extracts or analogues of compounds isolated from a single source, the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). However, it now appears that biological diversity has evolved an alternative source. Specifically, at least two alkaloids isolated from the plant Mitragyna speciosa, mitragynine ((E)-2-[(2S,3S)-3-ethyl-8-methoxy-1,2,3,4,6,7,12,12b-octahydroindolo[3,2-h]quinolizin-2-yl]-3-methoxyprop-2-enoic acid methyl ester; 9-methoxy coryantheidine; MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), and several synthetic analogues of these natural products display centrally mediated (supraspinal and spinal) antinociceptive (analgesic) activity in various pain models. Several characteristics of these compounds suggest a classic "opioid" mechanism of action: nanomolar affinity for opioid receptors, competitive interaction with the opioid receptor antagonist naloxone, and two-way analgesic cross-tolerance with morphine. However, other characteristics of the compounds suggest novelty, particularly chemical structure and possible greater separation from side effects. We review the chemical and pharmacological properties of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert B Raffa
- Temple University School of Pharmacy, 3307 N. Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, USA.
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Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff NHM, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, Vicknasingam BK, Amato D, von Hörsten S, Ismail NIW, Jayabalan N, Hazim AI, Mansor SM, Müller CP. From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012. [PMID: 23206666 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (or Ketum) is a psychoactive plant preparation used in Southeast Asia. It is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Kratom as well as its main alkaloid, mitragynine, currently spreads around the world. Thus, addiction potential and adverse health consequences are becoming an important issue for health authorities. Here we reviewed the available evidence and identified future research needs. It was found that mitragynine and M. speciosa preparations are systematically consumed with rather well defined instrumentalization goals, e.g. to enhance tolerance for hard work or as a substitute in the self-treatment of opiate addiction. There is also evidence from experimental animal models supporting analgesic, muscle relaxant, anti-inflammatory as well as strong anorectic effects. In humans, regular consumption may escalate, lead to tolerance and may yield aversive withdrawal effects. Mitragynine and its derivatives actions in the central nervous system involve μ-opioid receptors, neuronal Ca²⁺ channels and descending monoaminergic projections. Altogether, available data currently suggest both, a therapeutic as well as an abuse potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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Nakajima J, Takahashi M, Seto T, Yoshida M, Kanai C, Suzuki J, Hamano T. Identification and quantitation of two new naphthoylindole drugs-of-abuse, (1-(5-hydroxypentyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)methanone (AM-2202) and (1-(4-pentenyl)-1H-indol-3-yl)(naphthalen-1-yl)methanone, with other synthetic cannabinoids in unregulated “herbal” products circulated in the Tokyo area. Forensic Toxicol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-011-0130-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloids mitraciliatine and isopaynantheine, diastereomers of the main alkaloids mitragynine and paynantheine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2011; 879:1049-55. [PMID: 21450536 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), native in Southeast Asia, is increasingly misused as a herbal drug of abuse. During metabolism studies on the Kratom alkaloids mitragynine, its diastereomers speciogynine and speciociliatine as well as paynantheine in rats and humans, further isomeric compounds were detected in Kratom users' urine. The question arose whether these compounds were formed from the low abundant, isomeric alkaloids mitraciliatine (MC) and isopaynantheine (ISO-PAY). Therefore, the aim of the presented study was to identify using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry their phase I and II metabolites in rat urine after administration of pure MC or ISO-PAY, to confirm their formation in humans, and finally to confirm whether the above-mentioned isomeric compounds in human urine represent MC and ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The metabolic pathways of both alkaloids in rats were found to be comparable to those of their corresponding diastereomers. In the human urines tested, not all metabolites found in rats could be detected because of the much lower amounts of MC and ISO-PAY in Kratom. However, all the above-mentioned so far unknown isomeric compounds could be identified in the human urine samples as MC, ISO-PAY and/or their metabolites. The used LC separation was also suitable for the differentiation of all other Kratom alkaloids and their metabolites in human urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Metabolism studies of the Kratom alkaloid speciociliatine, a diastereomer of the main alkaloid mitragynine, in rat and human urine using liquid chromatography-linear ion trap mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 399:2747-53. [PMID: 21249338 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-4660-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) is currently used as a drug of abuse. When monitoring its abuse in urine, several alkaloids and their metabolites must be considered. In former studies, mitragynine (MG), its diastereomer speciogynine (SG), and paynantheine and their metabolites could be identified in rat and human urine using LC-MS(n). In Kratom users' urines, besides MG and SG, further isomeric compounds were detected. To elucidate whether the MG and SG diastereomer speciociliatine (SC) and its metabolites represent further compounds, the phase I and II metabolites of SC were identified first in rat urine after the administration of the pure alkaloid. Then, the identified rat metabolites were screened for in the urine of Kratom users using the above-mentioned LC-MS(n) procedure. Considering the mass spectra and retention times, it could be confirmed that SC and its metabolites are so far the unidentified isomers in human urine. In conclusion, SC and its metabolites can be used as further markers for Kratom use, especially by consumption of raw material or products that contain a high amount of fruits of the Malaysian plant M. speciosa.
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Monitoring of kratom or Krypton intake in urine using GC-MS in clinical and forensic toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 400:127-35. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4464-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 11/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Philipp AA, Wissenbach DK, Weber AA, Zapp J, Maurer HH. Phase I and II metabolites of speciogynine, a diastereomer of the main Kratom alkaloid mitragynine, identified in rat and human urine by liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution linear ion trap mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2010; 45:1344-1357. [PMID: 20967737 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom in Thai), a Thai medical plant, is misused as herbal drug of abuse. Besides the most abundant alkaloids mitragynine (MG) and paynantheine (PAY), several other alkaloids were isolated from Kratom leaves, among them the third abundant alkaloid is speciogynine (SG), a diastereomer of MG. The aim of this present study was to identify the phase I and II metabolites of SG in rat urine after the administration of a rather high dose of the pure alkaloid and then to confirm these findings using human urine samples after Kratom use. The applied liquid chromatography coupled to low- and high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS-MS) provided detailed information on the structure in the MS(n) mode particularly with high resolution. For the analysis of the human samples, the LC separation had to be improved markedly allowing the separation of SG and its metabolites from its diastereomer MG and its metabolites. In analogy to MG, besides SG, nine phase I and eight phase II metabolites could be identified in rat urine, but only three phase I and five phase II metabolites in human urine. These differences may be caused by the lower SG dose applied by the user of Kratom preparations. SG and its metabolites could be differentiated in the human samples from the diastereomeric MG and its metabolites comparing the different retention times determined after application of the single alkaloids to rats. In addition, some differences in MS(2) and/or MS(3) spectra of the corresponding diastereomers were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika A Philipp
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Abstract
Background: Traditional and current opioid pharmacology is fundamentally based on interactions between opioid receptors and compounds isolated from natural sources. Adverse effects associated with opioids have led to the search for compounds with diminished side effects. Discussion: Recent discoveries of non-nitrogenous and structurally diverse alkaloids as novel opioid ligands have led to renewed interest in the development of novel chemotypes for opioid receptors. Conclusion: The strong history of natural products as opioid receptor ligands suggests that nature is one of the most promising for the identification of novel opioids. This review highlights the vast potential of investigating natural products as novel probes of opioid receptors.
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Message from the chief editor. J Nat Med 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s11418-008-0233-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Banerjee S, Barnea E, Odom AL. Titanium-Catalyzed Hydrohydrazination with Monosubstituted Hydrazines: Catalyst Design, Synthesis, and Reactivity. Organometallics 2008. [DOI: 10.1021/om700852v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sanjukta Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Eyal Barnea
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Aaron L. Odom
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
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Kitajima M, Nakayama T, Kogure N, Wongseripipatana S, Takayama H. New heteroyohimbine-type oxindole alkaloid from the leaves of Thai Mitragyna hirsuta. J Nat Med 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s11418-006-0114-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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