Immunizations in chronic liver disease: what should be done and what is the evidence. Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2013;15:300. [PMID: 23250700 DOI: 10.1007/s11894-012-0300-6]

Vaccination in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis: A Neglected Topic

Patients with liver cirrhosis, due to their weakened innate and adaptive immunity, are more prone to frequent and severe vaccine-preventable infections. Moreover, impaired adaptive immunity results in a limited antibody response to vaccines. Despite this suboptimal antibody response, vaccines have proven to be very effective in reducing severe outcomes and deaths in these patients. In the Western world, regulatory authorities and scientific liver societies (e.g., AASLD and EASL) have recommended vaccinations for cirrhotic patients. However, despite these strong recommendations, vaccine coverage remains suboptimal. Improving vaccine effectiveness and safety information, providing comprehensive counseling to patients, fact-checking to combat fake news and disinformation and removing barriers to vaccination for disadvantaged individuals may help overcome the low coverage rate. In view of this, vaccines should be administered early in the course of chronic liver diseases, as their efficacy declines with the increasing severity of the disease.

Vaccine Responses in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis: From the Immune System to the Gut Microbiota

Vaccines prevent a significant number of deaths annually. However, certain populations do not respond adequately to vaccination due to impaired immune systems. Cirrhosis, a condition marked by a profound disruption of immunity, impairs the normal immunization process. Critical vaccines for cirrhotic patients, such as the hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), influenza, pneumococcal, and coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19), often elicit suboptimal responses in these individuals. The humoral response, essential for immunization, is less effective in cirrhosis due to a decline in B memory cells and an increase in plasma blasts, which interfere with the creation of a long-lasting response to antigen vaccination. Additionally, some T cell subtypes exhibit reduced activation in cirrhosis. Nonetheless, the persistence of memory T cell activity, while not preventing infections, may help to attenuate the severity of diseases in these patients. Alongside that, the impairment of innate immunity, particularly in dendritic cells (DCs), prevents the normal priming of adaptive immunity, interrupting the immunization process at its onset. Furthermore, cirrhosis disrupts the gut-liver axis balance, causing dysbiosis, reduced production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), increased intestinal permeability, and bacterial translocation. Undermining the physiological activity of the immune system, these alterations could impact the vaccine response. Enhancing the understanding of the molecular and cellular factors contributing to impaired vaccination responses in cirrhotic patients is crucial for improving vaccine efficacy in this population and developing better prevention strategies.

COVID-19 and Liver Disease: An Evolving Landscape

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in significant worldwide morbidity and mortality. In this review, we examine the intricate relationships between COVID-19 and liver diseases. While respiratory manifestations of COVID-19 are well known, its impact and consequences in patients with liver diseases remain an area of ongoing investigation. COVID-19 can induce liver injury through various mechanisms and is associated with higher mortality in individuals with preexisting chronic liver disease. Mortality increases with the severity of chronic liver disease and the level of care required. The outcomes in patients with autoimmune hepatitis remain unclear, whereas liver transplant recipients are more likely to experience symptomatic COVID-19 but have comparable outcomes to the general population. Despite suboptimal immunological response, COVID-19 vaccinations are safe and effective in liver disease, although cases of autoimmune hepatitis-like syndrome have been reported. In conclusion, COVID-19 has significant implications in liver diseases; early recognition and treatments are important for improving patient outcomes.

Pneumococcal vaccination status among cirrhotic patients in Italy: a neglected topic

To date, few reports have evaluated the pneumococcal vaccination status in cirrhotic patients. No data are available for European countries. We have explored this topic and the potential independent predictors motivating lack of vaccination in Italy. Between January 1^st and June 30^th 2022, 1419 cirrhotic patients of any etiology were consecutively enrolled in an observational, prospective study at 8 referral centers in Italy. Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for the association with lack of vaccination were evaluated by multiple logistic regression analysis. Overall vaccine coverage was 17.9% (8.9% in patients < 65 years of age and 27.1% in those aged ≥ 65 years; p < 0.001). Among the 1165 unvaccinated patients, 1068 (91.7%) reported lack of information regarding vaccination as the reason for not having undergone vaccination. Independent predictors associated with lack of vaccination were age < 65 years (OR 3.39, CI 95% 2.41-4.76) and a higher number of schooling years (OR 2.14, CI 95% 1.58-2.91); alcoholic etiology resulted only marginally associated (OR 1.91, CI 95% 1.03-3.52). These findings establish evidence on how pneumococcal vaccination status in Italy is largely suboptimal among cirrhotic patients. These results raise concern, considering the severe outcomes of pneumococcal infection in patients with chronic liver diseases.

Is hepatitis-B immunization effective during chronic liver fibrosis? Investigation of secretory and cellular immune responses on an experimental model

OBJECTIVE

Adults with end-stage of chronic liver diseases have lower antibody titers after hepatitis-B vaccination. We have less amount of knowledge about the effect of non-viral cause chronic liver fibrosis on vaccination. In this study, we investigated the effect of non-viral chronic liver fibrosis on hepatitis B vaccine and the effect of tetanous toxoid co-administration at the level of humoral and cellular immune responses in an experimental model.

METHODS

Hepatitis B vaccine was administered either alone or in combination with tetanus toxoid in thioacetamide-induced fibrotic BALB/c mice. Fibrosis level was determined by Knodell scoring. Anti-HBsAg, biochemical parameters, inflammatory (IL-1β, TNF-α), and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine levels were investigated in serum samples by automated systems and ELISA; respectively. Frequencies of activated lymphocytes were determined in flow cytometer.

RESULTS

Antibody titers significantly decreased after immunization of fibrotic mice. However, co-administration of toxoid significantly elevated antibody titer. The percentage of CD19⁺CD69⁺ B lymphocytes was found to be lower in vaccinated fibrotic group compared to vaccinated naive group. Simultaneous administration of toxoid significantly increased the frequencies of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells expressing CD69 and CD127. Interestingly, CD19⁺CD5⁺CD1^high Breg cells were significantly reduced in the group vaccinated with hepatitis B vaccine and toxoid, simultaneously. The reduction in Breg percentage did not expose a significant decrease in the level of IL-10.

CONCLUSION

Non-viral chronic liver fibrosis causes a reduction on specific antibody level after vaccination. Reduction on Breg cell frequency may have an effect on elevation of antibody level after co-administration of tetanus toxoid.

COVID-19 and hepatic injury: cellular and molecular mechanisms in diverse liver cells

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represents a global health and economic challenge. Hepatic injuries have been approved to be associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The viral tropism pattern of SARS-CoV-2 can induce hepatic injuries either by itself or by worsening the conditions of patients with hepatic diseases. Besides, other factors have been reported to play a crucial role in the pathological forms of hepatic injuries induced by SARS-CoV-2, including cytokine storm, hypoxia, endothelial cells, and even some treatments for COVID-19. On the other hand, several groups of people could be at risk of hepatic COVID-19 complications, such as pregnant women and neonates. The present review outlines and discusses the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 infection and hepatic injury, hepatic illness comorbidity, and risk factors. Besides, it is focused on the vaccination process and the role of developed vaccines in preventing hepatic injuries due to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Early Diagnosis and Prevention of Infections in Cirrhosis

Strategies to prevent infection and improve outcomes in patients with cirrhosis. HAV, hepatitis A virus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; COVID-19, novel coronavirus disease 2019; NSBB, nonselective β-blocker; PPI, proton pump inhibitors.Cirrhosis is a risk factor for infections. Majority of hospital admissions in patients with cirrhosis are due to infections. Sepsis is an immunological response to an infectious process that leads to end-organ dysfunction and death. Preventing infections may avoid the downstream complications, and early diagnosis of infections may improve the outcomes. In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and biomarkers of infection; the incremental preventive strategies for infections and sepsi; and the consequent organ failures in cirrhosis. Strategies for primary prevention include reducing gut translocation by selective intestinal decontamination, avoiding unnecessary proton pump inhibitors' use, appropriate use of β-blockers, and vaccinations for viral diseases including novel coronavirus disease 2019. Secondary prevention includes early diagnosis and a timely and judicious use of antibiotics to prevent organ dysfunction. Organ failure support constitutes tertiary intervention in cirrhosis. In conclusion, infections in cirrhosis are potentially preventable with appropriate care strategies to then enable improved outcomes.

Postvaccination COVID-19 infection is associated with reduced mortality in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Patients develop breakthrough COVID-19 infection despite vaccination. The aim of this study was to identify outcomes in patients with cirrhosis who developed postvaccination COVID-19.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study among US veterans with cirrhosis and postvaccination or unvaccinated COVID-19. Patients were considered fully vaccinated if COVID-19 was diagnosed 14 days after the second dose of either the Pfizer BNT162b2, the Moderna 1273-mRNA, or the single-dose Janssen Ad.26.COV2.S vaccines and partially vaccinated if COVID-19 was diagnosed 7 days after the first dose of any vaccine but prior to full vaccination. We investigated the association of postvaccination COVID-19 with mortality.

RESULTS

We identified 3242 unvaccinated and 254 postvaccination COVID-19 patients with cirrhosis (82 after full and 172 after partial vaccination). In a multivariable analysis of a 1:2 propensity-matched cohort including vaccinated (n = 254) and unvaccinated (n = 508) participants, postvaccination COVID-19 was associated with reduced risk of death (adjusted HR [aHR], 0.21; 95% CI, 0.11-0.42). The reduction was observed after both full (aHR, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.08-0.63) and partial (aHR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.07-0.54) vaccination, following the 1273-mRNA (aHR, 0.12; 95% CI 0.04-0.37) and BNT162b2 (aHR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.10-0.71) vaccines and among patients with compensated (aHR, 0.19; 95% CI, 0.08-0.45) and decompensated (aHR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.08-0.90) cirrhosis. Findings were consistent in a sensitivity analysis restricted to participants who developed COVID-19 after vaccine availability.

CONCLUSIONS

Though patients with cirrhosis can develop breakthrough COVID-19 after full or partial vaccination, these infections are associated with reduced mortality.

Recommendations of the Italian society for infectious and tropical diseases (SIMIT) for adult vaccinations

Vaccination prevents 2-3 million deaths worldwide every year. Nevertheless, vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) still cause a considerable number of deaths especially in subjects belonging to "risk groups." These are represented by older adults, immunocompromised individuals and all subjects with underlying chronic medical conditions (cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal and liver chronic diseases, diabetes, immunodeficiency disorders). They have a weaker immune system and, if infected, are more likely to develop severe complications of their condition or of the preventable-infectious disease. This document summarizes the recommendations for vaccination of the main Global Institutional Organizations and analyses the risks of comorbidities associated with infectious disease and the benefits of vaccination for each specific group. The document provides a clear, practical and authoritative guide to adult vaccination.

Association of BNT162b2 mRNA and mRNA-1273 Vaccines With COVID-19 Infection and Hospitalization Among Patients With Cirrhosis

IMPORTANCE

Two mRNA-based vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) were found to be highly efficacious in phase 3 clinical trials in the US. However, patients with chronic illnesses, including cirrhosis, were excluded from clinical trials. Patients with cirrhosis have immune dysregulation that is associated with vaccine hyporesponsiveness.

OBJECTIVE

To study the association of receipt of the Pfizer BNT162b2 mRNA or the Moderna mRNA-1273 vaccines in patients with cirrhosis compared with a propensity-matched control group of patients at similar risk of infection and severe disease from COVID-19.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients with cirrhosis who received at least 1 dose of a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine at the Veterans Health Administration. Patients who received at least 1 dose of the vaccine (n = 20 037) were propensity matched with 20 037 controls to assess the associations of vaccination with new COVID-19 infection and COVID-19 hospitalization and death.

EXPOSURES

Receipt of at least 1 dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA or the mRNA-1273 vaccines between December 18, 2020, and March 17, 2021.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

COVID-19 infection as documented by a positive result for COVID-19 by polymerase chain reaction, hospitalization, and death due to COVID-19 infection.

RESULTS

The median (interquartile range) age of the vaccinated individuals in the study cohort was 69.1 (8.4) years and 19 465 (97.2%) of the participants in each of the vaccinated and unvaccinated groups were male, consistent with a US veteran population. The mRNA-1273 vaccine was administered in 10 236 (51%) and the BNT162b2 mRNA in 9801 (49%) patients. Approximately 99.7% of patients who received the first dose of either vaccine with a follow-up of 42 days or more received a second dose. The number of COVID-19 infections in the vaccine recipients was similar to the control group in days 0 to 7, 7 to 14, 14 to 21, and 21 to 28 after the first dose. After 28 days, receipt of 1 dose of an mRNA vaccine was associated with a 64.8% reduction in COVID-19 infections and 100% protection against hospitalization or death due to COVID-19 infection. The association of reduced COVID-19 infections after the first dose was lower among patients with decompensated (50.3%) compared with compensated cirrhosis (66.8%). Receipt of a second dose was associated with a 78.6% reduction in COVID-19 infections and 100% reduction in COVID-19-related hospitalization or death after 7 days.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This cohort study of US veterans found that mRNA vaccine administration was associated with a delayed but modest reduction in COVID-19 infection but an excellent reduction in COVID-19-related hospitalization or death in patients with cirrhosis.

Hepatitis B vaccine coverage and risk factors for lack of vaccination in subjects with HBsAg negative liver cirrhosis in Italy: still, much work should be done

BACKGROUND

in Italy, Hepatitis-B-vaccine is advised and provided free-of-charge for subjects with chronic liver disease (CLD), including liver cirrhosis.

AIMS

to evaluate HB-vaccine-coverage and variables associated with lack of vaccination in cirrhotic patients with particular attention to cirrhosis' etiology.

METHODS

cirrhotic patients of any etiology (excluding HBsAg+) referring to 8 tertiary-centers were prospectively enrolled for a-six-months-period in 2019. Subjects were asked if they received HB-vaccine previously. Multiple-logistic-regression-analysis was performed to identify independent predictors of lack of vaccination.

RESULTS

731 cases were recruited. Overall-vaccine-coverage was 16.3% (23.7% in those younger than 65y, 10.0% in those older than 64y; p<0.001). Lack of information was the most frequent reason (78.5% of cases) reported by the 608 unvaccinated subjects, without statistical difference by area-of-birth (77.3% in Italians, 80.0% in people-born-abroad). Age>64 y (OR: 4.27; CI 95%: 2.52-7.24), educational level<9 years (OR: 3.52; CI 95%: 2.10-5.90), residence in South/Sardinia (OR 2.52; CI 95%:1.45-4.39), birth-abroad (OR 5.09; CI 95%: 1.07-24-.17), and Child grade B/C(OR 2.68; CI 95%: 1.35-5.33) all resulted independent predictors of likelihood of lack of vaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

Vaccination-rate in cirrhotic patients results very low. Vaccine-coverage implementation in these subjects, is warranted. Vaccine should be provided in early CLD, when immunization is most effective.

Efficacy of an accelerated double-dose hepatitis B vaccine regimen in patients with cirrhosis

The hepatitis B (HBV) vaccine is recommended in unvaccinated adults with cirrhosis, despite its low efficacy. We aimed to evaluate the response to a double-dose/accelerated vaccine schedule in patients with cirrhosis admitted into a hepatology ward. All patients with cirrhosis admitted to the hepatology ward without exclusion criteria were offered the HBV HBVAXPRO 40mcg vaccine at months 0, 1 and 2. Non-responders received a second cycle. We evaluated 468 patients and only 19% were seroprotected against HBV. In 196 patients without exclusion criteria for HBV vaccination, the per protocol response rate (anti-HBs >10 U/ml) was 23% after a first cycle and 59% after a second cycle. The overall response per intention to treat was only 23%. We have not identified predictors of response. Only one patient had a mild adverse event. Most patients with cirrhosis admitted in the hepatology ward are unprotected against HBV. Although a second HBV vaccination cycle increases the response rate, the poor overall response reinforces the implementation of HBV vaccination before the development of cirrhosis.

A Latin American survey on demographic aspects of hospitalized, decompensated cirrhotic patients and the resources for their management

INTRODUCTION & OBJECTIVES

Liver cirrhosis is a major cause of mortality worldwide. Adequate diagnosis and treatment of decompensating events requires of both medical skills and updated technical resources. The objectives of this study were to search the demographic profile of hospitalized cirrhotic patients in a group of Latin American hospitals and the availability of expertise/facilities for the diagnosis and therapy of decompensation episodes.

METHODS

A cross sectional, multicenter survey of hospitalized cirrhotic patients.

RESULTS

377 patients, (62% males; 58±11 years) (BMI>25, 57%; diabetes 32%) were hospitalized at 65 centers (63 urbans; 57 academically affiliated) in 13 countries on the survey date. Main admission causes were ascites, gastrointestinal bleeding, hepatic encephalopathy and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis/other infections. Most prevalent etiologies were alcohol-related (AR) (40%); non-alcoholic-steatohepatitis (NASH) (23%), hepatitis C virus infection (HCV) (7%) and autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) (6%). The most frequent concurrent etiologies were AR+NASH. Expertise and resources in every analyzed issue were highly available among participating centers, mostly accomplishing valid guidelines. However, availability of these facilities was significantly higher at institutions located in areas with population>500,000 (n=45) and in those having a higher complexity level (Gastrointestinal, Liver and Internal Medicine Departments at the same hospital (n=22).

CONCLUSIONS

The epidemiological etiologic profile in hospitalized, decompensated cirrhotic patients in Latin America is similar to main contemporary emergent agents worldwide. Medical and technical resources are highly available, mostly at great population urban areas and high complexity medical centers. Main diagnostic and therapeutic approaches accomplish current guidelines recommendations.

Low seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in a liver transplant cohort

Solid organ transplant recipients might be at greater risk for acquisition and mortality because of SARS‐CoV‐2. There are no data regarding SARS‐CoV‐2 seroprevalence among liver transplant (LT) recipients, and whether it is different from that of the general population or other immunosuppressed groups. We evaluated the prevalence of IgG SARS‐CoV‐2 antibodies among LT recipients to estimate the frequency of asymptomatic SARS‐CoV‐2 infection using serological assays in our outpatient clinic. We conducted a cross‐sectional analysis from 10 May to 26 October 2020 of all adult (>18 years) LT recipients that underwent a routine laboratory test for the outpatient clinic follow‐up at the Hospital Universitari Vall d’Hebron (Barcelona) in which we included serological testing for SARS‐CoV‐2. Nine out of 294 LT recipients (3.1%) tested positive for anti‐SARS‐CoV‐2 IgG antibodies. Five of them (55.5%) had suffered clinically symptomatic SARS‐CoV‐2 infection confirmed by RT‐PCR, four (44.4%) had presented compatible symptoms but without microbiological confirmation and only one patient (1/9, 11.1%) tested positive without any previous symptom. SARS‐CoV‐2 seroprevalence among LT recipients in an area highly affected by the pandemic is lower than in the general population in the same area. These results render the possibility of asymptomatic infection in LT recipients very unlikely.

Two-Dose Hepatitis B Vaccine (Heplisav-B) Results in Better Seroconversion Than Three-Dose Vaccine (Engerix-B) in Chronic Liver Disease

BACKGROUND

The efficacy of the two-dose hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine (Heplisav-B^®) in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) is unknown.

AIMS

To compare the immunogenicity achieved with Heplisav-B and the conventional three-dose vaccine (Engerix-B^®) in patients with CLD, and to identify factors that predict seroconversion.

METHODS

We retrospectively identified all adults who completed Heplisav-B or Engerix-B regimens from August 1, 2015, to January 31, 2019. Post-vaccination immunity was assessed by quantitative HBV surface antibody (HBsAb) measurement.

RESULTS

We identified 166 patients (106 Engerix-B and 60 Heplisav-B) with chronic liver disease (mean age 59.0 ± 11.3 years, 52% male, 34% cirrhosis, mean MELD score of those with cirrhosis 10.1 ± 5.4) who had completed the vaccinations and had data available on post-vaccination HBsAb levels at least 2 months after completion of the vaccine regimen. Seroprotective HBsAb levels (> 10 mIU/ml) were achieved in 63% with Heplisav-B and in 45% with Engerix-B (p = 0.03). Univariable analysis showed that age (p = 0.01), insurance (p = 0.02), renal failure (p = 0.02), COPD (p = 0.05), and cirrhosis (p < 0.01) had a significant effect on achieving immunogenicity. On multivariable analysis, patients with cirrhosis (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.27, 95% CI 0.13-0.55), COPD (aOR: 0.06, 95% CI 0.01-0.56), or renal failure (aOR 0.36, 95% CI 0.14-0.93) had a lower likelihood of achieving immunity, and patients who received Heplisav-B^® had a 2.7-fold greater likelihood of achieving immunity than those who received Engerix-B^® (aOR: 2.74, 95% CI 1.31-5.71).

CONCLUSION

The two-dose recombinant hepatitis B vaccine resulted in better seroconversion than the three-dose vaccine. Cirrhosis, COPD, and renal failure were associated with a lower likelihood of achieving immunogenicity.

EASL position paper on the use of COVID-19 vaccines in patients with chronic liver diseases, hepatobiliary cancer and liver transplant recipients

According to a recent World Health Organization estimate, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, which originated in China in 2019, has spread globally, infecting nearly 100 million people worldwide by January 2021. Patients with chronic liver diseases (CLD), particularly cirrhosis, hepatobiliary malignancies, candidates for liver transplantation, and immunosuppressed individuals after liver transplantation appear to be at increased risk of infections in general, which in turn translates into increased mortality. This is also the case for SARS-CoV-2 infection, where patients with cirrhosis, in particular, are at high risk of a severe COVID-19 course. Therefore, vaccination against various pathogens including SARS-CoV-2, administered as early as possible in patients with CLD, is an important protective measure. However, due to impaired immune responses in these patients, the immediate and long-term protective response through immunisation may be incomplete. The current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has led to the exceptionally fast development of several vaccine candidates. A small number of these SARS-CoV-2 vaccine candidates have already undergone phase III, placebo-controlled, clinical trials in healthy individuals with proof of short-term safety, immunogenicity and efficacy. However, although regulatory agencies in the US and Europe have already approved some of these vaccines for clinical use, information on immunogenicity, duration of protection and long-term safety in patients with CLD, cirrhosis, hepatobiliary cancer and liver transplant recipients has yet to be generated. This review summarises the data on vaccine safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy in this patient population in general and discusses the implications of this knowledge on the introduction of the new SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.

IL-2 contributes to cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction by impairing follicular T helper cells in advanced cirrhosis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Patients with decompensated cirrhosis suffer from recurrent infections and inadequate responses to prophylactic vaccinations. However, many patients present with hypergammaglobulinemia (HGG), indicating a sustained ability to generate antibody responses. As follicular T helper (Tfh) cells are central facilitators of humoral immunity, we hypothesized that Tfh cell responses may be altered in advanced liver disease and we aimed to identify the mechanisms underlying any such alterations.

METHODS

Tfh, regulatory T (Treg) cells, B cells, circulating cytokines and immunoglobulins were analyzed in cohorts of patients with compensated (n = 37) and decompensated cirrhosis (n = 82) and in non-cirrhotic controls (n = 45). Intrahepatic T cells were analyzed in 8 decompensated patients. The influence of IL-2 on Tfh cell function was evaluated in vitro, including Tfh cell cloning and T cell-B cell co-cultures with clones and primary tonsil-derived Tfh cells.

RESULTS

Tfh cell frequencies were reduced in patients with decompensated cirrhosis, with phenotypic signatures indicative of increased IL-2 signaling. Soluble IL-2 receptor (sCD25) was elevated in these patients and CD4 T cells were more responsive to IL-2 signaling, as characterized by STAT5 phosphorylation. IL-2 exposure in vitro diminished the Tfh phenotype and resulted in impaired Tfh helper function in co-culture experiments with naïve B cells. Tfh cells were barely detectable in cirrhotic livers. IL-2 signatures on Tfh cells in decompensated patients correlated with immunoglobulin levels, which were found to be associated with improved survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Tfh cell impairment represents a previously underestimated feature of cirrhosis-associated immune dysfunction that is driven by IL-2. The presence of HGG in decompensated patients predicts an intact Tfh cell compartment and is associated with a favorable outcome.

LAY SUMMARY

Patients with advanced cirrhosis often fail to generate protective immunity after prophylactic vaccinations and suffer from recurring infections that are associated with high mortality. Follicular T helper (Tfh) cells are specialized CD4 T cells that enable the emergence of antibody responses against microbial pathogens. This report demonstrates that Tfh cells are impaired in patients with advanced cirrhosis due to interleukin-2 signaling, a cytokine that is known to impair the generation of Tfh cells.

The Clinical Impact of Cirrhosis on the Hospital Outcomes of Patients Admitted With Influenza Infection: Propensity Score Matched Analysis of 2011-2017 US Hospital Data

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Patients with cirrhosis have liver-related immune dysfunction that potentially predisposes the patients to increased influenza infection risk. Our study evaluates this cross-sectional relationship using a national registry of hospital patients.

METHODS

This study included the 2011-2017 National Inpatient Sample database. From this, respiratory influenza cases were isolated and stratified using the presence of cirrhosis into a cirrhosis-present study cohort and cirrhosis-absent controls; propensity score matching method was used to match the controls to the study cohort (cirrhosis-present) using a 1:1 matching ratio. The endpoints included mortality, length of stay, hospitalization costs, and influenza-related complications.

RESULTS

Following the match, there were 2,040 with cirrhosis and matched 2,040 without cirrhosis admitted with respiratory influenza infection. Compared to the controls, cirrhosis patients had higher in-hospital mortality (7.79 vs 3.43% p < 0.001, OR 2.38 95% CI 1.78-3.17), longer length of stay (7.25 vs 6.52 d p < 0.001), higher hospitalization costs ($70,009 vs $65,035 p < 0.001), and were more likely be discharged to a skilled nursing facility and home healthcare (vs routine home discharges). In terms of influenza-related complications, the cirrhosis cohort had higher rates of sepsis (29.8 vs 22% p < 0.001, OR 1.51 95% CI 1.31-1.74). In the multivariate regression analysis, cirrhosis was associated with higher mortality (p < 0.001, aOR 2.31 95% CI 1.59-3.35) and length of stay (p = 0.018, aOR 1.03 95% CI 1.01-1.06). In subgroup analysis of patients with decompensated (n = 597) versus compensated cirrhosis (n = 1443), those with decompensated cirrhosis had higher rates of in-hospital mortality (12.7 vs 5.75% p < 0.001, OR 2.39 95% CI 1.72-3.32), length of stay (8.85 vs 6.59 d p < 0.001), and hospitalization costs ($92,858 vs $60,556 p < 0.001). In the multivariate analysis, decompensated cirrhosis was associated with increased mortality (p < 0.001, aOR 2.86 95% CI 1.90-4.32).

CONCLUSION

This study shows the presence of cirrhosis to result in higher hospital mortality and postinfluenza complications in patients with influenza infection.

Metabolic defects in splenic B cell compartments from patients with liver cirrhosis

Liver cirrhosis is associated with defective vaccine responses and increased infections. Dysregulated B cell compartments in cirrhotic patients have been noticed but not well characterized, especially in the spleen. Here, we comprehensively investigated B cell perturbations from the spleens and peripheral blood of cirrhotic patients. We found that liver cirrhosis significantly depleted both switched and nonswitched splenic memory B cells, which was further confirmed histologically. Bulk RNA-seq revealed significant metabolic defects as the potential mechanism for the impaired splenic B cell functions. Functionally, the splenic memory B cells from cirrhotic patients showed strong metabolic defects and reduced proliferation compared with those from healthy controls. Thus, liver cirrhosis extensively disturbs the splenic and peripheral B cell compartments, which may contribute to defective humoral immunity during liver cirrhosis.

Quality of care provided to outpatients with hepatic cirrhosis in a teaching hospital

INTRODUCTION

a set of indicators to measure the quality of care of cirrhotic patients has been established and previously published studies report an adherence rate to clinical guide indications of 40-80 %.

OBJECTIVE

to assess the adherence to quality indicators in a tertiary teaching hospital.

METHODS

a retrospective observational study was performed of all cirrhotic outpatients seen during one semester in 2017. The charts were studied of 324 patients and quality indicators related to five domains were collected. An overall adherence to 14 quality indicators was recorded and analyzed based on the attending physician's experience.

RESULTS

the results were excellent (more than 90 % adherence) for quality indicators related to prophylaxis of variceal bleeding and documentation of cirrhosis etiology, acceptable (60-90 % adherence) for hepatocellular carcinoma screening and disease severity assessment, and poor (less than 50 %) for vaccinations. Residents had significantly better results than experienced physicians in etiology, disease severity assessment and two indicators of prophylaxis of bleeding. Experienced physicians only presented a better adherence to hepatocellular carcinoma screening.

CONCLUSIONS

despite excellent results for some quality indicators, most required improvement, especially vaccinations. The quality of care achieved by residents is equal to and even better than that of experienced physicians. Measuring quality of care is essential to analyze and improve the health care of cirrhotic outpatients and may be a useful tool for supervising specialists in training.

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: What Does the Primary Care Physician Need to Know?

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease in the United States and is soon to be the leading cause of liver transplantation. Patients at the greatest risk are those with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus. In 2019 the American Diabetes Association guidelines called, for the first time, for clinicians to screen for steatohepatitis and fibrosis all patients with type 2 diabetes and liver steatosis or abnormal plasma aminotransferases. This requires primary care physicians to be aware of key aspects related to the diagnosis and treatment of NAFLD, as well as to when to refer to a specialist. Unfortunately, there is still significant medical inertia as clinicians remain unaware of its high morbidity/mortality. Early diagnosis in the primary care setting is critical to prevent progression to end-stage liver disease. Patients with NAFLD are also at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Despite general perception to the contrary, weight loss by lifestyle intervention or bariatric surgery and several pharmacological treatments (eg, vitamin E in nondiabetics, pioglitazone or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists in patients with or without diabetes) can often be successful to reverse steatohepatitis and prevent disease progression.

Effectiveness of influenza vaccines in adults with chronic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Patients with liver disease frequently require hospitalisation with infection often the trigger. Influenza vaccination is an effective infection prevention strategy in healthy and elderly but is often perceived less beneficial in patients with liver disease. We investigated whether influenza vaccination triggered serological response and prevented hospitalisation and death in liver disease.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed and CENTRAL up to January 2019.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Randomised or observational studies of the effects of influenza vaccine in adults with liver disease.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Two reviewers screened studies, extracted data and assessed risk of bias and quality of evidence. Primary outcomes were all-cause hospitalisation and mortality. Secondary outcomes were cause-specific hospitalisation and mortality, and serological vaccine response. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate pooled effects of vaccination.

RESULTS

We found 10 041 unique records, 286 were eligible for full-text review and 12 were included. Most patients had viral liver disease. All studies were of very low quality. Liver patients both with and without cirrhosis mounted an antibody response to influenza vaccination, and vaccination was associated with a reduction in risk of hospital admission from 205/1000 to 149/1000 (risk difference -0.06, 95% CI -0.07 to 0.04) in patients with viral liver disease. Vaccinated patients were 27% less likely to be admitted to hospital compared with unvaccinated patients (risk ratio 0.73, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.80). No effect against all-cause or cause-specific mortality or cause-specific hospitalisation was found.

CONCLUSIONS

The low quantity and quality of the evidence means that the protective vaccine effect may be uncertain. Considering the high risk of serious health outcomes from influenza infection in patients with liver disease and the safety and low cost of vaccination, overall, the potential benefits of seasonal vaccination both to patients and the healthcare systems are likely to outweigh the costs and risks associated with vaccination.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42017067277.

Efficacy of High-Dose, Rapid, Hepatitis A and B Vaccination Schedules in Patients With Cirrhosis

Patients with cirrhosis have increased morbidity from hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections, and vaccination against these infections is an important standard of care.^1,2 However, vaccination in patients with cirrhosis is hindered by immune dysfunction and there is limited high-quality literature available. The aim of this work therefore was to compare immune responses of standard dose (SD) with high-dose accelerated (HDA) vaccination in cirrhotic patients.

Infections in Cirrhosis

Purpose of review

Patients with cirrhosis are at high risk of developing serious infections. Bacterial infections remain the most common cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients. This review is focused on the prevalence of infections in those with cirrhosis, including multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens, pathogenesis of infection-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF), current treatment recommendations, and prophylactic strategies in patients with cirrhosis.

Recent findings

Recent epidemiological studies have noted an emerging prevalence of MDR bacterial infections and associated with poor prognosis, and a high rate of treatment failure and mortality. Therefore, new recommendations on empirical antibiotic use based on epidemiological data have been developed in order to improve outcomes.

Summary

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) and urinary tract infection (UTI) are the most frequent infections followed by pneumonia, cellulitis, and bacteremia, while pneumonia carries the highest risk of mortality. The incidence of MDR bacterial infections has been increasing, especially in healthcare-associated settings. Second infections that develop during hospitalization, multiple organ failures, and high MELD score are associated with poor survival. Preventive measures, early diagnosis, and adequate treatment of infections are essential key concepts in minimizing morbidity and mortality in patients with cirrhosis.

Autoimmune hepatitis following influenza virus vaccination: Two case reports

RATIONALE

Although immunization could possibly cause autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), to date, no cases of AIH have been reported secondary to influenza virus vaccination. This paper describes 2 women who developed AIH after receiving influenza virus vaccination.

PATIENT CONCERNS AND DIAGNOSES

Two women presented with elevation of liver enzymes after receiving influenza virus vaccination. Both patients were diagnosed with AIH using the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group criteria.

INTERVENTION AND OUTCOMES

Both patients were treated with prednisolone. After the initiation of prednisolone, serum aminotransferase levels were observed to return to the reference range in both patients.

LESSONS

Influenza virus vaccination could trigger the development of AIH. Clinicians should be mindful of the fact that AIH can occur after influenza virus vaccination.

Bacterial Infections

Bacterial infections are the most significant infectious source of morbidity and mortality in cirrhotic patients. Bacteria infections result is both acute decompensation in chronic liver disease and mortality in patients with decompensated cirrhosis. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP), bacteremia, pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTI) and skin and soft tissue infection (SSTI) are the most significant sources of infection in cirrhosis. Bacterial infections can precipitate renal failure and worsening hepatic encephalopathy, and patients with sepsis and liver disease have higher rates of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and coagulopathy.

Sero-prevalence and vaccination status of hepatitis A and hepatitis B among adults with cirrhosis in Sri Lanka: a hospital based cohort study

Background

As acute viral hepatitis can be fatal in patients with cirrhosis, vaccination against hepatitis A (HAV) and hepatitis B (HBV) is recommended for non-immune patients. With increasing affluence the incidence of hepatitis A in childhood has decreased leading to a significant proportion of non-immune adults. As part of their routine investigation, hepatitis A IgG antibodies (anti-HAV IgG), hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and anti-HCV antibodies was checked and immunization status was assessed among consenting newly diagnosed cirrhotic patients presenting to a tertiary referral center.

Findings

Out of 135 patients, 107 [79.3%; males 91; mean age (SD) at presentation: 55.5 (11.6) years] with complete data were included for analysis. Most patients had either cryptogenic cirrhosis (62.6%) or alcoholic cirrhosis (29.9%); 2 (1.9%) had HBV cirrhosis, none had hepatitis C (HCV) cirrhosis. None of the patients had received vaccination against hepatitis A, while 71 (67.6%) had been vaccinated against HBV. The majority [62 (58%)] were negative for anti-HAV IgG.

Conclusion

Most cirrhotic patients in this cohort were not immune to hepatitis A. None had been vaccinated against HAV, while a third of patients had not been vaccinated against HBV. Cirrhotic patients should be routinely investigated for immunity against HAV and HBV, and vaccination offered to those found to be non-immune.

Bacterial infections in cirrhosis: A critical review and practical guidance

Bacterial infection is common and accounts for major morbidity and mortality in cirrhosis. Patients with cirrhosis are immunocompromised and increased susceptibility to develop spontaneous bacterial infections, hospital-acquired infections, and a variety of infections from uncommon pathogens. Once infection develops, the excessive response of pro-inflammatory cytokines on a pre-existing hemodynamic dysfunction in cirrhosis further predispose the development of serious complications such as shock, acute-on-chronic liver failure, renal failure, and death. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis and bacteremia are common in patients with advanced cirrhosis, and are important prognostic landmarks in the natural history of cirrhosis. Notably, the incidence of infections from resistant bacteria has increased significantly in healthcare-associated settings. Serum biomarkers such as procalcitonin may help to improve the diagnosis of bacterial infection. Preventive measures (e.g., avoidance, antibiotic prophylaxis, and vaccination), early recognition, and proper management are required in order to minimize morbidity and mortality of infections in cirrhosis.

Annual influenza vaccination reduces total hospitalization in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection: A population-based analysis

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated hospitalization and mortality in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection (HBV (+)) and matched comparison patients after stratifying the patients according to annual influenza vaccination (Vaccine (+)).

METHODS

Data from Taiwan's National Health Insurance program from 2000 to 2009 were used to identify HBV(+)/vaccine(+) (n=4434), HBV(+)/Vaccine(-) (n=3646), HBV(-)/Vaccine(+) (n=8868), and HBV(-)/Vaccine(-) (n=8868) cohorts. The risk of pneumonia/influenza, respiratory failure, intensive care, hospitalization, and mortality in the four cohorts was evaluated.

RESULTS

The total hospitalization rate was significantly lower in patients with chronic HBV infection who received an annual influenza vaccination than in chronic HBV-infected patients who did not receive an influenza vaccination (16.29 vs. 24.02 per 100 person-years), contributing to an adjusted hazard ratio (HR) of 0.56 (95% confidence interval (CI)=0.50-0.62). The HBV(+)/Vaccine(+) cohort also had lower risks than the HBV(+)/Vaccine(-) cohort for pneumonia and influenza (adjusted HR=0.79, 95% CI=0.67-0.92), intensive care unit admission (adjusted HR=0.33, 95% CI=0.25-0.43), and mortality (adjusted HR=0.19, 95% CI=0.15-0.24).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that annual influenza vaccination can reduce the risk of hospitalization and mortality in patients with chronic HBV infection.

Relative effects of heavy alcohol use and hepatitis C in decompensated chronic liver disease in a hospital inpatient population

BACKGROUND

Heavy alcohol use has been hypothesized to accelerate disease progression to end-stage liver disease in patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. In this study, we estimated the relative influences of heavy alcohol use and HCV in decompensated chronic liver disease (CLD).

METHODS

Retrospectively, 904 patients with cirrhotic disease admitted to our hospitals during January 2010-December 2012 were identified based on ICD9 codes. A thorough chart review captured information on demographics, viral hepatitis status, alcohol use and progression of liver disease (i.e. decompensation). Decompensation was defined as the presence of ascites due to portal hypertension, bleeding esophageal varices, hepatic encephalopathy or hepatorenal syndrome. Heavy alcohol use was defined as a chart entry of greater than six daily units of alcohol or its equivalent.

RESULTS

347 patients were included based on our selection criteria of documented heavy alcohol use (n = 215; 62.0%), hepatitis titers (HCV: n = 182; 52.5%) and radiological evidence of CLD with or without decompensation (decompensation: n = 225; 64.8%). Independent of HCV infection, heavy alcohol use significantly increased the risk of decompensation (OR = 1.75, 95% CI 1.11-2.75, p < 0.02) relative to no heavy alcohol use. No significance was seen with age, sex, race, HIV, viral hepatitis and moderate alcohol use for risk for decompensation. Additionally, dose-relationship regression analysis revealed that heavy, but not moderate alcohol use, resulted in a three-fold increase (p = 0.013) in the risk of decompensation relative to abstinence.

CONCLUSIONS

While both heavy alcohol use and HCV infection are associated with risk of developing CLD, our data suggest that heavy, but not moderate, alcohol consumption is associated with a greater risk for hepatic decompensation in patients with cirrhosis than does HCV infection.

Risk factors and outcome of bacterial infections in cirrhosis

Viable and non-viable pathological bacterial translocation promote a self-perpetuating circle of dysfunctional immune activation and systemic inflammation facilitating infections and organ failure in advanced cirrhosis. Bacterial infections and sepsis are now recognized as a distinct stage in the natural progression of chronic liver disease as they accelerate organ failure and contribute to the high mortality observed in decompensated cirrhosis. The increasing knowledge of structural, immunological and hemodynamic pathophysiology in advanced cirrhosis has not yet translated into significantly improved outcomes of bacterial infections over the last decades. Therefore, early identification of patients at the highest risk for developing infections and infection-related complications is required to tailor the currently available measures of surveillance, prophylaxis and therapy to the patients in need in order to improve the detrimental outcome of bacterial infections in cirrhosis.

Influenza A/H1/N1/09 infection in patients with cirrhosis has a poor outcome: a case series

Seasonal influenza is often unsuspected in cirrhotic patients admitted with pneumonia and acute hepatic decompensation. We report five consecutive patients with influenza A subtype H1N1 2009 strain (influenza A/H1N1/09) admitted to our intensive care unit. All had a short history of rapidly worsening respiratory symptoms, but there were no characteristic clinical or radiographic features. Secondary pulmonary infection was universal. All five patients died, despite prompt institution of oseltamivir and intensive supportive care. A high index of suspicion is needed for influenza infection among patients with decompensated cirrhosis.