Socio-economic patterns of sport demand and ageing

Marginal effects of economical development and university education on China's regular exercise population

Objective

Although the regular exercise population is a key metric for gaging the success of China's fitness-for-all activities, effective policy approaches to increase mass sports participation remain unclear. Previous research suggests that GDP, educational attainment, sports resources, and meteorological conditions could influence regular exercise participation. Therefore, this study first analyzed the macro-level correlates influencing China's regular exercise population.

Methods

We utilize ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and geographical weighted regression (GWR) to theorize the relationship. The analysis encompasses data from the 31 administrative regions of Mainland China, as reported at the end of the 13th Five-Year Plan period. The log-log model enables us to quantify the marginal effect (elasticity) of the explanatory variables.

Results

The OLS regression showed that regional GDP and the proportion of the population with a university education were significant predictors. In the global model, the marginal effects of regional GDP and university education were 0.048 and 0.173, respectively. Furthermore, the GWR revealed a distinct geographic pattern that corresponds to the classic Hu Line.

Conclusion

While regional GDP was also a significant correlate in our model, the elasticity demonstrates that university education had an asymmetric effect on China's regular exercise population. Therefore, this paper sheds light on a policy priority for the upcoming 15th Five-Year Plan, emphasizing the strategic importance of expanding university education to enhance mass sports participation. In turn, a better-educated populace may yield significant secondary effects on public health and contribute to the high-quality development of the Chinese path to modernization.

An Individualized Coach Development Program for Older Adult Player-Coaches in a Masters Football League in Colombia

Coaches contribute toward helping older adults achieve quality sport experiences, but there are few resources grounded in adult-oriented psychosocial approaches from which they can learn. The purpose of this Participatory Action Research study was to facilitate a personalized professional development program for a Colombian football (soccer) league of older adult men using an evidence-based self-assessment tool for Masters coaches. Data were collected from 23 coaches, who were also players in the league, via interviews, workshops, and observations. Data were analyzed via reflective thematic analysis that aimed to understand coaches' perceptions of how they learned through the workshops and how they implemented what they learned into their coaching. Findings indicate that personalized professional development enabled better structured leadership in the league, creating Quality Masters Sport Experiences.

Sports Economic Mining Algorithm Based on Association Analysis and Big Data Model

With the implementation of national strategies such as sports power and national fitness, the sports economy has become an important element of high-quality national development, and the demand for sports economy and management talents is greatly increased. Particularly in the new area with big data as the typical feature, the teaching content, teaching method, and teaching mode of sports economics and management majors have put forward new requirements. The continuous progress of storage and network technology has prompted the generation of massive multisource spatiotemporal data in various fields. The advantage of association analysis algorithms is that they are easy to code and implement. The relationships found by association analysis can take two forms: frequent itemsets or association rules. We use correlation analysis methods to perform correlation learning between sports economy and related big data and thus improve the development of sports economy. Mining and analyzing the relevant big data can precisely reveal the problems of sports economic development and can realize the fine management of sports, thus contributing to the healthy development of sports. Mastering the skills of acquiring, analyzing, and applying big data is the core content of sports economic analysis. The sports economy has refined and intelligent management means, and its adoption of virtual reality reflects the current situation and development trend of the sports business, which further highlights the status and role of multisource big data in the sports economy. Based on these, this paper proposed a sports economy mining algorithm in view of the correlation analysis and big data model. Then, we verified the effectiveness of the model through experiments, which laid the foundation for the development of the sports economy.

Effects of Sports Public Goods on the Health of the Elderly: Empirical Evidence from China

Sports public service can promote the elderly to participate in sport exercises and have a positive impact on health of the elderly. The aim of this study was to identify the effect of sport public service on the health and to study the meditation effect of physical activity. We conducted a questionnaire survey on sports public service and the health of the elderly in China, and established a mediation effect model to measure the impact of five categories of sports public service on the health of the elderly. The final sample comprised 1089 older adults (548 males and 541 females). Cronbach's α was over 0.7. Sport public service have positive effect on the health of the elderly, but they have meditation effect on both frequency and duration of physical exercise of the elderly. Among which the instruction of physical activity and service of sport exercises are the most significant factors. Sports public service for the elderly in China are not well balanced both in regions and among people, with more goods in towns and cities but less in rural areas. This study clarifies the impact of sports public service on the health of the elderly, and empirically analyses its meditation effect on physical exercise of the elderly. It is emphasized that the provision of sports public service in China is not to build sports facilities, but to provide more instruction and sports public services for residents physical exercise.

COVID-19 and Attendance Demand for Professional Sport in Japan: A Multilevel Analysis of Repeated Cross-Sectional National Data during the Pandemic

In the current investigation, we assess the effect of COVID-19 on intention-based spectator demand for professional sports in Japan captured by eight, monthly repeated cross-sectional national surveys from May to December 2020 (n = 20,121). We regress spectator demand on individual (e.g., gender), prefecture-wave (e.g., COVID-19 infection status), and prefecture-level factors (i.e., with or without quality professional teams). The results of multilevel logistic regression demonstrate that individual (i.e., male, younger, full-time employment, and with children status) and prefecture-level team factors (i.e., with teams) were associated with intention-based spectator demand. Nevertheless, COVID-19-related factors were found to be unrelated to spectator demand. The findings imply that sports fans are likely to return to the stadium once behavioral restrictions are lifted. The current research provided further evidence that individual factors and team quality serve as influential antecedents of spectator demand in the context of the COVID-19 epidemic.

Profile of Whole Body Electromyostimulation Training Users-A Pilot Study

(1) Introduction: Whole Body Electromyostimulation is a technological and time efficient personal training practiced all over the world. With the increase of practitioners in the last 10 years, the need to study more about practitioners has arisen, so this pilot study aims to trace a user profile of this method through the analysis of socio-demographic data for a better understand of the profile of people looking for this type of training to improve the effectiveness of the intervention and develop programs that are in accordance with the motivation of practitioners. (2) Methods: 270 users from 5 countries answered an online questionnaire with socio-demographic questions. Data were treated using descriptive statistics. Possible differences between sexes and between groups were analyzed by means of non-parametric statistical tests: Mann−Whitney U-test (continuous variables); in addition to studying possible dependence relationships and differences between proportions, using the Chi-square statistic with pairwise z-test using the Bonferroni correction (categorical variables). (3) Results: Middle-aged women are the main user of this type of training. The majority of WB-EMS users do another type of physical activity with significant difference between men and woman (p < 0.05) men are more active than women. Weight loss, health and wellness and muscle mass increase are the main goals of the WB-EMS users. There are significant differences in weight loss and rehabilitation between genders (p < 0.05). Women look much more than men to lose weight and men look more than women to rehabilitation. (4) Conclusions: The user profile is a physically active woman, aged 35−49 years, with normal weight and high educational level, who carries out twice weekly full body electrostimulation training with the goals of weight loss, health and/or wellness and muscle mass gain.

Motives and Barriers Related to Physical Activity and Sport across Social Backgrounds: Implications for Health Promotion

Studies have found physical inactivity to be a significant health risk factor and have demonstrated how physical inactivity behaviour varies according to social background. As a result, differences according to social background must be considered when examining motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport. This scoping review examines motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport among people with different social backgrounds, including age, socioeconomic status, gender, ethnic minority background and disability status. A systematic literature search was performed in four scientific databases and yielded 2935 articles of which 58 articles met the inclusion criteria. We identified common motives for physical activity and sport as health benefits, well-being, enjoyment, social interaction, and social support; common barriers as time restrictions, fatigue and lack of energy, financial restrictions, health-related restrictions, low motivation, and shortage of facilities. We also identified several motives and barriers that were specific to or more pronounced among people with different social backgrounds. The knowledge about motives and barriers related to physical activity and sport provided in this article can inform health promotion initiatives that seek to improve public health both in general and when specifically targeting groups of people with different social backgrounds.

Factors in the Use of Workplace Health Promotion on Back Health. Results of the Survey "German Health Update"

Background: The influence of the working environment on the back health of employees is well-documented. Many companies have begun to offer employees access to services to promote back health. Factors affecting the use of these offers at the population level have received little investigation to date. The current study examined the socio-demographic factors, physical activity and health-related factors, and work-related factors associated with the use of offers of workplace health promotion for back health in Germany. Materials and Methods: In the representative population-based cross-sectional survey "German Health Update" (GEDA 2014/2015-EHIS) conducted by the Robert Koch Institute, 12,072 employees aged 18-64 years old were surveyed from November 2014 to July 2015 regarding the use of back health services in their companies. In addition to socio-demographic factors, the survey examined working hours, physical activity in leisure time, health awareness, and subjective complaints in the lower back or other chronic back problems in the last 12 months. The interaction of these factors with the utilization of back health services was tested using multiple logistic regression models. Results: Women used back health services more often than men (women: 25.5%; men: 18.1%). Female gender was associated with part-time employment (OR 0.72) and a strong to very strong level of health awareness (OR 1.40). Male gender was associated with age between 30 and 44 years (OR 1.99) and 45-64 years (OR 2.02), low socioeconomic status (OR 0.48), endurance activity of <2.5 h per week (OR 0.62), and absence of lower back pain or other chronic back conditions for the last 12 months (OR 0.48). Conclusion: The present study is the first to provide findings regarding the factors associated with the utilization of workplace health promotion to promote back health at the population level, and from the perspective of employees in Germany. The results revealed that the relevant factors for participating in offers differ for women and men. To reach more employees, workplace health promotion offers for back health should be designed specifically for each individual, considering gender and age, working hours, health awareness and behavior, and health state.

The role of individual resources, health behaviour and age perception as determinants of sports participation in older age

Sports participation contributes to maintaining health and wellbeing in old age, hence a deeper understanding of its various determinants is necessary. Previous research has primarily focused on either the effects of individual resources or age-specific attitudes to sports participation. However, a deeper understanding of the inter-relationships between these variables is required to develop effective policies to promote sports participation in ageing societies. To address the hypothesised inter-relationships, we consider both individual resources as well as age-specific attitudes and behaviours in order to integrate them simultaneously in our analysis. Furthermore, the analysis will be differentiated according to the three social status groups. The sample contains 1,560 retired persons, aged 65 years and older, based on the fifth wave (2014) of the German Ageing Survey. Multiple Poisson regression models were estimated to test our hypotheses. After adjusting for demographic variables, greater individual resources are associated with more regular sports participation. The findings also reveal that positive age perception and healthy behaviours are related to sports participation. Slight mediation effects between the different variables can be observed. Furthermore, the effect structures vary across different social status groups. The findings show that both individual resources and age-specific behaviours and attitudes are independent determinants of sports participation in older age. Our results confirm slight inter-relationships between socio-economic resources and age-specific attitudes.

The impact of individual and environmental interventions on income inequalities in sports participation: explorations with an agent-based model

Background

Income inequalities in sports participation are shaped by a system in which individuals and the environment interact. We developed an agent-based model (ABM) that could represent this system and used it to provide a proof-of-concept of its potential to explore the impact of individual and environmental interventions on reducing inequalities in sports participation.

Methods

Our ABM simulates sports participation of individuals in the Dutch city of Eindhoven. In the model, sports participation is determined by an individual’s tendency to start sports (at a fitness center, sports club or self-organized), which is influenced by attributes of individuals (i.e. age, sex, income), sports facilities (i.e. price, accessibility) and the social environment (i.e. social cohesion, social influence). Sports facilities can adapt to changes in the demand by closures or startups, which in turn influence the tendency of individuals to participate in sport. We explored the impact of five interventions scenarios.

Results

Explorative results show that providing health education, increasing the availability of sports facilities, lowering prices of facilities and improving safety levels can increase sports participation and modestly reduce absolute income inequalities in sports participation. The largest gain can be attained through health education, if the effect and reach is sufficiently large. Environmental interventions alone have a modest impact. Marked effects are only achieved after five to 10 years.

Conclusions

ABMs have much potential to test the population-level effects of various interventions in the context of a system. Our study highlights the challenges of ABM development and reveals gaps in empirical data. With further refinements, our model could aid in understanding and finding optimal pathways to reduce income inequalities in sports participation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12966-018-0740-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Age-related changes in physical and perceptual markers of recovery following high-intensity interval cycle exercise

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to compare physical performance, perceptual and haematological markers of recovery in well-trained masters and young cyclists across 48 h following a bout of repeated high-intensity interval exercise.

METHODS

Nine masters (mean ± SD; age = 55.6 ± 5.0 years) and eight young (age = 25.9 ± 3.0 years) cyclists performed a high-intensity interval exercise session consisting of 6 × 30 s intervals at 175% peak power output with 4.5 min rest between efforts. Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), 10 s sprint (10SST), 30-min time trial (30TT) performance, creatine kinase concentration (CK) and perceptual measures of motivation, total recovery, fatigue and muscle soreness were collected at baseline and at standardised time points across the 48 h recovery period.

RESULTS

No significant group-time interactions were observed for performance of MVC, 10SST, 30TT and CK (P > 0.05). A significant reduction in 10SST peak power was found in both masters (P = 0.002) and young (P = 0.003) cyclists at 1 h post exercise, however, both groups physically recovered at similar rates. Neither group showed significant (P > 0.05) or practically meaningful increases in CK (%∆ < 10%). A significant age-related difference was found for perceptual fatigue (P = 0.01) and analysis of effect size (ES) showed that perceptual recovery was delayed with masters cyclists reporting lower motivation (ES ±90%CI = 0.69 ± 0.77, moderate), greater fatigue (ES = 0.75 ± 0.93, moderate) and muscle soreness (ES = 0.61 ± 0.70, moderate) after 48 h of recovery.

CONCLUSION

The delay in perceived recovery may have negative effects on long-term participation to systematic training.

How an aging society affects the economic costs of inactivity in Germany: empirical evidence and projections

Background

Aging societies represent a major challenge for health care systems all over the world. As older people tend to be more physically inactive, economic costs of inactivity are likely to increase notably. The present study aims to investigate this relationship between an aging society and economic costs of inactivity using the example of Germany.

Methods

Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, this study applied the comparative risk assessment method developed by the WHO to estimate the direct costs of inactivity for the period 2001–2013 differentiated by gender-specific age-groups (15–29; 30–44; 45–64; 65+). Based on population statistics predicting the aging of the German population for the years 2014–2060, this research projects the development of future costs of inactivity and potential effects of interventions promoting physical activity among the German population.

Results

The results reveal an increase in the level of physical activity during the observed period (2001–2013) which compensated the negative effect of aging and resulted in a decline of inactivity costs. The projections for the years 2014–2060 indicate a constant increase in direct per capita costs until 2060 because of an aging society. Scenarios indicating how a short-term reduction of physical inactivity impacts costs of inactivity reveal the crucial role of the oldest age-group in this context.

Conclusion

The findings indicate that the aging of the German population demands further actions and initiatives to promote physical activity, especially for the oldest age-group.

The impact of the free swimming programme in a local community in the South East of England: giving with one hand, taking away with the other

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of the introduction of the Free Swimming Programme (FSP) in a local community (not identified to preserve anonymity) in the South East of England. The question has been approached in a variety of ways: by using primary quantitative data from leisure centres and logistic regressions based on the Active People Survey (APS). Problems are identified related to the introduction of the FSP in this community and suggestions are made for future policy. A brief examination of swimming participation in England enables researchers to place this community into a national context. The problems and policies of sport organisation developed in this community are not dissimilar to a more general application reflecting the English experience; in this sense it is anticipated that the findings will enable managers of sport organisations, along with public health policy makers, to focus more effectively on raising sport participation. The unique selling points of this article are the examination of FSP for adult participants, the local analysis of junior and senior participation, and the overall assessment of the policy based on APS.

Sport, how people choose it: A network analysis approach

In order to investigate the behaviour of athletes in choosing sports, we analyse data from part of the We-Sport database, a vertical social network that links athletes through sports. In particular, we explore connections between people sharing common sports and the role of age and gender by applying "network science" approaches and methods. The results show a disassortative tendency of athletes in choosing sports, a negative correlation between age and number of chosen sports and a positive correlation between age of connected athletes. Some interesting patterns of connection between age classes are depicted. In addition, we propose a method to classify sports, based on the analyses of the behaviour of people practising them. Thanks to this brand new classifications, we highlight the links of class of sports and their unexpected features. We emphasise some gender dependency affinity in choosing sport classes.

Economic analysis of participation in physical activity in England: implications for health policy

Background

Changing the relative price of (in) activity is an important tool for health policies. Nonetheless, to date, analyses of correlates of physical activity (PA) have excluded the notion of price. Using the first nationwide dataset on prices of PA for England, we explore for the first time how money and time prices are associated with PA (in general) and specific activities.

Methods

A nationally representative telephone follow-up survey to Health Survey for England (HSE) 2008 was undertaken in 2010. The sample covered individuals who reported to have undertaken some PA in the HSE 2008. Questions focussed on: ex-post money and time prices; type and quantity of PA; perceived benefits of PA and socio-economic details. Count regression models (all activities together, and swimming, workout, walking separately) were fitted to investigate the variation in quantity of PA.

Results

Of 1683 respondents, 83% participated in PA (one or more activities), and spent an average of £2.40 per occasion of participation in PA and 23 minutes travelling. Participation in PA was negatively associated with money prices per occasion (i.e. family member/child care fees, parking fees, and facility charges) and travel time price. Participation in PA was more sensitive to travel time price than money price. Among the specific activities, the money price effect was highest for swimming with a 10% higher price associated with 29% fewer occasions of swimming; followed by workout (3% fewer occasions) and walking (2% fewer occasions). Only swimming and workout were sensitive to travel time price. People who felt doing PA could help them ‘get outdoors’, ‘have fun’, or ‘lose weight’ were likely to do more PA.

Conclusions

Two main policy implications emerge from the findings. First, the results support the notion that positive financial incentives, e.g. subsidising price of participation, could generally lead to an increase in quantity of PA among those already exercising. Second, such policies could lead to desired policy goals if implemented at an individual activity level (e.g. 50% subsidy on swimming entrance charges) rather than a blanket implementation (e.g. subsidising average entrance charges across all activities by 50%).

Socioeconomic differences in sport and physical activity among Italian adults

We aimed to assess the extent of socioeconomic differences in sport and physical activity among Italian adults. A secondary data analysis of a multipurpose survey carried out by the National Institute of Statistics in 2006 in Italy was performed. We found marked differences in the practice of physical activity and sport by socioeconomic position. Subjects with a higher educational level were more likely to be physically active, practising more frequently both sport and physical activity. The Odds Ratio (OR) of regular physical activity for the highest educated compared to the lowest educated males was 1.70 (95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.38, 2.08), and the OR of sport participation was 2.03 (95% CI: 1.51, 2.72). Among females, the corresponding ORs were 1.32 (95% CI: 1.08, 1.63) and 2.26 (95% CI: 1.51, 3.38). Similar differences in physical activity and sport were found in relation to occupation and material conditions. Almost all sports were more frequently practised by subjects of higher socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic differences in sport and physical activity may derive from economic or cultural barriers. Policies to reduce inequalities and ensure access to sport independently of socioeconomic position are strongly needed.

Exploring motivation for exercise and its relationship with health-related quality of life in adults aged 70 years and older

The health benefits of regular exercise participation have been widely acknowledged. Drawing upon self-determination theory, the purpose of our study was to identify the motivational profiles for exercise among older adults aged 70 years and older who regularly participated in sporting programmes, and to relate the motivational profiles to health-related quality of life measures (HRQoL). A random sample of 100 older adults (mean age = 75.34 years, standard deviation = 4.89; 57 women and 43 men) belonging to French sports clubs was recruited for the aim of the study. Participants completed a survey including measures of motivation and health-related quality of life, and socio-demographic and health variables. Cluster analyses revealed two distinct motivational profiles among participants: ‘highly self-determined’ (high levels of self-determined motivation and introjected regulation as well as low levels of external regulation and amotivation), and ‘moderately introjected’ (low levels of self-determined motivation, moderate level of introjected regulation and low levels of external regulation and amotivation). Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) results revealed that the most self-determined group reported significantly higher values in four domains of HRQoL, namely role limitations due to physical health, bodily pain, social functioning and role limitations due to emotional health (p = 0.01). These data suggest the importance of taking into account the motivational perspective and considering exercise maintenance among older adults as an important public health challenge.

The trend in sport participation among Dutch retirees, 1983–2007

This paper investigates the trend in sport participation among retirees between 1983 and 2007. Sport participation is important for retirees because of its health benefits and the opportunities it offers for social interaction. Factors that influence sport participation such as educational level, physical limitations, and occupational background have changed during the last decades, possibly accounting for changes in sport participation. Data are from the Amenities and Services Utilization Survey (AVO), a nationally representative Dutch survey with seven observations between 1983 and 2007. The trend in sport involvement, sports club membership, and competition was investigated in a sample of 2,497 male and 1,559 female retirees aged 58–67 years. Increases in participation were observed in sport involvement and sports club membership. This trend can partially be explained by increases in educational level, decreases in the number of retirees with physical limitations, and in those retiring from sedentary jobs. Yet, sport participation seems to have increased for all retirees, regardless of their socio-economic background and health status. Alternative explanations for the observed trend are discussed.

Subjective well-being in European countries—on the age-specific impact of physical activity

As an attempt to measure the ‘experienced’ utility of individuals in economics, the investigation of individuals’ subjective well-being (SWB) was pioneered by Van Praag and Frijters (1999) and Kahneman et al. (1999). Since then, a number of studies has analysed the factors associated with SWB and policy makers are now recognising the importance of SWB as a policy target, with the implication being that one could target its factors associated with increase in the overall SWB in countries. However, despite its significance to economies, and increasing policy relevance, investigations on the impact of sport and physical activity on SWB are relatively rare [e.g. Rasciute and Downward in Kyklos 63(2):256–270, 2010]. More specifically, despite sports participation and engagement in physical activity having a strong age-specific profile (Breuer et al. in Eur Rev Aging Phys Act 7:61–70, 2010; Hinrichs et al. in Eur J Sport Soc 6(1):49–57, 2010; Mechling and Netz in European Rev Aging Physical Activity 6(2):89–97, 2009), there is no study that investigates whether the magnitude of this impact is age-specific. Consequently, this paper seeks to make a unique contribution to the existing literature by exploring the age-specific effects of physical activity on SWB for a broad cross-section of 19 European countries. Overall, the results suggest that engagement in physical activity generally contributes to the SWB of individuals on a European level but that significant age-specific differences exist.