Comparing Carboxymethyl Cellulose and Starch as Thickeners in Oil/Water Emulsions. Implications on Rheological and Structural Properties

Adsorption study on the formation of interfacial layers based on birch glucuronoxylans

Glucuronoxylans (GX), particularly crude fractions obtained by pressurized hot water extraction of birch wood, act as potent emulsifiers and stabilizers against physical separation and lipid oxidation. Herein, we studied the adsorption of GX on hydrophobic interfaces to correlate their multicomponent character towards the formation of interfacial layers in emulsions. Dynamic interfacial tension (DIFT) and quartz crystal microgravimetry with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) were applied to various GX fractions and the results compared with those from cellulose-based emulsifiers. The roles of residual lignin and polysaccharides are discussed considering the formation of interfacial layers during emulsification. The DIFT of the different GXs reached quasi-equilibrium faster as the lignin concentration increased, implying a correlation between the rate of adsorption and the residual lignin content. The effect of NaCl addition was more pronounced in polysaccharide-rich fractions, indicating that the polysaccharide fraction modulated the effect of ionic strength. QCM-D showed that despite the fast adsorption exhibited by the lignin-rich GX extract in the DIFT curves, the adsorbed materials were lightweight, suggesting that the polysaccharide fraction built the bulk of the interfacial layer. These results provide a foundation towards understanding the role of GX in interfacial stabilization beyond traditional plant-based counterparts.

Plant-Based Oil-in-Water Food Emulsions: Exploring the Influence of Different Formulations on Their Physicochemical Properties

The global focus on incorporating natural ingredients into the diet for health improvement encompasses ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) derived from plant sources, such as flaxseed oil. ω-3 PUFAs are susceptible to oxidation, but oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions can serve to protect PUFAs from this phenomenon. This study aimed to create O/W emulsions using flaxseed oil and either soy lecithin or Quillaja saponins, thickened with modified starch, while assessing their physical properties (oil droplet size, ζ-potential, and rheology) and physical stability. Emulsions with different oil concentrations (25% and 30% w/w) and oil-to-surfactant ratio (5:1 and 10:1) were fabricated using high-pressure homogenization (800 bar, five cycles). Moreover, emulsions were thickened with modified starch and their rheological properties were measured. The physical stability of all emulsions was assessed over a 7-day storage period using the TSI (Turbiscan Stability Index). Saponin-stabilized emulsions exhibited smaller droplet diameters (0.11-0.19 µm) compared to lecithin (0.40-1.30 µm), and an increase in surfactant concentration led to a reduction in droplet diameter. Both surfactants generated droplets with a high negative charge (-63 to -72 mV), but lecithin-stabilized emulsions showed greater negative charge, resulting in more intense electrostatic repulsion. Saponin-stabilized emulsions showed higher apparent viscosity (3.9-11.6 mPa·s) when compared to lecithin-stabilized ones (1.19-4.36 mPa·s). The addition of starch significantly increased the apparent viscosity of saponin-stabilized emulsions, rising from 11.6 mPa s to 2117 mPa s. Emulsions stabilized by saponin exhibited higher stability than those stabilized by lecithin. This study confirms that plant-based ingredients, particularly saponins and lecithin, effectively produce stable O/W emulsions with flaxseed oil, offering opportunities for creating natural ingredient-based food emulsions.

Food-Grade Bigels with Potential to Replace Saturated and Trans Fats in Cookies

Fats play multiple roles in determining the desirable characteristics of foods. However, there are health concerns about saturated and trans fats. Bigels have been proposed as a novel fat replacer in foods. This research evaluated the role of the type of hydrogel in the development of bigels to be used as fat replacers in cookies. Bigels were made with beeswax/canola oil oleogel and sodium alginate and carboxymethylcellulose hydrogels. The results showed that the peroxide value and binding capacity of bigels were affected by the type of hydrogel used. However, their fatty acid profile, p-anisidine value, oxidative stability, and texture remained unchanged. Using bigels as fat replacers, cookies were obtained with a hardness similar to those with original shortening, showing the potential of bigels for use in foods.

Oral behavior of emulsified systems with different particle size and thickening agents under simulated conditions

Food behavior during oral processing plays an essential role in the perception of texture. It depends on different factors, including food structure and composition, as well as its behavior when interacting with saliva. This study aimed to investigate the effect of particle size and thickener type of emulsified systems on physical, rheological, tribological, and oral oily coating properties under oral conditions. Six matrices based on oil-in-water emulsions with different particle sizes (NE-nanoemulsion and CE-conventional emulsions) were prepared using a mixture of emulsifiers (10% w/w) and sunflower oil (10% w/w). Thickened agents were added to the matrices (NE and CE) at different concentrations (3-4.5% w/w of starch-ST or 0.4-0.8% w/w xanthan gum-XG) to obtain equi-viscous samples (NE-EV) with their CE-based counterpart. Results showed a decrease in apparent viscosity values under oral conditions (saliva and shearing at 10 s^-1) during the shear time, but this behavior was more evident in starch-based matrices. The lubrication properties of the different matrices depended mainly on the thickener concentration since equi-viscous samples (NE-ST-EV and NE-XG-EV) showed higher coefficient of friction (CoF) values. Finally, oral oily coating was more related to the oil droplets size than to the type of thickener since all NE-based matrices showed a higher amount of coating retained compared to the CE-based ones. Therefore, NE-based matrices could be used as an alternative to increase mouthfeel sensations in food emulsions.

Effect of process parameters on emulsion stability and droplet size of pomegranate oil-in-water

The development of efficient emulsion is essential and requires a good understanding of the parameters that govern the formation and stability of the emulsion. The droplet size significantly affects the stability of the emulsion. In this study, the stability of pomegranate oil-in-water emulsions (0.5 to 7.0% v/v) was investigated using various emulsifiers in terms of droplet size and instability index during 16 days of storage. The Mastersizer and Lumisizer were used to measure the droplet size and instability index. It was observed that the minimum droplet size was achieved by using 0.3% carboxy methyl cellulose (5.37 μm) and maximum with 1.0/2.5% whey protein/maltodextrin (24.26 μm). The Lumisizer results during storage revealed the higher emulsion stability of carboxy methyl cellulose due to smaller droplet size and high thickness as compared to other emulsions studied. The findings of the present study would be useful for food applications to obtain fine and stable microcapsules.

Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is one of the most promising cellulose derivatives. Due to its characteristic surface properties, mechanical strength, tunable hydrophilicity, viscous properties, availability and abundance of raw materials, low-cost synthesis process, and likewise many contrasting aspects, it is now widely used in various advanced application fields, for example, food, paper, textile, and pharmaceutical industries, biomedical engineering, wastewater treatment, energy production, and storage energy production, and storage and so on. Many research articles have been reported on CMC, depending on their sources and application fields. Thus, a comprehensive and well-organized review is in great demand that can provide an up-to-date and in-depth review on CMC. Herein, this review aims to provide compact information of the synthesis to the advanced applications of this material in various fields. Finally, this article covers the insights of future CMC research that could guide researchers working in this prominent field.

Quality of Emulsions Containing Fat Blends Modified by Enzymatic Catalysis

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of the enzymatic modification of muton tallow and hemp seed oil fat blends. An attempt of application of these fat blends as fat phases in emulsion systems with various amount of carboxymethylcellulose was made. Fat blends before and after enzymatic catalysis were assessed in the context of polar and non-polar fractions content, antioxidant activity, oxidative stability and texture. Emulsions were investigated in the terms of their stability, color, microstructure, droplets diameter, and viscosity. The study revealed that emulsions containing as a fat phases modified blends with greater share of mutton tallow showed more favorable properties, and greater stability. The presented emulsions are a model dispersion system, after adjustment of the additives they could be used as chemical, food or cosmetic products.

Nanoemulsion-Based Technologies for Delivering Natural Plant-Based Antimicrobials in Foods

There is increasing interest in the use of natural preservatives (rather than synthetic ones) for maintaining the quality and safety of foods due to their perceived environmental and health benefits. In particular, plant-based antimicrobials are being employed to protect against microbial spoilage, thereby improving food safety, quality, and shelf-life. However, many natural antimicrobials cannot be utilized in their free form due to their chemical instability, poor dispersibility in food matrices, or unacceptable flavor profiles. For these reasons, encapsulation technologies, such as nanoemulsions, are being developed to overcome these hurdles. Indeed, encapsulation of plant-based preservatives can improve their handling and ease of use, as well as enhance their potency. This review highlights the various kinds of plant-based preservatives that are available for use in food applications. It then describes the methods available for forming nanoemulsions and shows how they can be used to encapsulate and deliver plant-based preservatives. Finally, potential applications of nano-emulsified plant-based preservatives for improving food quality and safety are demonstrated in the meat, fish, dairy, and fresh produce areas.

Cellulose and cellulose derivatives: Different colloidal states and food-related applications

Development of new sources and isolation processes has recently enhanced the production of cellulose in many different colloidal states. Even though cellulose is widely used as a functional ingredient in the food industry, the relationship between the colloidal states of cellulose and its applications is mostly unknown. This review covers the recent progress on illustrating various colloidal states of cellulose and the influencing factors with special emphasis on the correlation between the colloidal states of cellulose and its applications in food industry. The associated unique colloidal states of cellulose like high aspect ratio, crystalline structure, surface charge, and wettability not only promote the stability of colloidal systems, but also help improve the nutritional aspects of cellulose by facilitating its interactions with digestive system. Further studies are required for the rational control and improvement of the colloidal states of cellulose and producing food systems with enhanced functional and nutritional properties.

Characteristics of rice starch film blended with sugar (trehalose/allose) and oil (canola oil/coconut oil): Part I - Filmogenic solution behavior and mechanical properties

The concentrations effects of sugars (trehalose and allose) and oils (canola and coconut oil) on the characteristics of rice starch suspension and mechanical properties of rice starch film were studied. The samples were prepared using 3% (w/w) rice starch, with 10% or 30% (w/w) sugar (trehalose or allose) added and 10% or 30% (w/w) oil (canola or coconut). The droplet size of the film suspension increased with increasing oil concentration both in trehalose and allose, which blended with oil. The flow behavior of the film suspensions showed shear-thinning behavior as calculated by the Power Law model. The apparent viscosity tended to increase with the addition of sugar and oil. The breaking stress of the films blended with sugar and oil was less than that of control. On preparation day and after 7 days' storage, the breaking strain tended to increase more with the addition of coconut oil than with that of canola oil. However, breaking stress and breaking strain decreased after 28 days' storage. Adding sugar had correlation with mechanical properties whereas adding oil had correlation with film suspension characteristics, allowed the sugar and oil to interact and inhibited starch chain mobility due to concentration, sugar type, and oil type. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Trehalose, allose, canola oil, and coconut oil could be used as a plasticizer in a starch edible/biodegradable film system. The preparation process of filmogenic solution was depended on the combination of sugar and oil that could change the flow behavior and affected the mechanical properties of the edible film. The sugar and oil might improve the mechanical properties of the film by a hydroxyl group of sugar and lubricating properties of the oil.

Influence of Fiber Addition on White Sauces Made with Corn Starch: Effect on Their Freezing/Thawing Stability

Fiber-enriched white sauces with apple (AF401), potato (KF200), and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were selected among six white sauces, all of them elaborated by replacing corn starch and milk with 3% of different dietary fibers. It was investigated the freezing/thawing (F/T) stability of these three enriched white sauces studying their physico-chemical (color, syneresis percentage, total soluble solids content), rheological (viscoelastic and steady measurements), and sensorial properties before and after a freezing/thawing treatment. White sauce with MCC resulted in being the most like the control (without fiber) showing a higher elasticity and a heat stability. Moreover, the sauce elaborated with MCC has a sensorial profile as a traditional corn starch sauce with high "creaminess" and lower "heterogeneity" after the F/T treatment. Therefore, the properties provided by MCC make this product interesting in food design, and MCC sauce could be used as an industrial frozen fiber-enriched white sauce. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: These days, there is an increase in the demand of precooked frozen dishes due to current lifestyles and because the use of fiber exhibits many proven health benefits. A béchamel sauce made from corn starch and enriched with different fibers was elaborated, frozen and thawed in microwave. Both fresh and frozen/thawed microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) sauces exhibited very similar rheological and sensorial properties to an industrial and traditional frozen white sauce without fiber. Therefore, MCC-enriched white sauce resulted to be a feasible strategy to produce a white sauce suitable for frozen dishes with good functional properties and sensorial quality.

Effect of sucrose ester and carboxymethyl cellulose on physical properties of coconut milk

The influence of sucrose ester (SE) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) on the physical properties of coconut milk was determined using response surface methodology based on central composite design. The R 2 of all response variables was more than 0.80 which indicated a high proportion of variability was explained by the model and showed that increasing the amount of SE decreased the droplet size of coconut milk. The viscosity and creaming index were dependent on the SE and CMC concentration. Increasing the SE and CMC concentration increased viscosity but creaming index was decreased. The results suggested that suitable amount of SE and CMC should be specified in order to obtain a high quality of coconut milk products.

Effects of hydrocolloids as fat replacers on the physicochemical properties of produced Labneh

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of hydrocolloids when used as fat replacers on the physicochemical properties of Labneh. Four combination sets of carboxymethylcellulose, Arabic gum, carrageenan, and xanthan were used in a three factor mixture response surface methodology. Labneh water holding capacity (WHC), viscosity parameters, texture and sensory attributes were assessed. WHC played the critical role in affecting produced Labneh physical properties. Hydrocolloids influenced Labneh WHC in the following order; xanthan > Arabic gum > carrageenan > carboxymethylcellulose. Furthermore, xanthan showed an antagonistic effect with carboxymethylcellulose that lead to the decrease in WHC. Usage of 17% xanthan and 66% Arabic gum resulted in an increase in WHC to 98.6% which indicates a mixture response effect of hydrocolloids in affecting WHC of produced Labneh. The increase in carrageenan from 17% to 66% resulted in an increase in WHC from 62.7 to 70.7%. Consumer testing showed a superior Labneh sensory attributed using various hydrocolloids combinations compared to a control. Hydrocolloids were successfully used in Labneh as fat replacers. The developed reduced fat Labneh with its texture and sensory attributed that exceeded the full fat Labneh attributed can provide a solution to consumers with restricting fat diets.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Carbohydrate-based fat replacers are of growing interest because of their physicochemical, sensorial properties, and health characteristics. The used hydrocolloids suggest plausible texture and sensory attributes solution in low or reduced fat content products including dairy products.

Interactions between wheat starch and cellulose derivatives in short-term retrogradation: Rheology and FTIR study

The understanding of the interactions between starch and cellulose hydrocolloids is crucial for equipment design and definition of operation parameters in the food industry. In the present study, the possible interactions of wheat starch (WS) with different levels (2-10%) of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) or microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) in short-term retrogradation were explored by dynamic rheological and Fourier transform infrared spectrum (FTIR) measurements. The chains of water-soluble CMC could creep into the continuous phase during paste gelation. It was found the amylose network structure was broken and the inter- and intra-molecular hydrogen bond of WS were weaken after gelation. Moreover, there were interactions between the chains of CMC and chains of amylose at higher CMC concentration. On other hand, water connected with COO^- groups blocked the interactions between CMC chains and amylose, and the interactions among CMC chains. The amorphous phases of high crystalline MCC were just swollen during paste gelation. It results that heterogeneous microstructure with amylose and MCC domains unevenly distributed was in WS/MCC paste.

Oil-in-Water Emulsions Stabilized by Saponified Epoxidized Soybean Oil-Grafted Hydroxyethyl Cellulose

An oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by saponified epoxidized soybean oil-grafted hydroxyethyl cellulose (H-ESO-HEC) was investigated. By using an ultrasonic method, oil-in-water emulsions were prepared by blending 50 wt % soybean oil and 50 wt % H-ESO-HEC aqueous suspensions. The influence of H-ESO-HEC concentrations on the properties of oil-in-water emulsions was examined. The H-ESO-HEC concentrations in the aqueous phase varied from 0.02 to 0.40 wt %. When the H-ESO-HEC concentration was 0.4 wt %, the emulsion remained stable for >80 days. The mean droplet sizes of the emulsions decreased by increasing the H-ESO-HEC concentration and extending the ultrasonic time. The adsorption amounts of H-ESO-HEC at the oil-water interface increased when the H-ESO-HEC concentrations in the aqueous phase increased. The rheological property revealed that the apparent viscosity of the H-ESO-HEC-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions increased when the H-ESO-HEC concentrations increased. Steady flow curves indicated an interfacial film formation in the emulsions. The evolution of G', G″, and tan η indicated the predominantly elastic behaviors of all the emulsions.

Oil-in-Water Emulsions Stabilized by Carboxymethylated Lignins: Properties and Energy Prospects

We take advantage of the amphiphilic properties of technical lignin macromolecules and their inherent high calorific values to formulate oil-in-water (O/W) fuel emulsions with high internal-phase ratios. For the oil phase, we used a combustible hydrocarbon (kerosene) with a measured equivalent alkane carbon number of 12. To adjust the balance of affinity with the oil and water phases and their surface activity, pine kraft lignins were carboxymethylated to different degrees, as quantified by (13) C NMR spectroscopy, potentiometric titrations, and zeta potential measurements. Carboxymethylated lignins (CMLs) with a degree of substitution of 30 % displayed a critical aggregation concentration of 3 %. The salinity and pH of the aqueous phase were chosen as formulation variables and adjusted within the Winsor framework. The O/W emulsions were produced by following standard protocols. The drop-size distributions of emulsions with varying pH, degree of substitution, and composition (water-to-oil ratio, WOR) were determined, and the long-term stabilities and rheological behavior of these emulsions were analyzed. Most of the obtained O/W fuel emulsions showed shear-thinning behavior with a drop size of approximately 2.5 μm and were stable for over 30 days. The combustion of the lignins and their respective emulsions was performed, and their higher heating values (HHVs) were quantified. The HHVs of CML and a high-internal-phase (WOR=30:70) O/W emulsion were 20 and 30 MJ kg(-1) , respectively. Overall, we propose the stabilization of O/W fuel emulsions by lignin as an important avenue in the utilization of this abundant biomacromolecule.

Application of CMC as Thickener on Nanoemulsions Based on Olive Oil: Physical Properties and Stability

Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is a hydrocolloid with surface activity that could act as emulsifiers in oil-in-water emulsions; however the principal role is that it acts as structuring, thickening, or gelling agent in the aqueous phase. This study aims to evaluate the application of CMC as thickener into nanoemulsions based on olive oil and their influence on particle characteristics, flow behavior, and color. Four nanoemulsions with different oil (5% and 15% w/w olive oil) and CMC (0.5% and 0.75% w/w) concentration and two control samples without CMC added were prepared using Tween 80 as emulsifier. All physical properties studied on nanoemulsions were depending on both oil and CMC concentration. In general, z-average particle size varied among 107–121 nm and those samples with 5% oil and CMC were the most polydisperse. The addition of CMC increased anionic charge of nanoemulsions obtaining zeta potential values among −41 and −55 mV. The oil concentration increased both consistency and pseudoplasticity of samples, although samples were more stable to gravitational separation at the highest CMC concentration. Color of nanoemulsions was affected principally by the oil concentration. Finally, the results showed that CMC could be applied in nanoemulsions as thickener increasing their physical stability although modifying their physical properties.