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Beuschlein F, Else T, Bancos I, Hahner S, Hamidi O, van Hulsteijn L, Husebye ES, Karavitaki N, Prete A, Vaidya A, Yedinak C, Dekkers OM. European Society of Endocrinology and Endocrine Society Joint Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and Therapy of Glucocorticoid-induced Adrenal Insufficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2024; 109:1657-1683. [PMID: 38724043 PMCID: PMC11180513 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgae250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are widely prescribed as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. This results in at least 1% of the population using chronic glucocorticoid therapy, being at risk for glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency. This risk is dependent on the dose, duration and potency of the glucocorticoid, route of administration, and individual susceptibility. Once glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency develops or is suspected, it necessitates careful education and management of affected patients. Tapering glucocorticoids can be challenging when symptoms of glucocorticoid withdrawal develop, which overlap with those of adrenal insufficiency. In general, tapering of glucocorticoids can be more rapidly within a supraphysiological range, followed by a slower taper when on physiological glucocorticoid dosing. The degree and persistence of HPA axis suppression after cessation of glucocorticoid therapy are dependent on overall exposure and recovery of adrenal function varies greatly amongst individuals. This first European Society of Endocrinology/Endocrine Society joint clinical practice guideline provides guidance on this clinically relevant condition to aid clinicians involved in the care of patients on chronic glucocorticoid therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Beuschlein
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Clinical Nutrition, University of Zürich (USZ) and University of Zürich (UZH), 8091 Zürich, Switzerland
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, 81377 Munich, Germany
- The LOOP Zurich Medical Research Center, 8044 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Else
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Irina Bancos
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
- Joint appointment in Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
| | - Stefanie Hahner
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, 97080 Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Oksana Hamidi
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390-8857, USA
| | - Leonie van Hulsteijn
- European Society of Endocrinology, Bristol BS32 4QW, UK
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Eystein S Husebye
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
- Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
| | - Niki Karavitaki
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Department of Endocrinology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
| | - Alessandro Prete
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
- NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Birmingham and University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham B15 2TH, UK
| | - Anand Vaidya
- Center for Adrenal Disorders, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christine Yedinak
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Sciences University, Portland, OR 97239-3098, USA
| | - Olaf M Dekkers
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Leiden University Medical Center, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark
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Feng Y, Chang P, Liu J, Zhang WS. Effects and mechanisms of perioperative medications on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal response to surgical injury: A narrative review. J Clin Anesth 2024; 94:111367. [PMID: 38232466 DOI: 10.1016/j.jclinane.2023.111367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
The adrenal gland is a vital endocrine organ, and adrenal steroid synthesis and secretion are closely regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in response to various stimuli. Surgery or trauma can activate the HPA axis and induce the secretion of cortisol. Different cortisol responses vary with the grade of surgery. Perioperative medications have the potential to decrease the cortisol level in the body, and both excessive and insufficient cortisol levels after surgery are disadvantageous. The effect of perioperative medications on the HPA response to surgery can be divided into three levels: "adrenal insufficiency (AI)", "stress response inhibition", and "uncertainty". The clinical presentation of AI includes fatigue, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, muscle cramps, hypotension, hypovolemic shock and prerenal failure, which may result in fatal consequences. Stress response inhibition can reduce postoperative complications, such as pain and cognitive dysfunction. This is protective to patients during perioperative and postoperative periods. The aim of the present review is to shed light on current evidence regarding the exact effects and mechanisms of perioperative medications on the HPA response to surgical injury and provide the applicable guidance on clinical anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Feng
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Hospital of North Sichuan Medical College, China; Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China
| | - Pan Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China
| | - Jin Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China
| | - Wen-Sheng Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, China.
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Beuschlein F, Else T, Bancos I, Hahner S, Hamidi O, van Hulsteijn L, Husebye ES, Karavitaki N, Prete A, Vaidya A, Yedinak C, Dekkers OM. European Society of Endocrinology and Endocrine Society Joint Clinical Guideline: Diagnosis and therapy of glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 2024; 190:G25-G51. [PMID: 38714321 DOI: 10.1093/ejendo/lvae029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are widely prescribed as anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agents. This results in at least 1% of the population using chronic glucocorticoid therapy, being at risk for glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency. This risk is dependent on the dose, duration and potency of the glucocorticoid, route of administration, and individual susceptibility. Once glucocorticoid-induced adrenal insufficiency develops or is suspected, it necessitates careful education and management of affected patients. Tapering glucocorticoids can be challenging when symptoms of glucocorticoid withdrawal develop, which overlap with those of adrenal insufficiency. In general, tapering of glucocorticoids can be more rapidly within a supraphysiological range, followed by a slower taper when on physiological glucocorticoid dosing. The degree and persistence of HPA axis suppression after cessation of glucocorticoid therapy are dependent on overall exposure and recovery of adrenal function varies greatly amongst individuals. This first European Society of Endocrinology/Endocrine Society joint clinical practice guideline provides guidance on this clinically relevant condition to aid clinicians involved in the care of patients on chronic glucocorticoid therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Beuschlein
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetology and Clinical Nutrition, University of Zürich (USZ) and University of Zürich (UZH), Zürich, Switzerland
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany
- The LOOP Zurich Medical Research Center, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tobias Else
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Metabolism, Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Irina Bancos
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism, and Nutrition, Mayo Clinic Rocheste r, MN 55905, US
- Joint appointment in Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic Rochester, MN 55905, US
| | - Stefanie Hahner
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes, University Hospital, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Oksana Hamidi
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Leonie van Hulsteijn
- European Society of Endocrinology, Bristol, UK
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Eystein S Husebye
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, N-5021 Bergen, Norway
- Department of Medicine, Haukeland University Hospital, N-5021 Bergen
| | - Niki Karavitaki
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK
- Department of Endocrinology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Alessandro Prete
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Birmingham Health Partners, Birmingham, UK
- NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Birmingham and University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust, Birmingham, UK
| | - Anand Vaidya
- Center for Adrenal Disorders, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Hypertension, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christine Yedinak
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Sciences University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Olaf M Dekkers
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Okçu M, Azizov S, Gündüz OH, Şencan S. Incidence and Disease Course of COVID-19 Infection Among Unvaccinated Patients Who Received Local Corticosteroid Injections. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2023; 102:347-352. [PMID: 36730743 PMCID: PMC10010666 DOI: 10.1097/phm.0000000000002147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE There are concerns that local corticosteroid injections may increase the risk of COVID-19 infection because of the immunosuppressive effect of corticosteroids. This study aimed to examine the relationship between local corticosteroid injections and the risk of COVID-19 infection. DESIGN The date and type of procedure as well as the dose and type of corticosteroids used in patients who underwent local corticosteroid injections within 1 yr after the first COVID-19 case in the country were examined retrospectively and recorded. Patients who did not receive corticosteroids were included in the control group. Coronavirus disease 2019 infection histories of all patients were recorded. RESULTS There was no significant difference between the patients who received local corticosteroids and the control group in terms of the incidence of COVID-19 infections, and the number of patients who needed hospitalization or intensive care treatment. In addition, it was found that the administration of two injections, the type of procedure performed, and the dose and type of steroids were not associated with the incidence or severity of COVID-19 infections. CONCLUSIONS It has been shown that local corticosteroid injections are not associated with the incidence of COVID-19 infections and the number of patients who need hospitalization or intensive care treatment due to COVID-19.
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Mohamad AA, Mohamed NA. Risk analysis of musculoskeletal pain intervention using corticosteroid during COVID-19 pandemic: a cohort study. Korean J Pain 2023; 36:106-112. [PMID: 36514932 PMCID: PMC9812694 DOI: 10.3344/kjp.22249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Most international bodies recommended against musculoskeletal steroid injection during the COVID-19 pandemic, fearing that the immunosuppressive effects of the steroid could worsen COVID-19 infection, thus prolonging the suffering of patients with severe musculoskeletal disease. The authors' aim is to analyze the risk of COVID-19 infection after musculoskeletal injections. Methods This is a retrospective study of patients who visited a sports medicine clinic and received musculoskeletal steroid injections between January 1, 2020 and February 28, 2021. The collected data was compared with the national COVID-19 registry to identify positive COVID-19 patients. The patients were only considered positive for COVID-19 following corticosteroid injection within 3 months after injection. Results Out of 502 steroid injections; 79.7% (n = 400) received a single injection in one day, 19.1% (n = 96) received steroid injections at 2 sites in one day, and 1.2% (n = 6) received steroid injections at 3 sites in one day. Using the Fisher's exact test, there was no statistically significant association of COVID-19 infection between the steroid group and control group (relative risk, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 0.9-23.1, P = 0.654). Only one patient contracted mild COVID-19 with no post COVID complications. Conclusions The authors recommend the use of musculoskeletal steroid injections in clinically indicated situation without having increased risk of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azwan Aziz Mohamad
- Sports Medicine Department, University Malaya Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,Sports Medicine Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,Correspondence: Azwan Aziz Mohamad Sports Medicine Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Tel: +60379674404, Fax: +60379673581, E-mail:
| | - Nahar Azmi Mohamed
- Sports Medicine Department, University Malaya Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,Sports Medicine Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Chen Cardenas SM, Santhanam P, Morris-Wiseman L, Salvatori R, Hamrahian AH. Perioperative Evaluation and Management of Patients on Glucocorticoids. J Endocr Soc 2022; 7:bvac185. [PMID: 36545644 PMCID: PMC9760550 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvac185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Myriad questions regarding perioperative management of patients on glucocorticoids (GCs) continue to be debated including which patients are at risk for adrenal insufficiency (AI), what is the correct dose and duration of supplemental GCs, or are they necessary for everyone? These questions remain partly unanswered due to the heterogeneity and low quality of data, studies with small sample sizes, and the limited number of randomized trials. To date, we know that although all routes of GC administration can result in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression, perioperative adrenal crisis is rare. Correlation between biochemical testing for AI and clinical events is lacking. Some of the current perioperative management recommendations based on daily GC dose and duration of therapy may be difficult to follow in clinical practice. The prospective and retrospective studies consistently report that continuing the daily dose of GCs perioperatively is not associated with a higher risk for adrenal crises in patients with GC-induced AI. Considering that oral GC intake may be unreliable in the early postoperative period, providing the daily GC plus a short course of IV hydrocortisone 25 to 100 mg per day based on the degree of surgical stress seems reasonable. In patients who have stopped GC therapy before surgery, careful assessment of the HPA axis is necessary to avoid an adrenal crisis. In conclusion, our literature review indicates that lower doses and shorter duration of supplemental GCs perioperatively are sufficient to maintain homeostasis. We emphasize the need for well-designed randomized studies on this frequently encountered clinical scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley M Chen Cardenas
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Prasanna Santhanam
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Lilah Morris-Wiseman
- Division of Endocrine Surgery, Department of Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Roberto Salvatori
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
| | - Amir H Hamrahian
- Correspondence: Amir Hamrahian, MD, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E Monument St, Ste 333, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
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Spinal corticosteroid injections are not associated with increased influenza risk. Spine J 2022; 22:1106-1111. [PMID: 35181540 DOI: 10.1016/j.spinee.2022.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND CONTEXT Spinal corticosteroid injections (CSI) are often used to treat radicular and axial pain arising from the spine. Systemic corticosteroids are well known to cause immunosuppression, and locally injected spinal CSI are known to have some systemic absorption. However, it is unknown whether spinal CSI increases the risk of systemic viral infections, such as influenza. PURPOSE To determine whether spinal CSI causes an increased risk for influenza infection and whether they reduce the protective effect of vaccination STUDY DESIGN/SETTING: A retrospective cohort study was performed at Kaiser Permanente Northern California, a large healthcare system with a diverse population. PATIENT SAMPLE Adults (n=60,880) who received a spinal CSI during influenza seasons from 2016 to 2019. A comparison was made with 121,760 case-matched individuals who did not receive a spinal CSI. OUTCOME MEASURES The primary outcome was odds of influenza diagnosis following spinal CSI compared with case-matched controls. Secondary analysis examined odds of influenza diagnosis based on vaccination status, multiple same-day injections, and epidural versus non-epidural route of injection. METHODS The electronic health record and associated research databases were analyzed to identify patients who received a spinal CSI during three consecutive flu seasons, 2016 through 2019. Injections were stratified into epidural versus non-epidural CSI and single injections versus multiple same-day injections. Additionally, the rate of influenza in vaccinated versus non-vaccinated individuals was examined. Inpatient flu diagnosis was used as a proxy for severe disease. After case matching was completed, odds ratios for flu diagnosis were calculated using a logistical regression model. RESULTS The odds of flu diagnosis following spinal CSI were not increased compared with controls (OR 0.93 [0.87-1.01, 95% Wald CL]). For epidural CSI the OR was 0.91 (0.83-1.00, 95% Wald CL), and non-epidural it was 1.00 (0.89-1.13, 95% Wald CL). There were similar findings for multiple same-day injections and when looking at inpatient flu diagnosis. For vaccinated individuals, the OR for flu following spinal CSI was 0.86 (0.80-0.92, 95% Wald CL), which indicates a protective effect in these patients. CONCLUSIONS Spinal CSI did not increase the odds of subsequently receiving a diagnosis of influenza, regardless of vaccination status, location of injection, single versus multiple same-day injection, or co-morbidity. Vaccination had a protective effect against influenza, and this was not adversely affected by receiving spinal CSI during the flu season.
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Whelan G, Sim J, Smith B, Moffatt M, Littlewood C. Are Corticosteroid Injections Associated With Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency in Adults With Musculoskeletal Pain? A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2022; 480:1061-1074. [PMID: 35302533 PMCID: PMC9263464 DOI: 10.1097/corr.0000000000002145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Corticosteroid injection is a common treatment for individuals experiencing musculoskeletal pain, and it is part of the management of numerous orthopaedic conditions. However, there is concern about offering corticosteroid injections for musculoskeletal pain because of the possibility of secondary adrenal insufficiency. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES In this systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies, we asked: (1) Are corticosteroid injections associated with secondary adrenal insufficiency as measured by 7-day morning serum cortisol? (2) Does this association differ depending on whether the shot was administered in the spine or the appendicular skeleton? METHODS We searched the Allied and Complementary Medicine (AMED), Embase, EmCare, MEDLINE, CINAHL, and Web of Science from inception to January 22, 2021. We retrieved 4303 unique records, of which 17 were eventually included. Study appraisal was via the Downs and Black tool, with an average quality rating of fair. A Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations assessment was conducted with the overall certainty of evidence being low to moderate. Reflecting heterogeneity in the study estimates, a pooled random-effects estimate of cortisol levels 7 days after corticosteroid injection was calculated. Fifteen studies or subgroups (254 participants) provided appropriate estimates for statistical pooling. A total of 106 participants received a spine injection, and 148 participants received an appendicular skeleton injection, including the glenohumeral joint, subacromial bursa, trochanteric bursa, and knee. RESULTS Seven days after corticosteroid injection, the mean morning serum cortisol was 212 nmol/L (95% confidence interval 133 to 290), suggesting that secondary adrenal insufficiency was a possible outcome. There is a difference in the secondary adrenal insufficiency risk depending on whether the injection was in the spine or the appendicular skeleton. For spinal injection, the mean cortisol was 98 nmol/L (95% CI 48 to 149), suggesting secondary adrenal insufficiency was likely. For appendicular skeleton injection the mean cortisol was 311 nmol/L (95% CI 213 to 409) suggesting hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis integrity was likely. CONCLUSION Clinicians offering spinal injections should discuss the possibility of short-term secondary adrenal insufficiency with patients, and together, they can decide whether the treatment remains appropriate and whether mitigation strategies are needed. Clinicians offering appendicular skeleton injections should not limit care because of concerns about secondary adrenal insufficiency based on the best available evidence, and clinical guidelines could be reviewed accordingly. Further research is needed to understand whether age and/or sex determine risk of secondary adrenal insufficiency and what clinical impact secondary adrenal insufficiency has on patients undergoing spinal injection. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level IV, therapeutic study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Whelan
- Musculoskeletal Department, York Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, York, UK
| | - Julius Sim
- School of Medicine, Keele University, Keele, UK
| | - Benjamin Smith
- University Hospitals of Derby and Burton NHS Foundation Trust, Derby, UK; Rehabilitation & Ageing Research Group, Injury, Inflammation and Recovery Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, UK
| | - Maria Moffatt
- Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Chris Littlewood
- Faculty of Health and Education, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
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Hong SM, Park YW, Choi EJ. Steroid injections in pain management: influence on coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines. Korean J Pain 2022; 35:14-21. [PMID: 34966008 PMCID: PMC8728555 DOI: 10.3344/kjp.2022.35.1.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which has been rampant since the end of 2019, has evidently affected pain management in clinical practice. Fortunately, a COVID-19 vaccination program is currently in progress worldwide. There is an ongoing discussion that pain management using steroid injections can decrease COVID-19 vaccine efficacy, although currently there is no direct evidence to support this statement. As such, the feeling of pain in patients is doubled in addition to the co-existing ill-effects of social isolation associated with the pandemic. Thus, in the COVID-19 era, it has become necessary that physicians be able to provide high quality pain management without negatively impacting COVID-19 vaccine efficacy. Steroids can alter the entire process involved in the generation of adaptive immunity after vaccination. The period of hypophysis-pituitary-adrenal axis suppression is known to be 1 to 4 weeks after steroid injection, and although the exact timing for peak efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines is slightly different for each vaccine, the average is approximately 2 weeks. It is suggested to avoid steroid injections for a total of 4 weeks (1 week before and after the two vaccine doses) for the double-shot vaccines, and for 2 weeks in total (1 week before and after vaccination) for a single-shot vaccine. This review focuses on the basic concepts of the various COVID-19 vaccines, the effect of steroid injections on vaccine efficacy, and suggestions regarding an appropriate interval between the administration of steroid injections and the COVID-19 vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Man Hong
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Yeon Wook Park
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
| | - Eun Joo Choi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
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Abstract
Synthetic glucocorticoids are widely used for their anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive actions. A possible unwanted effect of glucocorticoid treatment is suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which can lead to adrenal insufficiency. Factors affecting the risk of glucocorticoid induced adrenal insufficiency (GI-AI) include the duration of glucocorticoid therapy, mode of administration, glucocorticoid dose and potency, concomitant drugs that interfere with glucocorticoid metabolism, and individual susceptibility. Patients with exogenous glucocorticoid use may develop features of Cushing's syndrome and, subsequently, glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome when the treatment is tapered down. Symptoms of glucocorticoid withdrawal can overlap with those of the underlying disorder, as well as of GI-AI. A careful approach to the glucocorticoid taper and appropriate patient counseling are needed to assure a successful taper. Glucocorticoid therapy should not be completely stopped until recovery of adrenal function is achieved. In this review, we discuss the factors affecting the risk of GI-AI, propose a regimen for the glucocorticoid taper, and make suggestions for assessment of adrenal function recovery. We also describe current gaps in the management of patients with GI-AI and make suggestions for an approach to the glucocorticoid withdrawal syndrome, chronic management of glucocorticoid therapy, and education on GI-AI for patients and providers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Prete
- Institute of Metabolism and Systems Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Irina Bancos
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nutrition, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA
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11
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Lee H, Punt JA, Miller DC, Nagpal A, Smith CC, Sayeed Y, Patel J, Stojanovic MP, Popescu A, McCormick ZL. Do Corticosteroid Injections for the Treatment of Pain Influence the Efficacy of mRNA COVID-19 Vaccines? PAIN MEDICINE (MALDEN, MASS.) 2021; 22:994-1000. [PMID: 33605425 PMCID: PMC7928682 DOI: 10.1093/pm/pnab063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
MYTH Corticosteroid injection for the treatment of pain and inflammation is known to decrease the efficacy of the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). FACT There is currently no direct evidence to suggest that a corticosteroid injection before or after the administration of an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine decreases the efficacy of the vaccine.However, based on the known timeline of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis suppression following epidural and intraarticular corticosteroid injections, and the timeline of the reported peak efficacy of the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, physicians should consider timing an elective corticosteroid injection such that it is administered no less than 2 weeks prior to a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine dose and no less than 1 week following a COVID-19 mRNA vaccine dose, whenever possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haewon Lee
- University of California, San Diego, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Jennifer A Punt
- University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Ameet Nagpal
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Clark C Smith
- Columbia University Medical Center, Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Yusef Sayeed
- Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Department of Family Medicine, Eglin AFB, Florida, USA
| | - Jaymin Patel
- Emory University, Department of Orthopedics, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Milan P Stojanovic
- Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Adrian Popescu
- Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Zachary L McCormick
- University of Utah, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
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12
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Musculoskeletal Corticosteroid Injection during COVID-19 Pandemic in Sabah: Is It Safe? Adv Orthop 2021; 2021:8863210. [PMID: 33824767 PMCID: PMC8006753 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8863210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Musculoskeletal corticosteroid injection is commonly used as an adjunct to help patients in pain management. In this current COVID-19 pandemic, many clinicians would differ from this treatment as steroid is considered an immunosuppressive drug and could risk the patient of developing severe adverse effects if contracting COVID-19. This is a retrospective study based in Sabah, Malaysia, examining the prevalence of COVID-19 infection following musculoskeletal corticosteroid injection from 1 December 2019 until 30 June 2020 in the sports medicine clinic and the orthopedic clinic. Patients who received musculoskeletal corticosteroid injection were called by telephone and asked about visits to the emergency department or government health clinic for influenza-like illness symptoms or severe acute respiratory infection that would require screening of COVID-19. Thirty-five patients who responded to the call were included, with mean ages of 47.9 years ± 15.1. 52% were male respondents, while 48% were female. 25% of them were diabetics, and 2.9% of them had a history of lymphoproliferative disorders. The mean pain score before injection was 6.74 ± 1.03 and after injection pain was 2.27 ± 1.63. In this study, there were 11.4% (n = 4) with minor complications of steroid injection, that is, skin discoloration. Nonetheless, there were no severe complications due to corticosteroids reported. There were no reported cases of COVID-19 among the respondents following corticosteroid injection. Musculoskeletal pain would affect a person's well-being and activities; thus, its management requires that careful consideration with risk-benefit analysis be made before administering musculoskeletal corticosteroid injection during COVID-19 pandemic.
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13
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Collomp K, Amiot V, Robin B, Ericsson M, Buisson C. Impact of short-term hydrocortisone intake on pituitary and adrenal function in healthy young male subjects. Endocrine 2020; 70:164-169. [PMID: 32785897 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-020-02450-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of short-term therapeutic hydrocortisone intake on pituitary and adrenal function in healthy young male subjects. METHODS Ten physically active men received 50 mg/per day of hydrocortisone at 8:00 a.m. for 5 days. Cortisol, DHEA, and ACTH concentrations in plasma, and cortisol and DHEA concentrations in saliva were determined the week before, just before (8:00 a.m.) and 2 h after (10:00 a.m.) drug ingestion on days 1, 3, and 5 of treatment and day 1 post treatment. RESULTS Hydrocortisone intake induced a significant increase in both plasma cortisol (×3) and saliva cortisol (×10) concentrations 2 h after administration. Plasma and saliva DHEA concentrations were significantly decreased, as were plasma ACTH concentrations, 2 h after administration, with an increase in the cortisol/DHEA and cortisol/ACTH ratios. However, no change in cortisol, DHEA, ACTH, cortisol/DHEA, or cortisol/ACTH was observed 24 h after the last intake during treatment or post treatment, except for a downward trend in saliva DHEA at days 3 and 5. The correlations between plasma and saliva cortisol, DHEA, and cortisol/DHEA were significant: respectively, r = 0.80, r = 0.80, and r = 0.88. CONCLUSIONS Once-daily oral therapeutic administration of hydrocortisone for 5 days altered adrenal DHEA secretion by inhibiting pituitary ACTH, but this effect seemed transient without significant impairment of basal adrenal or pituitary function 24 h after administration. Given the high correlations between plasma and saliva, saliva samples may be offered as a sensitive surrogate for blood sampling to estimate adrenal and pituitary function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Collomp
- CIAMS, Université d'Orléans, Orléans, France.
- Université Paris-Saclay CIAMS, Orsay, France.
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, Chatenay-Malabry, France.
| | - Virgile Amiot
- Service de Médecine du Sport, CHR Orléans, Orléans, France
| | - Barbara Robin
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, Chatenay-Malabry, France
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14
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Miller DC, Patel J, Gill J, Mattie R, Saffarian M, Schneider BJ, Popescu A, Babaria V, McCormick ZL. Corticosteroid Injections and COVID-19 Infection Risk. PAIN MEDICINE 2020; 21:1703-1706. [PMID: 32699893 PMCID: PMC7454880 DOI: 10.1093/pm/pnaa199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jaymin Patel
- Department of Orthopaedics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jatinder Gill
- Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care, and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ryan Mattie
- Department of Interventional Pain & Spine, Providence Cedars-Sinai Tarzana Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| | - Mathew Saffarian
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Byron J Schneider
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Adrian Popescu
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hospital of University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Vivek Babaria
- Orange County Spine and Sports, PC, Interventional Physiatry, Costa Mesa, California
| | - Zachary L McCormick
- Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
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15
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Taylor O, Mejia-Otero JD, Tannin GM, Gordon K. Topical triamcinolone induced Cushing syndrome: A case report. Pediatr Dermatol 2020; 37:582-584. [PMID: 32212183 DOI: 10.1111/pde.14140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We present a case of iatrogenic Cushing syndrome and adrenal insufficiency in a newborn secondary to an overuse of triamcinolone cream 0.1% prescrived for the treatment of diaper dermatitis.This case highlignts the risks of systemic absorption when prescribing topical medications in the diaper area of an infant, and the importance of caution and proper follow up when prescribing even mid potency steroids to pediatric patients. .
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Taylor
- Departments of Dermatology and Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas
| | - Juan Diego Mejia-Otero
- Departments of Dermatology and Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas
| | - Grace M Tannin
- Departments of Dermatology and Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas
| | - Katherine Gordon
- Departments of Dermatology and Pediatric Endocrinology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, Texas
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16
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Miller N, Asali AA, Agassi-Zaitler M, Neumark E, Eisenberg MM, Hadi E, Elbaz M, Pasternak Y, Fishman A, Biron-Shental T. Physiological and psychological stress responses to labor and delivery as expressed by salivary cortisol: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2019; 221:351.e1-351.e7. [PMID: 31254523 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.06.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Labor is considered a stressful event, yet no study has described the course of stress measured by cortisol during labor and postpartum. OBJECTIVE The objective of the study was to describe the patterns of physiological and psychological stress during labor as measured by salivary cortisol concentrations and stress questionnaires and their correlation to obstetric and neonatal outcomes. STUDY DESIGN This prospective, observational study included 167 women with low-risk, singleton, term deliveries at a tertiary academic center. Physiological stress was evaluated by salivary cortisol measurements and emotional stress by questionnaire (stress scale ranging from 0 to 10) during the latent phase, active phase, and full dilation stages of labor as well as 2 minutes, 2 hours, and 24 hours after delivery. Cord blood cortisol and pH were also obtained. Modes of delivery, complications during labor and delivery, and early neonatal outcomes were evaluated. RESULTS Salivary cortisol concentrations increased gradually from latent phase to active phase. The maximum increase was observed within 2 minutes of the delivery (from an average of 1.06 μg/dL to 1.67 μg/dL; 57% increase). Within 2 hours after delivery, cortisol decreased and reached a nongravid concentration after 24 hours (0.16 μg/dL). Cortisol concentrations during labor and up to 2 hours postpartum were above the average concentration of nongravid women (0.5 μg/dL). Women with epidural anesthesia had lower cortisol concentrations at complete dilation (P = .026) and 2 hours postpartum (P = .016) compared with women without epidural. Psychological stress peaked during latent and full dilation phases (mean 4.56 and 4.29, respectively). Maximum decrease from 4.29 to 2.04 (52%) occurred immediately postpartum. Cord cortisol was higher among women delivered by vacuum extraction compared with spontaneous vaginal delivery (17 ± 2 vs 11 ± 3.8, P = .03). CONCLUSION This study reveals the course of cortisol concentrations during labor for low-risk pregnancies, with maximum increase immediately postpartum. Subjective stress levels decreased over the course of labor. Salivary cortisol portrays stress during labor and may be used as a reference to evaluate complicated pregnancies and to evaluate the role of cortisol during these deliveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Netanella Miller
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Aula Atamna Asali
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Moran Agassi-Zaitler
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Eran Neumark
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel
| | | | - Efrat Hadi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Michal Elbaz
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yael Pasternak
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ami Fishman
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Tal Biron-Shental
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Meir Medical Center, Kfar Saba, Israel; Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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17
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Dickson RR, Reid JM, Nicholson WT, Lamer TJ, Hooten WM. Corticosteroid and Cortisol Serum Levels Following Intra-articular Triamcinolone Acetonide Lumbar Facet Joint Injections. Pain Pract 2018; 18:864-870. [DOI: 10.1111/papr.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rozalin R. Dickson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
- Mayo Graduate School of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
| | - Joel M. Reid
- Division of Medical Oncology; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
- Division of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
| | - Wayne T. Nicholson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
| | - Tim J. Lamer
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
- Division of Pain Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
| | - W. Michael Hooten
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
- Division of Pain Medicine; Mayo Clinic College of Medicine; Rochester Minnesota U.S.A
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