The Production, Characterization, and the Stability of Carotenoids Loaded in Lipid-Core Nanocapsules

Skin Protection by Carotenoid Pigments

Sunlight, despite its benefits, can pose a threat to the skin, which is a natural protective barrier. Phototoxicity caused by overexposure, especially to ultraviolet radiation (UVR), results in burns, accelerates photoaging, and causes skin cancer formation. Natural substances of plant origin, i.e., polyphenols, flavonoids, and photosynthetic pigments, can protect the skin against the effects of radiation, acting not only as photoprotectors like natural filters but as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory remedies, alleviating the effects of photodamage to the skin. Plant-based formulations are gaining popularity as an attractive alternative to synthetic filters. Over the past 20 years, a large number of studies have been published to assess the photoprotective effects of natural plant products, primarily through their antioxidant, antimutagenic, and anti-immunosuppressive activities. This review selects the most important data on skin photodamage and photoprotective efficacy of selected plant carotenoid representatives from in vivo studies on animal models and humans, as well as in vitro experiments performed on fibroblast and keratinocyte cell lines. Recent research on carotenoids associated with lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and micelles is reviewed. The focus was on collecting those nanomaterials that serve to improve the bioavailability and stability of carotenoids as natural antioxidants with photoprotective activity.

Complexation of anthocyanins, betalains and carotenoids with biopolymers: An approach to complexation techniques and evaluation of binding parameters

Natural pigments are bioactive compounds that can present health-promoting bioactivities in the human body. Due to their strong coloring properties, these compounds have been widely used as color additives as an alternative to artificial colorants. However, since these pigments are unstable under certain conditions, such as the presence of light, oxygen, and heat, the use of complexation and encapsulation techniques with biopolymers is in demand. Moreover, some functional properties can be achieved by using natural pigments-biopolymers complexes in food matrices. The complexation and encapsulation of natural pigments with biopolymers consist of forming a complex with the aim to make these compounds less susceptible to oxidative and degrading agents, and can also be used to improve their solubility in different media. This review aims to discuss different techniques that have been used over the last years to create natural pigment-biopolymers complexes, as well as the recent advances, limitations, effects, and possible applications of these complexes in foods. Moreover, the understanding of thermodynamic parameters between natural pigments and biopolymers is very important regarding the complex formation and their use in food systems. In this sense, thermodynamic techniques that can be used to determine binding parameters between natural pigments and potential wall materials, as well as their applications, advantages, and limitations are presented in this work. Several studies have shown an improvement in many aspects regarding the use of these complexes, including increased thermal and storage stability. Nonetheless, data regarding the biological effects on the human body and the sensory acceptance of natural pigments-biopolymers complexes in food systems are scarce in the literature.

Recent Advances on Nanoparticle Based Strategies for Improving Carotenoid Stability and Biological Activity

Carotenoids are natural pigments widely used in food industries due to their health-promoting properties. However, the presence of long-chain conjugated double bonds are responsible for chemical instability, poor water solubility, low bioavailability and high susceptibility to oxidation. The application of a nanoencapsulation technique has thus become a vital means to enhance stability of carotenoids under physiological conditions due to their small particle size, high aqueous solubility and improved bioavailability. This review intends to overview the advances in preparation, characterization, biocompatibility and application of nanocarotenoids reported in research/review papers published in peer-reviewed journals over the last five years. More specifically, nanocarotenoids were prepared from both carotenoid extracts and standards by employing various preparation techniques to yield different nanostructures including nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, polymeric/biopolymeric nanoparticles, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid nanoparticles, supercritical fluid-based nanoparticles and metal/metal oxide nanoparticles. Stability studies involved evaluation of physical stability and/or chemical stability under different storage conditions and heating temperatures for varied lengths of time, while the release behavior and bioaccessibility were determined by various in vitro digestion and absorption models as well as bioavailability through elucidating pharmacokinetics in an animal model. Moreover, application of nanocarotenoids for various biological applications including antioxidant, anticancer, antibacterial, antiaging, cosmetics, diabetic wound healing and hepatic steatosis were summarized.

Fate of β-Carotene within Loaded Delivery Systems in Food: State of Knowledge

Nanotechnology has opened new opportunities for delivering bioactive agents. Their physiochemical characteristics, i.e., small size, high surface area, unique composition, biocompatibility and biodegradability, make these nanomaterials an attractive tool for β-carotene delivery. Delivering β-carotene through nanoparticles does not only improve its bioavailability/bioaccumulation in target tissues, but also lessens its sensitivity against environmental factors during processing. Regardless of these benefits, nanocarriers have some limitations, such as variations in sensory quality, modification of the food matrix, increasing costs, as well as limited consumer acceptance and regulatory challenges. This research area has rapidly evolved, with a plethora of innovative nanoengineered materials now being in use, including micelles, nano/microemulsions, liposomes, niosomes, solidlipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipids and nanostructured carriers. These nanodelivery systems make conventional delivery systems appear archaic and promise better solubilization, protection during processing, improved shelf-life, higher bioavailability as well as controlled and targeted release. This review provides information on the state of knowledge on β-carotene nanodelivery systems adopted for developing functional foods, depicting their classifications, compositions, preparation methods, challenges, release and absorption of β-carotene in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and possible risks and future prospects.

Combination of carotenoids from Spirulina and PLA/PLGA or PHB: New options to obtain bioactive nanoparticles

The use of poly-β-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is an alternative polymer that can be considered environment friendly and renewable to prepare nanoparticles of carotenoids. This study aimed to develop and characterize aqueous dispersion nanoparticles and lyophilized nanoparticles of carotenoid extract obtained from Spirulina sp. LEB 18 by nanoprecipitation, using poly _d,l-lactic acid (PLA)/poly _d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) (75:25 w/w) or PHB as encapsulants. The samples were characterized for the particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, apparent viscosity, pH, color parameters, ultraviolet-visible (UV/Vis) spectrophotometry, carotenoid profile, encapsulation efficiency, morphology, and thermal analysis. Nanoparticles containing microalgae carotenoid extract showed average particle diameter on a nanoscale (<200 nm), high homogeneity and stability, high thermal stability, and encapsulation efficiency carotenoid (>80%) when compared to nanoparticles containing β-carotene synthetic. PHB or PLA/PLGA as encapsulating material in the production of nanoparticles from microalgae carotenoids can be a polymeric alternative capable of promoting greater stability and application of carotenoids.

Innovative functional nanodispersion: Combination of carotenoid from Spirulina and yellow passion fruit albedo

The nanoencapsulation of carotenoids is presented as a positive alternative to broaden the application of these pigments in the food industry. In this study, we investigated the use of yellow passion fruit albedo flour as an encapsulating material for the production of nanodispersions of carotenoid extract obtained from Spirulina sp. LEB 18. Nanodispersions were characterized for their physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, stability, and retention of carotenoids after 60 days of storage (4 °C). The nanodispersions made from yellow passion fruit albedo flour and microalgae carotenoid extract presented an average particle diameter at the nanometer scale, high antioxidant activity, and carotenoid retention compared to nanodispersions containing synthetic β-carotene. Yellow passion fruit albedo flour as a polymeric material in the production of carotenoid nanodispersions is an alternative to commercial polymers and allows greater stability and broader application of these pigments.

Nanoencapsulation of carotenoids: a focus on different delivery systems and evaluation parameters

Different types of nanoparticles have been synthesized to protect carotenoids against exposition of external factors such as light, heat and oxygen; and processing conditions; to increase stability and to improve the bioavailability of nanoencapsulated carotenoid. The type of nanostructure synthesized (nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carrier, and polymeric nanoparticles) influences on the synthesis and nanoparticles stability, which reflect in physic-chemical characteristics such as polydispersity index, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency. Different nanostructures can be used to improve stability of carotenoids; however, currently, polymeric nanocapsules are the nanostructure most utilized due to its stability during storage, high efficiency to encapsulate and to control the release of the carotenoid encapsulated. Due to these considerations, they have been focus of researchers for future studies regarding to application of carotenoids nanoencapsulated by food industries. The focus of this review is the presentation of different carotenoids delivery systems and the use of techniques to evaluate parameters that might limit the application of this innovative and potential technology in cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industry.

Hydroxycinnamic acids loaded in lipid-core nanocapsules

Ferulic, caffeic, sinapic, and coumaric acids, belonging to the class of hydroxycinnamic acids (HAs), are bioactive polyphenols widespread in the plant kingdom and present in the human diet. Due to their biological properties and effects in the prevention of various diseases associated with oxidative stress, HAs can be exploited for attractive nutraceutical applications. Starting from this and in order to increase bioaccessibility, we encapsulated HAs in lipid-core nanocapsules (NCs) based on a biodegradable and biocompatible poly(ε-caprolactone) polymer. The results showed that nanoparticles loaded with hydroxycinnamic acids (HA-NCs) have diameter of 224-253 nm, encapsulation efficiency of 53-78%, and are stable over time (30 days). In vitro tests evidenced that NCs are able to preserve HAs in the gastric simulated fluid and release them in the intestinal simulated fluid. The delivery system developed could be employed to create novel functional foods.

Synthesis of biodegradable films with antioxidant properties based on cassava starch containing bixin nanocapsules

Biodegradable and active packaging based on cassava starch incorporated bixin nanocapsules with different concentrations were developed. The physical, mechanical, barrier properties and antioxidant activity of the active packaging were studieds. The films incorporated with bixin nanocapsules were found to be homogeneous and thermally stable. Films with higher concentrations of bixin nanocapsules exhibited a significant decrease in tensile strength, water solubility and increase in elongation at break and water vapour permeability, well as, significant improvement in protection against UV and visible light. The films were used to pack sunflower oil under accelerated oxidation conditions (65 % RH/35 °C). Sunflower oil packaged in films with bixin exhibited lower oxidation rates, thus maintaining its freshness according to Codex Alimentarius guidelines (<10 mEq kg^-1). Films containing bixin nanocapsules are very promising materials for use as packaging with antioxidant properties for maintaining food safety and extending the shelf life.