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Song LJ, Sui RX, Wang J, Miao Q, He Y, Yin JJ, An J, Ding ZB, Han QX, Wang Q, Yu JZ, Xiao BG, Ma CG. Targeting the differentiation of astrocytes by Bilobalide in the treatment of Parkinson's disease model. Int J Neurosci 2024; 134:274-291. [PMID: 36037147 DOI: 10.1080/00207454.2022.2100778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Background: The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disease, is multifactorial but not fully unknown. Until now, no drug has been proven to have neuroprotective or neuroregenerative effects in patients with PD. Objectives: To observe the therapeutic potential of Bilobalide (BB), a constituent of ginkgo biloba, in MPTP-induced PD model, and explore its possible mechanisms of action. Material and Methods: Mice were randomly divided into three groups: healthy group, MPTP group and MPTP + BB group. PD-related phenotypes were induced by intraperitoneal injection of MPTP into male C57BL/6 mice, and BB (40 mg/kg/day) was intraperitoneally given for 7 consecutive days at the end of modeling. The injection of saline was set up as the control in a similar manner. Results: BB induced M2 polarization of microglia, accompanied by inhibition of neuroinflammation in the brain. Simultaneously, BB promoted the expression of BDNF in astrocytes and neurons, and expression of GDNF in neurons. Most interestingly, BB enhanced the formation of GFAP+ astrocytes expressing nestin, Brn2 and Ki67, as well as the transformation of GFAP+ astrocytes expressing tyrosine hydroxylase around subventricular zone, providing experimental evidence that BB could promote the conversion of astrocytes into TH+ dopamine neurons in vivo and in vitro. Conclusions: These results suggest the natural product BB may utilize multiple pathways to modify degenerative process of TH+ neurons, revealing an exciting opportunity for novel neuroprotective therapeutics. However, its multi-target and important mechanisms need to be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Juan Song
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Ruo-Xuan Sui
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
- Academy of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Wang
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qiang Miao
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Yan He
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jun-Jun Yin
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jun An
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Zhi-Bin Ding
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing-Xian Han
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Qing Wang
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jie-Zhong Yu
- The NO. 1 Affiliated Hospital/Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
| | - Bao-Guo Xiao
- Institute of Neurology, Huashan Hospital, Institutes of Brain Science and State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Cun-Gen Ma
- The Key Research Laboratory of Benefiting Qi for Acting Blood Circulation Method to Treat Multiple Sclerosis of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine/Research Center of Neurobiology, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Taiyuan, China
- The Department of Neurology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China
- The NO. 1 Affiliated Hospital/Institute of Brain Science, Shanxi Datong University, Datong, China
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2
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Galli F, Bartolini D, Ronco C. Oxidative stress, defective proteostasis and immunometabolic complications in critically ill patients. Eur J Clin Invest 2024:e14229. [PMID: 38676423 DOI: 10.1111/eci.14229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
Oxidative stress (OS) develops in critically ill patients as a metabolic consequence of the immunoinflammatory and degenerative processes of the tissues. These induce increased and/or dysregulated fluxes of reactive species enhancing their pro-oxidant activity and toxicity. At the same time, OS sustains its own inflammatory and immunometabolic pathogenesis, leading to a pervasive and vitious cycle of events that contribute to defective immunity, organ dysfunction and poor prognosis. Protein damage is a key player of these OS effects; it generates increased levels of protein oxidation products and misfolded proteins in both the cellular and extracellular environment, and contributes to forms DAMPs and other proteinaceous material to be removed by endocytosis and proteostasis processes of different cell types, as endothelial cells, tissue resident monocytes-macrophages and peripheral immune cells. An excess of OS and protein damage in critical illness can overwhelm such cellular processes ultimately interfering with systemic proteostasis, and consequently with innate immunity and cell death pathways of the tissues thus sustaining organ dysfunction mechanisms. Extracorporeal therapies based on biocompatible/bioactive membranes and new adsorption techniques may hold some potential in reducing the impact of OS on the defective proteostasis of patients with critical illness. These can help neutralizing reactive and toxic species, also removing solutes in a wide spectrum of molecular weights thus improving proteostasis and its immunometabolic corelates. Pharmacological therapy is also moving steps forward which could help to enhance the efficacy of extracorporeal treatments. This narrative review article explores the aspects behind the origin and pathogenic role of OS in intensive care and critically ill patients, with a focus on protein damage as a cause of impaired systemic proteostasis and immune dysfunction in critical illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Galli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Desirée Bartolini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Claudio Ronco
- Department of Medicine, International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, University of Padova, San Bortolo Hospital Vicenza, Vicenza, Italy
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3
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Conte C, Ingrassia A, Breve J, Bol JJ, Timmermans-Huisman E, van Dam AM, Beccari T, van de Berg WDJ. Toll-like Receptor 4 Is Upregulated in Parkinson's Disease Patients and Co-Localizes with pSer129αSyn: A Possible Link with the Pathology. Cells 2023; 12:1368. [PMID: 37408202 DOI: 10.3390/cells12101368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests a crucial role of neuroinflammation in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD). Neuroinflammation is linked to the accumulation and aggregation of a-synuclein (αSyn), the primary pathological hallmark of PD. Toll-like receptors 4 (TLR4) can have implications in the development and progression of the pathology. In this study, we analyzed the expression of TLR4 in the substantia nigra (SN) and medial temporal gyrus (GTM) of well-characterized PD patients and age-matched controls. We also assessed the co-localization of TLR4 with pSer129 αSyn. Using qPCR, we observed an upregulation of TLR4 expression in the SN and GTM in PD patients compared to controls, which was accompanied by a reduction in αSyn expression likely due to the depletion of dopaminergic (DA) cells. Additionally, using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, we observed TLR4-positive staining and co-localization with pSer129-αSyn in Lewy bodies of DA neurons in the SN, as well as in pyramidal neurons in the GTM of PD donors. Furthermore, we observed a co-localization of TLR4 and Iba-1 in glial cells of both SN and GTM. Our findings provide evidence for the increased expression of TLR4 in the PD brain and suggest that the interaction between TLR4 and pSer129-αSyn could play a role in mediating the neuroinflammatory response in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy
| | - Angela Ingrassia
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John Breve
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John J Bol
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Evelien Timmermans-Huisman
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anne-Marie van Dam
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tommaso Beccari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy
| | - Wilma D J van de Berg
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Amsterdam UMC, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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4
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Martínez-Gopar PE, Pérez-Rodríguez MJ, Angeles-López QD, Tristán-López L, González-Espinosa C, Pérez-Severiano F. Toll-Like Receptor 4 Plays a Significant Role in the Biochemical and Neurological Alterations Observed in Two Distinct Mice Models of Huntington's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:2678-2690. [PMID: 36701109 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03234-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are central players in innate immunity responses. They are expressed in glial cells and neurons, and their overactivation leads to the production of proinflammatory molecules, neuroinflammation, and neural damage associated with many neurodegenerative pathologies, such as Huntington's disease (HD). HD is an inherited disorder caused by a mutation in the gene coding for the protein Huntingtin (Htt). Expression of mutated Htt (mHtt) causes progressive neuronal degeneration characterized by striatal loss of GABAergic neurons, oxidative damage, neuroinflammatory processes, and impaired motor behavior. The main animal models to study HD are the intrastriatal injection of quinolinic acid (QA) and the transgenic B6CBA-Tg (HDexon1)61Gpb/1 J mice (R6/1). Those models mimic neuronal damage and systemic manifestations of HD. The objective of this work was to study the participation of TLR4 in the manifestations of neuronal damage and HD symptoms in the two mentioned models. For this purpose, C57BL6/J and TLR4-KO mice were administered with QA, and after that motor activity, and neuronal and oxidative damages were measured. R6/1 and TLR4-KO were mated to study the effect of low expression of TLR4 on the phenotype manifestation in R6/1 mice. We found that TLR4 is involved in motor activity, and neurological and oxidative damage induced by intrastriatal injection of QA, and the low expression of TLR4 causes a delay in the onset of phenotypic manifestations by the mHtt expression in R6/1 mice. Our results show that TLR4 is involved in both models of HD and focuses then as a therapeutic target for some deleterious reactions in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo E Martínez-Gopar
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Sede Sur, Calzada de los Tenorios No. 235, Colonia Granjas Coapa, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14330, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "Manuel Velasco Suárez", Avenida Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Colonia La Fama, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14269, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
| | - Marian J Pérez-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Sede Sur, Calzada de los Tenorios No. 235, Colonia Granjas Coapa, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14330, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
| | - Quetzalli D Angeles-López
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "Manuel Velasco Suárez", Avenida Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Colonia La Fama, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14269, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
| | - Luis Tristán-López
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "Manuel Velasco Suárez", Avenida Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Colonia La Fama, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14269, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
| | - Claudia González-Espinosa
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Unidad Sede Sur, Calzada de los Tenorios No. 235, Colonia Granjas Coapa, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14330, Mexico City, CP, Mexico
| | - Francisca Pérez-Severiano
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía "Manuel Velasco Suárez", Avenida Insurgentes Sur No. 3877, Colonia La Fama, Alcaldía Tlalpan, 14269, Mexico City, CP, Mexico.
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5
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Mazzotta GM, Ceccato N, Conte C. Synucleinopathies Take Their Toll: Are TLRs a Way to Go? Cells 2023; 12:cells12091231. [PMID: 37174631 PMCID: PMC10177040 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The misfolding and subsequent abnormal accumulation and aggregation of α-Synuclein (αSyn) as insoluble fibrils in Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites is the pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) and several neurodegenerative disorders. A combination of environmental and genetic factors is linked to αSyn misfolding, among which neuroinflammation is recognized to play an important role. Indeed, a number of studies indicate that a Toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated neuroinflammation might lead to a dopaminergic neural loss, suggesting that TLRs could participate in the pathogenesis of PD as promoters of immune/neuroinflammatory responses. Here we will summarize our current understanding on the mechanisms of αSyn aggregation and misfolding, focusing on the contribution of TLRs to the progression of α-synucleinopathies and speculating on their link with the non-motor disturbances associated with aging and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nadia Ceccato
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06100 Perugia, Italy
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6
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Pereira CPM, Francis-Oliveira J, Singulani MP, Ferreira AFF, Britto LRG. Microglial depletion exacerbates motor impairment and dopaminergic neuron loss in a 6-OHDA model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroimmunol 2023; 375:578019. [PMID: 36681049 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is a common neurotoxin used to induce Parkinson's disease (PD) in mice, exerting neurotoxic effects through the production of reactive oxygen species and microglial activation. However, the role of microglia in PD is still not clear, with contradictory reports showing neuroprotection or exacerbation of neuronal death. Microglial depletion aggravates motor coordination impairments and reduces tyrosine hydroxylase positive neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Moreover, MeCP2 and Adora1 genes expression were downregulated, suggesting they may be involved in the neurodegenerative process. This study highlights that microglia plays a protective role in dopaminergic neuron survival during the initial phase of PD, and the investigation of the mechanisms of this effect in future studies will help elucidate the pathophysiology of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Parga Martins Pereira
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Institute of Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, USA.
| | - José Francis-Oliveira
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Departament of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, USA
| | - Monique Patricio Singulani
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Flávia Fernandes Ferreira
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Luiz Roberto G Britto
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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7
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Zhang Z, Liu Z, Lv A, Fan C. How Toll-like receptors influence Parkinson's disease in the microbiome-gut-brain axis. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1154626. [PMID: 37207228 PMCID: PMC10189046 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1154626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, a large number of experimenters have found that the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease may be related to the gut microbiome and proposed the microbiome-gut-brain axis. Studies have shown that Toll-like receptors, especially Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), are key mediators of gut homeostasis. In addition to their established role in innate immunity throughout the body, research is increasingly showing that the Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathways shape the development and function of the gut and enteric nervous system. Notably, Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 are dysregulated in Parkinson's disease patients and may therefore be identified as the core of early gut dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. To better understand the contribution of Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 dysfunction in the gut to early α-synuclein aggregation, we discussed the structural function of Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 and signal transduction of Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 in Parkinson's disease by reviewing clinical, animal models, and in vitro studies. We also present a conceptual model of the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease, in which microbial dysbiosis alters the gut barrier as well as the Toll-like receptor 2 and Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathways, ultimately leading to a positive feedback loop for chronic gut dysfunction, promoting α-synuclein aggregation in the gut and vagus nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyi Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Baotou Central Hospital, Baotou, China
- Baotou Clinical Medical College, Inner Mongolia Medical University, Baotou, China
| | - Zhihui Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Baotou Central Hospital, Baotou, China
- *Correspondence: Zhihui Liu,
| | - Ao Lv
- The First Clinical College, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, China
| | - Chenhui Fan
- Safety Engineering, People’s Public Security University of China, Beijing, China
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8
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Heidari A, Yazdanpanah N, Rezaei N. The role of Toll-like receptors and neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:135. [PMID: 35668422 PMCID: PMC9172200 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02496-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms, significantly affecting patients' life. Pathologically, PD is associated with the extensive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in various regions of the central nervous system (CNS), specifically the substantia nigra. This neuronal loss is accompanied by the aggregation of misfolded protein, named α-synuclein. MAIN TEXT Recent studies detected several clues of neuroinflammation in PD samples using postmortem human PD brains and various PD animal models. Some evidence of neuroinflammation in PD patients included higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), presence of activated microglia in various brain regions such as substantia nigra, infiltration of peripheral inflammatory cells in affected brain regions, and altered function of cellular immunity like monocytes phagocytosis defects. On the other side, Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are innate immune receptors primarily located on microglia, as well as other immune and non-immune cells, expressing pivotal roles in recognizing exogenous and endogenous stimuli and triggering inflammatory responses. Most studies indicated an increased expression of TLRs in the brain and peripheral blood cells of PD samples. Besides, this upregulation was associated with excessive neuroinflammation followed by neurodegeneration in affected regions. Therefore, evidence proposed that TLR-mediated neuroinflammation might lead to a dopaminergic neural loss in PD patients. In this regard, TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 have the most prominent roles. CONCLUSION Although the presence of inflammation in acute phases of PD might have protective effects concerning the clearance of α-synuclein and delaying the disease advancement, the chronic activation of TLRs and neuroinflammation might lead to neurodegeneration, resulting in the disease progression. Therefore, this study aimed to review additional evidence of the contribution of TLRs and neuroinflammation to PD pathogenesis, with the hope that TLRs could serve as novel disease-modifying therapeutic targets in PD patients in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arash Heidari
- Students' Scientific Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr. Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran, 14194, Iran.,Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Niloufar Yazdanpanah
- Students' Scientific Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr. Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran, 14194, Iran.,Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr. Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran, 14194, Iran. .,Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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9
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Chung LYR, Lin YT, Liu C, Tai YC, Lin HY, Lin CH, Chen CC. Neuroinflammation Upregulated Neuronal Toll-Like Receptors 2 and 4 to Drive Synucleinopathy in Neurodegeneration. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:845930. [PMID: 35401198 PMCID: PMC8987529 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.845930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by intraneuronal α-synuclein aggregation called Lewy bodies and progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is a major pathway mediating inflammation. The molecular link on how neuroinflammation upregulates neuronal TLRs and induces accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates to drive synucleinopathy remains to be determined. Objective: Despite conditioned medium from microglia and TLR agonists were utilized to study their effects on neuronal cells, a Transwell coculture system, comprising lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia on top and retinoic acid-differentiated SH-SY5Y cells at the bottom more mimicking in vivo neuroinflammation, was employed to elucidate the mechanism of activated microglia on neuronal cells. Methods: Genetic variants of TLRs in PD patients were genotyped and the multiplex cytokines, sRAGE, and HMGB1were assessed. A coculture system was employed to measure α-synuclein aggregates and neurite shortening by confocal microscope. The expression of TLR2/4 and autophagy flux was detected by western blot and immunofluorescence. Results: PD patients showed higher plasma levels of proinflammatory cytokines and genetic TLR4 variant, c.896 A > G (p. D299G). Elevated proinflammatory cytokines in coculture medium was also seen. Phosphorylation and aggregation of α-synuclein, shortening of neurite, upregulation of TLR2/4 expression, activation of downstream p38 and JNK, and dampening of autophagic flux were seen in SH-SY5Y cells cocultured with activated microglia. Those were prevented by inhibiting TLR2/4 and p38/JNK signaling. Conclusion: Activated microglia-derived neuroinflammation induced neuronal TLR2/4-p38/JNK activation to perturb autophagy, causing accumulation of α-synuclein aggregates and neurite shortening. Targeting neuronal TLR2/4 pathway might be a mechanistic-based therapy for neurodegenerative disease, such as PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Yi-Ru Chung
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ting Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Cheng Tai
- Department of Neurology, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Neurology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Han-Yi Lin
- Department of Neurology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Hsien Lin
- Department of Neurology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Ching-Chow Chen, ; Chin-Hsien Lin,
| | - Ching-Chow Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Ching-Chow Chen, ; Chin-Hsien Lin,
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10
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Yildirim S, Ozkan A, Aytac G, Agar A, Tanriover G. Role of melatonin in TLR4-mediated inflammatory pathway in the MTPT-induced mouse model. Neurotoxicology 2021; 88:168-177. [PMID: 34808223 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2021.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has an essential role in various neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson's disease (PD). Microglial activation as a result of neuroinflammation exacerbates the pathological consequences of the disease. The toxic effect of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) causes alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein) accumulation, which leads to dopaminergic neuron death in the MPTP-induced mouse model. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) stimulates release of cytokine through NF-kB by activating glial cells, thus resulting in the death of dopaminergic neurons. Melatonin has the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier and protect neurons through anti-inflammatory properties. We hypothesized that melatonin could suppress TLR4-mediated neuroinflammation, decrease cytokine release due to the inflammatory response, and reduce dopaminergic neuron loss in the MPTP-induced mouse model. In the MPTP-induced mouse model, we aimed to assess the neuroinflammatory responses caused by TLR4 activation as well as the effect of melatonin on these responses. Three-month-old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into five groups; Control (Group-C), Sham (Group-S), Melatonin-treated (Group-M), MPTP-injected (Group-P), and MPTP + melatonin-injected (Group-P + M). MPTP toxin (20 mg/kg) was dissolved in saline and intraperitoneally (i.p.) injected to mice for two days with 12 h intervals. The total dose per mouse was 80 mg/kg. Melatonin was administered (20 mg/kg) intraperitoneally to Group-M and Group-P + M twice a day for five days. Eight days after starting the experiment, the motor activities of mice were evaluated by locomotor activity tests. The effects on dopamine neurons in the SNPc was determined by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemistry. TLR4, α-synuclein, and p65 expression was evaluated by immunostaining as well. The amount of TNF-alpha in the total brain was evaluated by western blot analysis. In our results seen that locomotor activity was lower in Group-P compared to Group-C. However, melatonin administration was improved this impairment. MPTPcaused decrease in TH immuno-expression in dopaminergic neurons in Group-P. TLR4 (p < 0.001), α-synuclein (p < 0.001), and p65 (p < 0.01) immuno-expressions were also decreased in Group-P+M compared to Group-P (using MPTP). TNF-α expression was lower in Group-C, Group-S, Group-M, and Group-P+M, when compared to Group-P (p < 0.0001) due to the absence of inflammatory response. In conclusion, our study revealed that melatonin administration reduced α-synuclein aggregation and TLR4-mediated inflammatory response in the MPTP-induced mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sendegul Yildirim
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Ayse Ozkan
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Gunes Aytac
- TOBB University of Economics & Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Ankara, Turkey; University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, John A. Burns School of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Biochemistry & Physiology, Hawaii, USA
| | - Aysel Agar
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Gamze Tanriover
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Antalya, Turkey; Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biotechnology, Antalya, Turkey.
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11
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Gorecki AM, Anyaegbu CC, Anderton RS. TLR2 and TLR4 in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis: the environment takes a toll on the gut. Transl Neurodegener 2021; 10:47. [PMID: 34814947 PMCID: PMC8609261 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-021-00271-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is an incurable, devastating disorder that is characterized by pathological protein aggregation and neurodegeneration in the substantia nigra. In recent years, growing evidence has implicated the gut environment and the gut-brain axis in the pathogenesis and progression of PD, especially in a subset of people who exhibit prodromal gastrointestinal dysfunction. Specifically, perturbations of gut homeostasis are hypothesized to contribute to α-synuclein aggregation in enteric neurons, which may spread to the brain over decades and eventually result in the characteristic central nervous system manifestations of PD, including neurodegeneration and motor impairments. However, the mechanisms linking gut disturbances and α-synuclein aggregation are still unclear. A plethora of research indicates that toll-like receptors (TLRs), especially TLR2 and TLR4, are critical mediators of gut homeostasis. Alongside their established role in innate immunity throughout the body, studies are increasingly demonstrating that TLR2 and TLR4 signalling shapes the development and function of the gut and the enteric nervous system. Notably, TLR2 and TLR4 are dysregulated in patients with PD, and may thus be central to early gut dysfunction in PD. To better understand the putative contribution of intestinal TLR2 and TLR4 dysfunction to early α-synuclein aggregation and PD, we critically discuss the role of TLR2 and TLR4 in normal gut function as well as evidence for altered TLR2 and TLR4 signalling in PD, by reviewing clinical, animal model and in vitro research. Growing evidence on the immunological aetiology of α-synuclein aggregation is also discussed, with a focus on the interactions of α-synuclein with TLR2 and TLR4. We propose a conceptual model of PD pathogenesis in which microbial dysbiosis alters the permeability of the intestinal barrier as well as TLR2 and TLR4 signalling, ultimately leading to a positive feedback loop of chronic gut dysfunction promoting α-synuclein aggregation in enteric and vagal neurons. In turn, α-synuclein aggregates may then migrate to the brain via peripheral nerves, such as the vagal nerve, to contribute to neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration typically associated with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastazja M Gorecki
- School of Biological Science, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia.
- Neurodegenerative Disorders Research Group, Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Nedlands, WA, Australia.
| | - Chidozie C Anyaegbu
- Curtin Health Innovation Research Institute, Ralph and Patricia Sarich Neuroscience Research Institute, Curtin University, Nedlands, WA, Australia
| | - Ryan S Anderton
- Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Midwifery and Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA, Australia
- School of Nursing, Midwifery, Health Sciences and Physiotherapy, University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, WA, Australia
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12
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Venezia S, Kaufmann WA, Wenning GK, Stefanova N. Toll-like receptor 4 deficiency facilitates α-synuclein propagation and neurodegeneration in a mouse model of prodromal Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2021; 91:59-65. [PMID: 34530328 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2021.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2021] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The evidence linking innate immunity mechanisms and neurodegenerative diseases is growing, but the specific mechanisms are incompletely understood. Experimental data suggest that microglial TLR4 mediates the uptake and clearance of α-synuclein also termed synucleinophagy. The accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein throughout the brain is central to Parkinson's disease (PD). The distribution and progression of the pathology is often attributed to the propagation of α-synuclein. Here, we apply a classical α-synuclein propagation model of prodromal PD in wild type and TLR4 deficient mice to study the role of TLR4 in the progression of the disease. Our data suggest that TLR4 deficiency facilitates the α-synuclein seed spreading associated with reduced lysosomal activity of microglia. Three months after seed inoculation, more pronounced proteinase K-resistant α-synuclein inclusion pathology is observed in mice with TLR4 deficiency. The facilitated propagation of α-synuclein is associated with early loss of dopamine transporter (DAT) signal in the striatum and loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta of TLR4 deficient mice. These new results support TLR4 signaling as a putative target for disease modification to slow the progression of PD and related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Venezia
- Laboratory for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Walter A Kaufmann
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Gregor K Wenning
- Laboratory for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nadia Stefanova
- Laboratory for Translational Neurodegeneration Research, Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Austria.
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13
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Lei Q, Wu T, Wu J, Hu X, Guan Y, Wang Y, Yan J, Shi G. Roles of α‑synuclein in gastrointestinal microbiome dysbiosis‑related Parkinson's disease progression (Review). Mol Med Rep 2021; 24:734. [PMID: 34414447 PMCID: PMC8404091 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2021.12374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease amongst the middle-aged and elderly populations. Several studies have confirmed that the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) serves a key role in the pathogenesis of PD. Changes to the gastrointestinal microbiome (GM) cause misfolding and abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein (α-syn) in the intestine. Abnormal α-syn is not eliminated via physiological mechanisms and is transported into the central nervous system (CNS) via the vagus nerve. The abnormal levels of α-syn aggregate in the substantia nigra pars compacta, not only leading to the formation of eosinophilic Lewis Bodies in the cytoplasm and mitochondrial dysfunction in dopaminergic (DA) neurons, but also leading to the stimulation of an inflammatory response in the microglia. These pathological changes result in an increase in oxidative stress (OS), which triggers nerve cell apoptosis, a characteristic of PD. This increase in OS further oxidizes and intensifies abnormal aggregation of α-syn, eventually forming a positive feedback loop. The present review discusses the abnormal accumulation of α-syn in the intestine caused by the GM changes and the increased levels of α-syn transport to the CNS via the MGBA, resulting in the loss of DA neurons and an increase in the inflammatory response of microglial cells in the brain of patients with PD. In addition, relevant clinical therapeutic strategies for improving the GM and reducing α-syn accumulation to relieve the symptoms and progression of PD are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingchun Lei
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650101, P.R. China
| | - Tingting Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650101, P.R. China
| | - Jin Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Puer People's Hospital, Pu'er, Yunnan 665000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaogang Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Puer People's Hospital, Pu'er, Yunnan 665000, P.R. China
| | - Yingxia Guan
- Department of Vasculocardiology, The Affiliated Hospital of Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan 650021, P.R. China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650101, P.R. China
| | - Jinyuan Yan
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650101, P.R. China
| | - Guolin Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, Yunnan 650101, P.R. China
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14
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Conte C. Possible Link between SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Parkinson's Disease: The Role of Toll-Like Receptor 4. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7135. [PMID: 34281186 PMCID: PMC8269350 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22137135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/19/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative motor disorder characterized by selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of the midbrain, depletion of dopamine (DA), and impaired nigrostriatal pathway. The pathological hallmark of PD includes the aggregation and accumulation α-synuclein (α-SYN). Although the precise mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of PD are still unknown, the activation of toll-like receptors (TLRs), mainly TLR4 and subsequent neuroinflammatory immune response, seem to play a significant role. Mounting evidence suggests that viral infection can concur with the precipitation of PD or parkinsonism. The recently identified coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of ongoing pandemic coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), responsible for 160 million cases that led to the death of more than three million individuals worldwide. Studies have reported that many patients with COVID-19 display several neurological manifestations, including acute cerebrovascular diseases, conscious disturbance, and typical motor and non-motor symptoms accompanying PD. In this review, the neurotropic potential of SARS-CoV-2 and its possible involvement in the pathogenesis of PD are discussed. Specifically, the involvement of the TLR4 signaling pathway in mediating the virus entry, as well as the massive immune and inflammatory response in COVID-19 patients is explored. The binding of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein to TLR4 and the possible interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and α-SYN as contributing factors to neuronal death are also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, via Fabretti, 06123 Perugia, Italy
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15
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Custodia A, Aramburu-Núñez M, Correa-Paz C, Posado-Fernández A, Gómez-Larrauri A, Castillo J, Gómez-Muñoz A, Sobrino T, Ouro A. Ceramide Metabolism and Parkinson's Disease-Therapeutic Targets. Biomolecules 2021; 11:945. [PMID: 34202192 PMCID: PMC8301871 DOI: 10.3390/biom11070945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ceramide is a bioactive sphingolipid involved in numerous cellular processes. In addition to being the precursor of complex sphingolipids, ceramides can act as second messengers, especially when they are generated at the plasma membrane of cells. Its metabolic dysfunction may lead to or be a consequence of an underlying disease. Recent reports on transcriptomics and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry analysis have demonstrated the variation of specific levels of sphingolipids and enzymes involved in their metabolism in different neurodegenerative diseases. In the present review, we highlight the most relevant discoveries related to ceramide and neurodegeneration, with a special focus on Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antía Custodia
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Marta Aramburu-Núñez
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Clara Correa-Paz
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Adrián Posado-Fernández
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Ana Gómez-Larrauri
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, P.O. Box 644, 48980 Bilbao, Spain; (A.G.-L.); (A.G.-M.)
- Respiratory Department, Cruces University Hospital, Barakaldo, 48903 Bizkaia, Spain
| | - José Castillo
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Antonio Gómez-Muñoz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country, P.O. Box 644, 48980 Bilbao, Spain; (A.G.-L.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Tomás Sobrino
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
| | - Alberto Ouro
- Clinical Neurosciences Research Laboratories, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Travesa da Choupana s/n, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (A.C.); (M.A.-N.); (C.C.-P.); (A.P.-F.); (J.C.)
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16
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Vasconcelos AR, da Paixão AG, Kinoshita PF, Orellana AM, Scavone C, Kawamoto EM. Toll-like Receptor 4 Signaling is Critical for the Adaptive Cellular Stress Response Effects Induced by Intermittent Fasting in the Mouse Brain. Neuroscience 2021; 465:142-153. [PMID: 33957205 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Among different kinds of dietary energy restriction, intermittent fasting (IF) has been considered a dietary regimen which causes a mild stress to the organism. IF can stimulate proteins and signaling pathways related to cell stress that can culminate in the increase of the body resistance to severe stress conditions. Energy intake reduction induced by IF can induce modulation of receptors, kinases, and phosphatases, which in turn can modulate the activation of transcription factors such as NF-E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) and cAMP response element-binding (CREB) which regulate the transcription of genes related to the translation of proteins such as growth factors: brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), chaperone proteins: heat shock proteins (HSP), and so on. It has been shown that toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important molecules in innate immune response which are present not only in the periphery but also in neurons and glial cells. In central nervous system, TLRs can exert functions related to set up responses to infection, as well as influence neural progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation, being involved in cognitive parameters such as learning and memory. Little is known about the involvement of TLR4 on the beneficial effects induced by IF protocol. The present work investigated the effects of IF on memory and on the signaling mechanisms associated with NRF2 and CREB in Tlr4 knockout mice. The results suggest that TLR4 participates in the modulatory effects of IF on oxidative stress levels, on the transcription factors CREB and NRF2, and on BDNF and HSP90 expressions in hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea R Vasconcelos
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Amanda G da Paixão
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Paula F Kinoshita
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Ana M Orellana
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Cristoforo Scavone
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Elisa M Kawamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil.
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17
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Narayanankutty A. Toll-like Receptors as a Novel Therapeutic Target for Natural Products Against Chronic Diseases. Curr Drug Targets 2020; 20:1068-1080. [PMID: 30806312 DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666190222181506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLR) are one among the initial responders of the immune system which participate in the activation inflammatory processes. Several different types of TLR such as TLR2, TLR4, TLR7 and TLR9 have been identified in various cell types, each having distinct ligands like lipids, lipoproteins, nucleic acids and proteins. Though its prime concern is xenobiotic defences, TLR signalling has also recognized as an activator of inflammation and associated development of chronic degenerative disorders (CDDs) including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), fatty liver disease, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders as well as various types of cancers. Numerous drugs are in use to prevent these disorders, which specifically inhibit different pathways associated with the development of CDDs. Compared to these drug targets, inhibition of TLR, which specifically responsible for the inflammatory insults has proven to be a better drug target. Several natural products have emerged as inhibitors of CDDs, which specifically targets TLR signalling, among these, many are in the clinical trials. This review is intended to summarize the recent progress on TLR association with CDDs and to list possible use of natural products, their combinations and their synthetic derivative in the prevention of TLR-driven CDD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arunaksharan Narayanankutty
- Post Graduate & Research Department of Zoology, St. Joseph's College (Autonomous), Devagiri, Calicut, Kerala, 680 555, India
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18
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Gan P, Ding L, Hang G, Xia Q, Huang Z, Ye X, Qian X. Oxymatrine Attenuates Dopaminergic Neuronal Damage and Microglia-Mediated Neuroinflammation Through Cathepsin D-Dependent HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB Pathway in Parkinson's Disease. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:776. [PMID: 32528295 PMCID: PMC7264119 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxymatrine (OMT), a natural quinoxaline alkaloid extracted from the root of Sophora flavescens, presents amounts of pharmacological properties including immunomodulation, anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, and anti-virus. Recent studies tend to focus on its effects on neuroinflammation and neuroprotection in Parkinson’s disease (PD) due to its profound anti-inflammatory effect. In this study, the neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of OMT were investigated in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-stimulated mice and 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-induced mice primary microglia. Additionally, mice primary neuron-microglia co-cultures and primary microglia infected with Cathepsin D (CathD)-overexpressed lentivirus were used to clarify whether the neuroprotective effect of OMT was through a CathD-dependent pathway. Results showed that OMT dose-dependently alleviated MPTP-induced motor deficits and conferred significant dopamine (DA) neuroprotection against MPTP/MPP+-induced neurotoxicity. In addition, OMT inhibited MPTP/MPP+-induced microglia activation and the pro-inflammatory cytokines release. Further, OMT down-regulated the expression of CathD, and inhibited the activation of the HMGB1/TLR4 signaling pathway as well as the nuclear translocation of NF-κB both in vivo and in vitro. It is worth noting that overexpression of CathD reversed OMT-targeted inhibition of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling and OMT-produced neuroprotection in reconstituted neuron-microglia co-cultures. Our findings indicated that OMT conferred DA neuroprotection and attenuated microglial-mediated neuroinflammation through CathD-dependent inhibition of HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Our study supports a potential role for OMT in ameliorating PD, and proposes that OMT may be useful in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Gan
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Lidong Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Guihua Hang
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Qiaofang Xia
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Zhimei Huang
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Xing Ye
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Xiaojuan Qian
- Department of Pharmacy, Taizhou Second People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
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19
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Abstract
Many studies highlighted that a bidirectional communication between the gut and the central nervous system (CNS) exists. A vigorous immune response to antigens must be avoided, and pathogenic organisms crossing the gut barrier must be detected and killed. For this reason, the immune system developed fine mechanisms able to maintain this delicate balance. The microbiota is beneficial to its host, providing protection against pathogenic bacteria. It is intimately involved in numerous aspects of host physiology, from nutritional status to behavior and stress response. In the last few years, the implication of the gut microbiota and its bioactive microbiota-derived molecules in the progression of multiple diseases, as well as in the development of neurodegenerative disorders, gained increasing attention. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the gut microbiota with particular attention toward neurological disorders and mast cells. Relevant roles are played by the mast cells in neuroimmune communication, such as sensors and effectors of cytokines and neurotransmitters. In this context, the intake of beneficial bacterial strains as probiotics could represent a valuable therapeutic approach to adopt in combination with classical therapies. Further studies need to be performed to understand if the gut bacteria are responsible for neurological disorders or if neurological disorders influence the bacterial profile.
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20
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Taticchi A, Urbani S, Albi E, Servili M, Codini M, Traina G, Balloni S, Patria FF, Perioli L, Beccari T, Conte C. In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Phenolic Compounds from Moraiolo Virgin Olive Oil (MVOO) in Brain Cells via Regulating the TLR4/NLRP3 Axis. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24244523. [PMID: 31835609 PMCID: PMC6943687 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24244523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a feature of many classic neurodegenerative diseases. In the healthy brain, microglia cells are distributed throughout the brain and are constantly surveilling the central nervous system (CNS). In response to CNS injury, microglia quickly react by secreting a wide array of apoptotic molecules. Virgin olive oil (VOO) is universally recognized as a symbol of the Mediterranean diet. In the current study, using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 microglia, the anti-inflammatory effects of VOO phenolic extracts from Moraiolo cultivar (MVOO-PE) were investigated. The results showed that low concentration of MVOO-PE prevented microglia cell death and attenuated the LPS-induced activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NOD-like receptor pyrin domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) signaling cascade. The levels of TLR4 and NF-kB were diminished, as well as NLRP3 inflammasome and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzyme and ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) inflammatory mediator were also reduced. By modulating the TLR4/NLRP3 axis, MVOO-PE pretreatment was able to significantly down-regulate the mRNA expression of inflammatory mediators and suppress the cytokine secretion. Finally, we showed protective effect of MVOO-PE in a transwell neuron-microglia co-culture system. In conclusion, these results suggest that MVOO-PE could exerts anti-inflammatory activity on brain cells and become a promising candidate for preventing several neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnese Taticchi
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (A.T.); (S.U.); (M.S.)
| | - Stefania Urbani
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (A.T.); (S.U.); (M.S.)
| | - Elisabetta Albi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Maurizio Servili
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (A.T.); (S.U.); (M.S.)
| | - Michela Codini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Giovanna Traina
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Stefania Balloni
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Federica Filomena Patria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Luana Perioli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Tommaso Beccari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
| | - Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06126 Perugia, Italy; (E.A.); (M.C.); (G.T.); (S.B.); (F.F.P.); (L.P.); (T.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-075-5857906
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21
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Conte C, Arcuri C, Cataldi S, Mecca C, Codini M, Ceccarini MR, Patria FF, Beccari T, Albi E. Niemann-Pick Type A Disease: Behavior of Neutral Sphingomyelinase and Vitamin D Receptor. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092365. [PMID: 31086057 PMCID: PMC6539364 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphingomyelinase (SMase) is responsible for the breakdown of sphingomyelin (SM) with production of ceramide. The absence of acid sphingomyelinase (aSMase) causes abnormal synapse formation in Niemann-Pick type A (NPA) disease. Because high levels of ceramide in the NPA brain were demonstrated, the involvement of other SMases were supposed. In the present study we focused the attention on the neurogenic niches in the hippocampal gyrus dentatus (GD), a brain structure essential for forming cohesive memory. We demonstrated for the first time the increase of (Sex determining region Y)-box 2 (SOX2), and the down-regulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) NPA mice GD. Moreover, we found that the expression of Toll like receptors (TLRs), was increased in NPA mice, particularly TLR2, TLR7, TLR8 and TLR9 members. Although no significant change in neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase) gene expression was detected in the NPA mice hippocampus of, protein levels were enhanced, probably because of the slower protein degradation rate in this area. Many studies demonstrated that vitamin D receptor (VDR) is expressed in the hippocampus GD. Unexpectedly, we showed that NPA mice exhibited VDR gene and protein expression up-regulation. In summary, our study suggests a relation between hippocampal cell differentiation defect, nSMase and VDR increase in NPA mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Cataldo Arcuri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Samuela Cataldi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Carmen Mecca
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Michela Codini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | | | | | - Tommaso Beccari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
| | - Elisabetta Albi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy.
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Li Y, Zhang L, Tang J, Yang X, Huang J, Zhu T, Zhao F, Li S, Li X, Qu Y, Mu D. Role of toll-like receptor 4 in the regulation of the cell death pathway and neuroinflammation. Brain Res Bull 2019; 148:79-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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23
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Plotegher N, Bubacco L, Greggio E, Civiero L. Ceramides in Parkinson's Disease: From Recent Evidence to New Hypotheses. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:330. [PMID: 31001082 PMCID: PMC6454043 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Ceramides (Cer) constitute a class of lipids present in the cell membranes where they act as structural components, but they can also work as signaling molecules. Increasing genetic and biochemical evidence supports a link between deregulation of ceramide metabolism in the brain and neurodegeneration. Here, we provide an overview of the genes and cellular pathways that link Cer with Parkinson’s disease and discuss how ceramide pathobiology is gaining increasing interest in the understanding of the pathological mechanisms that contribute to the disease and in the clinical and therapeutic side.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Plotegher
- Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Luigi Bubacco
- Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Elisa Greggio
- Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Laura Civiero
- Laboratory of Cellular Physiology and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Biology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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24
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Albi E, Cataldi S, Codini M, Mariucci G, Lazzarini A, Ceccarini MR, Ferri I, Laurenti ME, Arcuri C, Patria F, Beccari T, Conte C. Neutral sphingomyelinase increases and delocalizes in the absence of Toll-Like Receptor 4: A new insight for MPTP neurotoxicity. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 2019; 142:46-52. [PMID: 30928412 DOI: 10.1016/j.prostaglandins.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Both sphingomyelinase and Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) are implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. However, the relationship between the two molecules remains unclear. In this study, using WT and TLR4-deficient mice, treated or not with 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), we aimed to investigate the relation between TLR4 and neutral sphingomyelinase (nSMase) in the midbrain. We found that the lack of TLR4 caused increase in nSMase protein expression and enzyme activity in the midbrain, as well as a marked delocalization from the cell membranes. This provoked a decrease in sphingomyelin (SM) species and an increase in ceramide levels. We found that exposure of TLR4-deficient mice to MPTP reduces unsaturated SM species by increasing saturated/unsaturated SM ratio. Saturated fatty acid make SM more rigid and could contribute to reducing neural plasticity. In this study we showed that the absence of TLR4 also induced reduction of both heavy neurofilaments and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and mice exhibited higher sensitivity to MPTP administration. We speculated about the possible association between nSMase-TLR4 complex and MPTP midbrain damage. Taken together, our findings provide for the first time indications about the role of TLR4 in change of SM metabolism in MPTP neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Albi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Samuela Cataldi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Michela Codini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Lazzarini
- Research Centre of Biochemical Specialist Analyses, CRABiON, 06122 Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Ivana Ferri
- Institute of Pathologic Anatomy and Histology, University of Perugia, Italy
| | | | - Cataldo Arcuri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Federica Patria
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Tommaso Beccari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy
| | - Carmela Conte
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Perugia, Italy.
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25
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Cui B, Guo X, You Y, Fu R. Farrerol attenuates MPP + -induced inflammatory response by TLR4 signaling in a microglia cell line. Phytother Res 2019; 33:1134-1141. [PMID: 30734970 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Farrerol was found to possess neuroprotective effect; however, the mechanism remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to explore the effect of farrerol on MPP+ -induced inflammation in mouse microglial BV-2 cells and to elaborate the underlying mechanism. MTT assay was performed to measure the cell viability. The pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α); inducible nitric oxide synthase; and cyclooxygenase 2 were measured. The expression of p-p65, p-IκBα, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 were analyzed by western blot. We found that farrerol treatment improved cell viability in MPP+ -induced BV-2 cells. MPP+ -induced upregulation of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α was inhibited by farrerol treatment. Farrerol treatment also attenuated MPP+ -induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase 2 as well as the activation of NF-κB in BV-2 cells. MPP+ -induced TLR4 signaling was markedly diminished by farrerol treatment. Knockdown of TLR4 attenuated MPP+ -induced inflammatory response in BV-2 cells. In conclusion, farrerol treatment attenuated MPP+ -induced inflammatory response by inhibiting the TLR4 signaling pathway in BV-2 cells. The results indicated that farrerol could be used as a therapeutic agent for preventing or alleviating the neuroinflammation-related diseases, such as Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei Cui
- Department of Neurology, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Xiaqing Guo
- Department of Neurology, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Yanhui You
- Department of Neurology, Tongxu County Hospital, Kaifeng, China
| | - Rongli Fu
- Department of Neurology, Huaihe Hospital of Henan University, Kaifeng, China
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