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Kopal J, Kumar K, Shafighi K, Saltoun K, Modenato C, Moreau CA, Huguet G, Jean-Louis M, Martin CO, Saci Z, Younis N, Douard E, Jizi K, Beauchamp-Chatel A, Kushan L, Silva AI, van den Bree MBM, Linden DEJ, Owen MJ, Hall J, Lippé S, Draganski B, Sønderby IE, Andreassen OA, Glahn DC, Thompson PM, Bearden CE, Zatorre R, Jacquemont S, Bzdok D. Using rare genetic mutations to revisit structural brain asymmetry. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2639. [PMID: 38531844 PMCID: PMC10966068 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46784-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Asymmetry between the left and right hemisphere is a key feature of brain organization. Hemispheric functional specialization underlies some of the most advanced human-defining cognitive operations, such as articulated language, perspective taking, or rapid detection of facial cues. Yet, genetic investigations into brain asymmetry have mostly relied on common variants, which typically exert small effects on brain-related phenotypes. Here, we leverage rare genomic deletions and duplications to study how genetic alterations reverberate in human brain and behavior. We designed a pattern-learning approach to dissect the impact of eight high-effect-size copy number variations (CNVs) on brain asymmetry in a multi-site cohort of 552 CNV carriers and 290 non-carriers. Isolated multivariate brain asymmetry patterns spotlighted regions typically thought to subserve lateralized functions, including language, hearing, as well as visual, face and word recognition. Planum temporale asymmetry emerged as especially susceptible to deletions and duplications of specific gene sets. Targeted analysis of common variants through genome-wide association study (GWAS) consolidated partly diverging genetic influences on the right versus left planum temporale structure. In conclusion, our gene-brain-behavior data fusion highlights the consequences of genetically controlled brain lateralization on uniquely human cognitive capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Kopal
- Mila - Québec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Kuldeep Kumar
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Kimia Shafighi
- Mila - Québec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Karin Saltoun
- Mila - Québec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Claudia Modenato
- LREN - Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Clara A Moreau
- Imaging Genetics Center, Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Marina del Rey, CA, USA
| | - Guillaume Huguet
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | | | | | - Zohra Saci
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nadine Younis
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Elise Douard
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Khadije Jizi
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Alexis Beauchamp-Chatel
- Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, University of Montréal, Montréal, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Montréal, Canada
| | - Leila Kushan
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Departments of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences and Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Ana I Silva
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Marianne B M van den Bree
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Innovation Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - David E J Linden
- School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Innovation Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Michael J Owen
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Jeremy Hall
- Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Sarah Lippé
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Bogdan Draganski
- LREN - Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neurology Department, Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ida E Sønderby
- NORMENT, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- NORMENT, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- KG Jebsen Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - David C Glahn
- Department of Psychiatry, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paul M Thompson
- Imaging Genetics Center, Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine of USC, Marina del Rey, CA, USA
| | - Carrie E Bearden
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Departments of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences and Psychology, UCLA, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Robert Zatorre
- International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research, Montreal, QC, Canada
- TheNeuro - Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sébastien Jacquemont
- Centre de recherche CHU Sainte-Justine, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Danilo Bzdok
- Mila - Québec Artificial Intelligence Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
- TheNeuro - Montreal Neurological Institute (MNI), McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.
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Kopal J, Kumar K, Shafighi K, Saltoun K, Modenato C, Moreau CA, Huguet G, Jean-Louis M, Martin CO, Saci Z, Younis N, Douard E, Jizi K, Beauchamp-Chatel A, Kushan L, Silva AI, van den Bree MBM, Linden DEJ, Owen MJ, Hall J, Lippé S, Draganski B, Sønderby IE, Andreassen OA, Glahn DC, Thompson PM, Bearden CE, Zatorre R, Jacquemont S, Bzdok D. Using rare genetic mutations to revisit structural brain asymmetry. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.04.17.537199. [PMID: 37131672 PMCID: PMC10153125 DOI: 10.1101/2023.04.17.537199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Asymmetry between the left and right brain is a key feature of brain organization. Hemispheric functional specialization underlies some of the most advanced human-defining cognitive operations, such as articulated language, perspective taking, or rapid detection of facial cues. Yet, genetic investigations into brain asymmetry have mostly relied on common variant studies, which typically exert small effects on brain phenotypes. Here, we leverage rare genomic deletions and duplications to study how genetic alterations reverberate in human brain and behavior. We quantitatively dissected the impact of eight high-effect-size copy number variations (CNVs) on brain asymmetry in a multi-site cohort of 552 CNV carriers and 290 non-carriers. Isolated multivariate brain asymmetry patterns spotlighted regions typically thought to subserve lateralized functions, including language, hearing, as well as visual, face and word recognition. Planum temporale asymmetry emerged as especially susceptible to deletions and duplications of specific gene sets. Targeted analysis of common variants through genome-wide association study (GWAS) consolidated partly diverging genetic influences on the right versus left planum temporale structure. In conclusion, our gene-brain-behavior mapping highlights the consequences of genetically controlled brain lateralization on human-defining cognitive traits.
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Schaeffer J, Abd El-Raziq M, Castroviejo E, Durrleman S, Ferré S, Grama I, Hendriks P, Kissine M, Manenti M, Marinis T, Meir N, Novogrodsky R, Perovic A, Panzeri F, Silleresi S, Sukenik N, Vicente A, Zebib R, Prévost P, Tuller L. Language in autism: domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2023; 130:433-457. [PMID: 36922431 PMCID: PMC10033486 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-023-02592-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews the current knowledge state on pragmatic and structural language abilities in autism and their potential relation to extralinguistic abilities and autistic traits. The focus is on questions regarding autism language profiles with varying degrees of (selective) impairment and with respect to potential comorbidity of autism and language impairment: Is language impairment in autism the co-occurrence of two distinct conditions (comorbidity), a consequence of autism itself (no comorbidity), or one possible combination from a series of neurodevelopmental properties (dimensional approach)? As for language profiles in autism, three main groups are identified, namely, (i) verbal autistic individuals without structural language impairment, (ii) verbal autistic individuals with structural language impairment, and (iii) minimally verbal autistic individuals. However, this tripartite distinction hides enormous linguistic heterogeneity. Regarding the nature of language impairment in autism, there is currently no model of how language difficulties may interact with autism characteristics and with various extralinguistic cognitive abilities. Building such a model requires carefully designed explorations that address specific aspects of language and extralinguistic cognition. This should lead to a fundamental increase in our understanding of language impairment in autism, thereby paving the way for a substantial contribution to the question of how to best characterize neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannette Schaeffer
- Department of Literary and Cultural Analysis & Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 1642, 1000 BP, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | - Sandrine Ferré
- UMR 1253 iBrain, Université de Tours, INSERM, Tours, France
| | - Ileana Grama
- Department of Literary and Cultural Analysis & Linguistics, Faculty of Humanities, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 1642, 1000 BP, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Marta Manenti
- UMR 1253 iBrain, Université de Tours, INSERM, Tours, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Agustín Vicente
- University of the Basque Country, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- Basque Foundation for Science, Ikerbasque, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Racha Zebib
- UMR 1253 iBrain, Université de Tours, INSERM, Tours, France
| | | | - Laurice Tuller
- UMR 1253 iBrain, Université de Tours, INSERM, Tours, France
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Zhang Y, Qin B, Wang L, Chen J, Cai J, Li T. Sex differences of language abilities of preschool children with autism spectrum disorder and their anatomical correlation with Broca and Wernicke areas. Front Pediatr 2022; 10:762621. [PMID: 35935349 PMCID: PMC9354665 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2022.762621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE People with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often have language difficulties. This study focuses on whether there are sex differences in language ability in children with ASD and aims to analyze whether such differences may arise from developmental imbalances in the anatomical structures of Broca and Wernicke areas. METHODS The language development quotient (DQ) scores of Gesell Developmental Scale (GDS) and the scores of language communication of Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) were used to judge the language ability, and the FREESURFER software extracted the anatomical structures of Broca and Wernicke areas on 3DT1 sequences. We analyzed the correlation between the anatomical structure of Broca/Wernicke areas and language abilities assessments. RESULTS The study initially included 44 cases of ASD, with 36 males (81.8 %) and 8 females (18.2%), and the age range was 24-72 months. Males have better language abilities than females. Specifically, the GDS verbal DQ of males was significantly higher than that of females (56.50 ± 18.02 vs. 29.23 ± 6.67, p < 0.001). Broca thickness-L was positively correlated with verbal DQ scores in GDS (r = 0.382, p = 0.011) and lower than grade 2 and 3 on the CARS verbal communication grade 4 (5.76 ± 0.17 vs. 6.21 ± 0.30 and 6.11 ± 0.35), with statistically significant differences between groups (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION There were sex differences in the language abilities of preschoolers with ASD, which may be due to an imbalance development of certain structures in Broca and Wernicke areas, especially Broca area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zhang
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Clinical Big Data and Drug Evaluation, Medical Data Science, Academy of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bin Qin
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Research Center for Clinical Big Data and Drug Evaluation, Medical Data Science, Academy of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Longlun Wang
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jie Chen
- Children Nutrition Research Center, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinhua Cai
- National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Translational Medical Research in Cognitive Development and Learning and Memory Disorders, Department of Radiology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Tingyu Li
- Children Nutrition Research Center, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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Arunachalam Chandran V, Pliatsikas C, Neufeld J, O'Connell G, Haffey A, DeLuca V, Chakrabarti B. Brain structural correlates of autistic traits across the diagnostic divide: A grey matter and white matter microstructure study. Neuroimage Clin 2021; 32:102897. [PMID: 34911200 PMCID: PMC8641248 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are a set of neurodevelopmental conditions characterised by difficulties in social interaction and communication as well as stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest. Autistic traits exist in a continuum across the general population, whilst the extreme end of this distribution is diagnosed as clinical ASD. While many studies have investigated brain structure in autism using a case-control design, few have used a dimensional approach. To add to this growing body of literature, we investigated the structural brain correlates of autistic traits in a mixed sample of adult participants (25 ASD and 66 neurotypicals; age: 18-60 years). We examined the relationship between regional brain volumes (using voxel-based morphometry and surface-based morphometry) and white matter microstructure properties (using Diffusion Tensor Imaging) and autistic traits (using Autism Spectrum Quotient). Our findings show grey matter differences in regions including the orbitofrontal cortex and lingual gyrus, and suggestive evidence for white matter microstructure differences in tracts including the superior longitudinal fasciculus being related to higher autistic traits. These grey matter and white matter microstructure findings from our study are consistent with previous reports and support the brain structural differences in ASD. These findings provide further support for shared aetiology for autistic traits across the diagnostic divide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varun Arunachalam Chandran
- Centre for Autism, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences (SPCLS), University of Reading, UK; Center for Mind and Brain, University of California Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
| | - Christos Pliatsikas
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Harry Pitt Building, Earley Gate, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 6AL, UK; Centro de Ciencia Cognitiva, Facultad de Lenguas y Educación, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Calle de Sta. Cruz de Marcenado, 27, 28015 Madrid, Spain
| | - Janina Neufeld
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Anthony Haffey
- Centre for Autism, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences (SPCLS), University of Reading, UK
| | - Vincent DeLuca
- Department of Language and Culture, UiT- The Arctic University of Norway, Hansine Hansens veg 18, 9019 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Bhismadev Chakrabarti
- Centre for Autism, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences (SPCLS), University of Reading, UK; Department of Psychology, Ashoka University, Sonipat, India; India Autism Center, Kolkata, India
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Posar A, Visconti P. Update about "minimally verbal" children with autism spectrum disorder. REVISTA PAULISTA DE PEDIATRIA 2021; 40:e2020158. [PMID: 34495269 PMCID: PMC8432069 DOI: 10.1590/1984-0462/2022/40/2020158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review clinical and neurobiological features of minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder. DATA SOURCE We carried out a narrative review using the PubMed database. We considered the following search terms combined through the Boolean operator "AND": "autism spectrum disorder"; "minimally verbal." DATA SYNTHESIS To date, there is no shared definition of minimally verbal children with autism spectrum disorder. The heterogeneity in intellectual functioning and in linguistic abilities among these individuals suggests there is no single mechanism underlying their difficulties in learning to speak. However, the reasons why these children do not speak and the biological markers that can identify them are still unknown. Language impairment in these children can lead to several unfavorable consequences, including behavior problems (such as self-aggression, hetero-aggression, and property destruction), poorer daily living and social skills. Psychiatric comorbidities (including attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, specific phobias, and compulsions) consist in a serious problem related to the lack of verbal language in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Although in the literature there are very few evidence-based results, several findings suggest that an alternative and augmentative communication intervention, creating an extra-verbal communication channel, may be effective in these individuals. CONCLUSIONS The exact definition, clinical characteristics, associated disorders, etiology, and treatment of minimally verbal subjects with autism spectrum disorder must still be further studied and understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annio Posar
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOC Neuropsichiatria Infantile, Bologna, Italia
| | - Paola Visconti
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOC Neuropsichiatria Infantile, Bologna, Italia
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7
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Aberrant auditory system and its developmental implications for autism. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2021; 64:861-878. [DOI: 10.1007/s11427-020-1863-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Carrion-Castillo A, Pepe A, Kong XZ, Fisher SE, Mazoyer B, Tzourio-Mazoyer N, Crivello F, Francks C. Genetic effects on planum temporale asymmetry and their limited relevance to neurodevelopmental disorders, intelligence or educational attainment. Cortex 2019; 124:137-153. [PMID: 31887566 DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2019.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested that altered asymmetry of the planum temporale (PT) is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including dyslexia, schizophrenia, and autism. Shared genetic factors have been suggested to link PT asymmetry to these disorders. In a dataset of unrelated subjects from the general population (UK Biobank, N = 18,057), we found that PT volume asymmetry had a significant heritability of roughly 14%. In genome-wide association analysis, two loci were significantly associated with PT asymmetry, including a coding polymorphism within the gene ITIH5 that is predicted to affect the protein's function and to be deleterious (rs41298373, p = 2.01 × 10-15), and a locus that affects the expression of the genes BOK and DTYMK (rs7420166, p = 7.54 × 10-10). DTYMK showed left-right asymmetry of mRNA expression in post mortem PT tissue. Cortex-wide mapping of these SNP effects revealed influences on asymmetry that went somewhat beyond the PT. Using publicly available genome-wide association statistics from large-scale studies, we saw no significant genetic correlations of PT asymmetry with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, educational attainment or intelligence. Of the top two individual loci associated with PT asymmetry, rs41298373 showed a tentative association with intelligence (unadjusted p = .025), while the locus at BOK/DTYMK showed tentative association with educational attainment (unadjusted Ps < .05). These findings provide novel insights into the genetic contributions to human brain asymmetry, but do not support a substantial polygenic association of PT asymmetry with cognitive variation and mental disorders, as far as can be discerned with current sample sizes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amaia Carrion-Castillo
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Antonietta Pepe
- Groupe d'Imagerie Neurofonctionnelle, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, et Université; de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Xiang-Zhen Kong
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Simon E Fisher
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Bernard Mazoyer
- Groupe d'Imagerie Neurofonctionnelle, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, et Université; de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nathalie Tzourio-Mazoyer
- Groupe d'Imagerie Neurofonctionnelle, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, et Université; de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Fabrice Crivello
- Groupe d'Imagerie Neurofonctionnelle, Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, et Université; de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Clyde Francks
- Language and Genetics Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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