Progranulin and its biological effects in cancer

The role of progranulin in macrophages of a glioblastoma model

PURPOSE

Glioblastoma (GBM), characterized by astrocytic tumorigenesis, remains one of the most prognostically challenging tumor types. Targeting entire GBM microenvironment using novel therapeutic factors is currently desired investigation approach. In this study, we focused on progranulin (PGRN), a regulator of diverse cellular functions. Recent studies implicated PGRN in the poor prognostics of GBM patients. However, the specific role of PGRN in the GBM microenvironment remains elusive.

METHODS

We utilized public databases of GBM patient and previous single-cell RNA sequence to examine association between PGRN expression and patient survival/grade, and expression levels of PGRN in each cell constituting the tumor microenvironment. To clarify the role of PGRN in Tumor-associated macrophage (TAM), we examined cell proliferation and expression of some proteins in murine GBM cells when cell supernatants derived from TAM of PGRN knockout (Grn-/-) or wild type mice were treated with murine GBM cells.

RESULTS

Our results reveal significant PGRN expression in macrophages within the GBM environment, suggesting an association between increased PGRN expression in macrophages and tumor malignancy. TAM induction led to PGRN expression enhancement. Treatment with Grn-/- mouse -derived bone marrow-derived macrophage (BMDM) supernatant resulted in diminished GBM cell proliferation and cell cycle- and mesenchymal GBM subtype-associated reduced protein expression. Furthermore, the Grn-/- mouse-derived BMDM supernatant treatment reduced the phosphorylated STAT3 expression in GBM cells, while the expression of IL-6 and IL-10, known STAT3 pathway activators, diminished in Grn-/- mouse-derived BMDMs.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that macrophage-derived PGRN is pivotal for fostering malignant transformations within the tumor microenvironment.

Peripheral expression of brain-penetrant progranulin rescues pathologies in mouse models of frontotemporal lobar degeneration

Progranulin (PGRN) haploinsufficiency is a major risk factor for frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) pathology (FTLD-GRN). Multiple therapeutic strategies are in clinical development to restore PGRN in the CNS, including gene therapy. However, a limitation of current gene therapy approaches aimed to alleviate FTLD-associated pathologies may be their inefficient brain exposure and biodistribution. We therefore developed an adeno-associated virus (AAV) targeting the liver (L) to achieve sustained peripheral expression of a transferrin receptor (TfR) binding, brain-penetrant (b) PGRN variant [AAV(L):bPGRN] in two mouse models of FTLD-GRN, namely, Grn knockout and GrnxTmem106b double knockout mice. This therapeutic strategy avoids potential safety and biodistribution issues of CNS-administered AAVs and maintains sustained concentrations of PGRN in the brain after a single dose. AAV(L):bPGRN treatment reduced several FTLD-GRN-associated pathologies including severe motor function deficits, aberrant TDP-43 phosphorylation, dysfunctional protein degradation, lipid metabolism, gliosis, and neurodegeneration in the brain. The potential translatability of our findings was tested in an in vitro model using cocultured human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived microglia lacking PGRN and TMEM106B and wild-type hiPSC-derived neurons. As in mice, aberrant TDP-43, lysosomal dysfunction, and neuronal loss were ameliorated after treatment with exogenous TfR-binding protein transport vehicle fused to PGRN (PTV:PGRN). Together, our studies suggest that peripherally administered brain-penetrant PGRN replacement strategies ameliorate FTLD-GRN relevant phenotypes including TDP-43 pathology, neurodegeneration, and behavioral deficits. Our data provide preclinical proof of concept for the use of this AAV platform for treatment of FTLD-GRN and potentially other CNS disorders.

Novel T cell exhaustion gene signature to predict prognosis and immunotherapy response in thyroid carcinoma from integrated RNA-sequencing analysis

Exhausted CD8+ T lymphocytes and tumor-associated macrophages play critical roles in determining cancer prognosis and the efficacy of immunotherapy. Our study revealed a negative correlation between exhausted CD8+ T lymphocytes and prognosis in thyroid carcinoma (THCA). Consensus clustering divided patients into two subgroups of exhaustion with different prognoses, as defined by marker genes of exhausted CD8+ T cells. Subsequently, we constructed an eight-gene prognostic signature, and developed a risk score named the exhaustion-related gene score (ERGS) to forecast both prognosis and immunotherapy response in THCA. Bulk RNA sequencing analysis revealed a higher prevalence of M2 macrophages, indicative of an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), in the high-ERGS group. Single-cell RNA sequencing showed that SPP1+ macrophages and CD14+ monocytes infiltrations were positively associated with higher ERGS. Functionally, it was determined that SPP1+ macrophages exert an immunosuppressive role, while CD14+ monocytes were implicated in promoting tumor progression and angiogenesis. Analysis of cell-cell interactions between SPP1+ macrophages and T cells highlighted the activation of the SPP1-CD44 and MIF-CD74 axes, both of which could foster an immunosuppressive TME. Therapeutic strategies that target SPP1+ macrophages, CD14+ monocytes, and the SPP1-CD44 and MIF-CD74 axes may potentially improve the prognosis and amplify the immunotherapy response in THCA patients.

Progranulin Facilitates Corneal Repair Through Dual Mechanisms of Inflammation Suppression and Regeneration Promotion

The cornea serves as a vital protective barrier for the eye; however, it is prone to injury and damage that can disrupt corneal epithelium and nerves, triggering inflammation. Therefore, understanding the biological effects and molecular mechanisms involved in corneal wound healing and identifying drugs targeting these pathways is crucial for researchers in this field. This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic potential of progranulin (PGRN) in treating corneal injuries. Our findings demonstrated that PGRN significantly enhanced corneal wound repair by accelerating corneal re-epithelialization and re-innervation. In vitro experiments with cultured epithelial cells and trigeminal ganglion cells further revealed that PGRN stimulated corneal epithelial cell proliferation and promoted axon growth in trigeminal ganglion cells. Through RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis and other experimental techniques, we discovered that PGRN exerted its healing effects modulating Wnt signaling pathway, which played a critical role in repairing epithelial cells and promoting axon regeneration in trigeminal neurons. Importantly, our study highlighted the anti-inflammatory properties of PGRN by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway, leading to decreased infiltration of macrophages. In conclusion, our findings underscored the potential of PGRN in facilitating corneal wound healing by promoting corneal epithelial cell proliferation, trigeminal ganglion cell axon regeneration, and suppressing ocular inflammation. These results suggest that PGRN could potentially expedite the healing process and improve visual outcomes in patients with corneal injuries.

Targeting progranulin alleviated silica particles-induced pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis via decreasing Il-6 and Tgf-β1/Smad

Long term exposure to silica particles leads to various diseases, among which silicosis is of great concern. Silicosis is an interstitial lung disease caused by inhalation of silica particles in production environments. However, the mechanisms underlying silicosis remains unclear. Our previous studies revealed that progranulin (Pgrn) promoted the expression of pro-inflammatory factors in alveolar macrophages treated with silica particles and the secretion of extracellular matrix of pulmonary fibroblasts. Nevertheless, the role of Pgrn in silica particles-induced silicosis in vivo was unknown. This study found that silica particles increased Pgrn expression in silicosis patients. Pgrn deficiency reduced lung inflammation and fibrosis in silica particles-induced silicosis mouse models. Subsequently, based on transcriptional sequencing and interleukin (Il) -6 knockout mouse models, results demonstrated that Pgrn deficiency might decrease silicosis inflammation by reducing the production of Il-6, thereby modulating pulmonary fibrosis in the early stage of silicosis mouse models. Furthermore, another mechanism through which Pgrn deficiency reduced fibrosis in silicosis mouse models was the regulation of the transforming growth factor (Tgf) -β1/Smad signaling pathway. Conclusively, Pgrn contributed to silicosis inflammation and fibrosis induced by silica particles, indicating that Pgrn could be a promising therapeutic target.

The Role of Progranulin (PGRN) in the Pathogenesis of Glioblastoma Multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) represents the most common and aggressive malignant form of brain tumour in adults and is characterized by an extremely poor prognosis with dismal survival rates. Currently, expanding concepts concerning the pathophysiology of GBM are inextricably linked with neuroinflammatory phenomena. On account of this fact, the identification of novel pathomechanisms targeting neuroinflammation seems to be crucial in terms of yielding successful individual therapeutic strategies. In recent years, the pleiotropic growth factor progranulin (PGRN) has attracted significant attention in the neuroscience and oncological community regarding its neuroimmunomodulatory and oncogenic functions. This review of the literature summarizes and updates contemporary knowledge about PGRN, its associated receptors and signalling pathway involvement in GBM pathogenesis, indicating possible cellular and molecular mechanisms with potential diagnostic, prognostic and therapeutic targets in order to yield successful individual therapeutic strategies. After a review of the literature, we found that there are possible PGRN-targeted therapeutic approaches for implementation in GBM treatment algorithms both in preclinical and future clinical studies. Furthermore, PGRN-targeted therapies exerted their highest efficacy in combination with other established chemotherapeutic agents, such as temozolomide. The results of the analysis suggested that the possible implementation of routine determinations of PGRN and its associated receptors in tumour tissue and biofluids could serve as a diagnostic and prognostic biomarker of GBM. Furthermore, promising preclinical applications of PGRN-related findings should be investigated in clinical studies in order to create new diagnostic and therapeutic algorithms for GBM treatment.

Interleukin-6 Induces Stem Cell Propagation through Liaison with the Sortilin-Progranulin Axis in Breast Cancer

Unraveling the complex network between cancer cells and their tumor microenvironment is of clinical importance, as it might allow for the identification of new targets for cancer treatment. Cytokines and growth factors secreted by various cell types present in the tumor microenvironment have the potential to affect the challenging subpopulation of cancer stem cells showing treatment-resistant properties as well as aggressive features. By using various model systems, we investigated how the breast cancer stem cell-initiating growth factor progranulin influenced the secretion of cancer-associated proteins. In monolayer cultures, progranulin induced secretion of several inflammatory-related cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-6 and -8, in a sortilin-dependent manner. Further, IL-6 increased the cancer stem fraction similarly to progranulin in the breast cancer cell lines MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 monitored by the surrogate mammosphere-forming assay. In a cohort of 63 patient-derived scaffold cultures cultured with breast cancer cells, we observed significant correlations between IL-6 and progranulin secretion, clearly validating the association between IL-6 and progranulin also in human-based microenvironments. In conclusion, the interplay between progranulin and IL-6 highlights a dual breast cancer stem cell-promoting function via sortilin, further supporting sortilin as a highly relevant therapeutic target for aggressive breast cancer.

H19: An Oncogenic Long Non-coding RNA in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) has been recorded amongst the most common cancers in the world, with high morbidity and mortality rates, and relatively low survival rates. With risk factors such as chronic illness, age, and lifestyle associated with the development of CRC, the incidence of CRC is increasing each year. Thus, the discovery of novel biomarkers to improve the diagnosis and prognosis of CRC has become beneficial. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been emerging as potential players in several tumor types, one among them is the lncRNA H19. The paternally imprinted oncofetal gene is expressed in the embryo, downregulated at birth, and reappears in tumors. H19 aids in CRC cell growth, proliferation, invasion, and metastasis via various mechanisms of action, significantly through the lncRNA-microRNA (miRNA)-messenger RNA (mRNA)-competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network, where H19 behaves as a miRNA sponge. The RNA transcript of H19 obtained from the first exon of the H19 gene, miRNA-675 also promotes CRC carcinogenesis. Overexpression of H19 in malignant tissues compared to adjacent non-malignant tissues marks H19 as an independent prognostic marker in CRC. Besides its prognostic value, H19 serves as a promising target for therapy in CRC treatment.

Progranulin and GPNMB: interactions in endo-lysosome function and inflammation in neurodegenerative disease

BACKGROUND

Alterations in progranulin (PGRN) expression are associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), including frontotemporal dementia (FTD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and lysosomal storage disorders (LSDs). Recently, the loss of PGRN was shown to result in endo-lysosomal system dysfunction and an age-dependent increase in the expression of another protein associated with NDs, glycoprotein non-metastatic B (GPNMB).

MAIN BODY

It is unclear what role GPNMB plays in the context of PGRN insufficiency and how they interact and contribute to the development or progression of NDs. This review focuses on the interplay between these two critical proteins within the context of endo-lysosomal health, immune function, and inflammation in their contribution to NDs.

SHORT CONCLUSION

PGRN and GPNMB are interrelated proteins that regulate disease-relevant processes and may have value as therapeutic targets to delay disease progression or extend therapeutic windows.

In vitro anti-cancer activity of a polyherbal preparation, VEDICINALS®9, against A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cells

PURPOSE

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite the availability of several treatment options, the five-year survival rate of NSCLC is extremely low (<20%). This underlines the necessity of more effective therapeutic alternatives. In this context, plant-derived extracts and bioactive molecules extracted from plants, known collectively as phytoceuticals, represent an extremely variegated source of bioactive compounds with potent anticancer potential. In the present study, we tested the in vitro anticancer activity of a polyherbal preparation, VEDICINALS®9, containing nine different bioactive principles extracted by medicinal plants.

METHODS

The anticancer activity of VEDICINALS®9 was investigated by measuring its impact on A549 human NSCLC cell proliferation (MTT assay and trypan blue staining), migration (wound healing assay and transwell chamber assay) and by measuring the impact on the expression of cancer-related proteins (Human XL Oncology Protein Array).

RESULTS

We show that VEDICINALS®9 at a concentration of 0.2% v/v has potent anticancer effect, significantly inhibiting A549 cell proliferation and migration. Mechanistically, this was achieved by downregulating the expression of proteins involved in cancer cell proliferation (Axl, FGF basic, enolase 2, progranulin, survivin) and migration (Dkk-1, cathepsins B and D, BCL-x, amphiregulin, CapG, u-plasminogen activator). Furthermore, treatment with VEDICINALS®9 resulted in increased expression of the oncosuppressor protein p53 and of the angiogenesis inhibitor endostatin.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our results provide proof of principle of the potent anticancer activity of the polyherbal preparation VEDICINALS®9, highlighting its enormous potential as an alternative or adjuvant therapy for lung cancer.

The Role of Progranulin (PGRN) in the Pathogenesis of Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is a life-threatening medical condition and is a leading cause of disability. Cerebral ischemia is characterized by a distinct inflammatory response starting with the production of various cytokines and other inflammation-related agents. Progranulin (PGRN), a multifunctional protein, is critical in diverse physiological reactions, such as cell proliferation, inflammation, wound healing, and nervous system development. A mature PGRN is anti-inflammatory, while granulin, its derivative, conversely induces pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. PGRN is significantly involved in the brain tissue and its damage, for example, improving mood and cognitive disorders caused by cerebral ischemia. It may also have protective effects against nerve and spinal cord injuries by inhibiting neuroinflammatory response and apoptosis or it may be related to the proliferation, accumulation, differentiation, and activation of microglia. PGRN is a neurotrophic factor in the central nervous system. It may increase post-stroke neurogenesis of the subventricular zone (SVZ), which is particularly important in improving long-term brain function following cerebral ischemia. The neurogenesis enhanced via PGRN in the ischemic brain SVZ may be attributed to the induction of PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK signaling routes. PGRN can also promote the proliferation of neural stem/progenitor cells through PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. PGRN increases hippocampal neurogenesis, reducing anxiety and impaired spatial learning post-cerebral ischemia. PGRN alleviates cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by reducing endoplasmic reticulum stress and suppressing the NF-κB signaling pathway. PGRN can be introduced as a potent neuroprotective agent capable of improving post-ischemia neuronal actions, mainly by reducing and elevating the inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Expression, storage, cleavage, and function of progranulin (PGRN) in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke.

Progranulin and EGFR modulate receptor-like tyrosine kinase sorting and stability in mesothelioma cells

Progranulin is a growth factor with pro-tumorigenic activity. We recently demonstrated that in mesothelioma, progranulin regulates cell migration, invasion, adhesion, and in vivo tumor formation by modulating a complex signaling network involving multiple receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)s. Progranulin biological activity relies on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and receptor-like tyrosine kinase (RYK), a co-receptor of the Wnt signaling pathway, which are both required for progranulin-induced downstream signaling. However, the molecular mechanism regulating the functional interaction among progranulin, EGFR, and RYK are not known. In this study, we demonstrated that progranulin directly interacted with RYK by specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (KD = 0.67). Using immunofluorescence and proximity ligation assay, we further discovered that progranulin and RYK colocalized in mesothelioma cells in distinct vesicular compartments. Notably, progranulin-dependent downstream signaling was sensitive to endocytosis inhibitors, suggesting that it could depend on RYK or EGFR internalization. We discovered that progranulin promoted RYK ubiquitination and endocytosis preferentially through caveolin-1-enriched pathways, and modulated RYK stability. Interestingly, we also showed that in mesothelioma cells, RYK complexes with the EGFR, contributing to the regulation of RYK stability. Collectively, our results suggest a complex regulation of RYK trafficking/activity in mesothelioma cells, a process that is concurrently regulated by exogenous soluble progranulin and EGFR. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The growth factor progranulin has pro-tumorigenic activity. In mesothelioma, progranulin signaling is mediated by EGFR and RYK, a co-receptor of the Wnt signaling. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating progranulin action are not well defined. Here, we demonstrated that progranulin binds RYK and regulates its ubiquitination, internalization, and trafficking. We also uncovered a role for EGFR in modulating RYK stability. Overall, these results highlight a complex modulation of RYK activity by progranulin and EGFR in mesothelioma.

Progranulin is an FMRP target that influences macroorchidism but not behaviour in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome

A growing body of evidence has implicated progranulin in neurodevelopment and indicated that aberrant progranulin expression may be involved in neurodevelopmental disease. Specifically, increased progranulin expression in the prefrontal cortex has been suggested to be pathologically relevant in male Fmr1 knockout (Fmr1 KO) mice, a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome (FXS). Further investigation into the role of progranulin in FXS is warranted to determine if therapies that reduce progranulin expression represent a viable strategy for treating patients with FXS. Several key knowledge gaps remain. The mechanism of increased progranulin expression in Fmr1 KO mice is poorly understood and the extent of progranulin's involvement in FXS-like phenotypes in Fmr1 KO mice has been incompletely explored. To this end, we have performed a thorough characterization of progranulin expression in Fmr1 KO mice. We find that the phenomenon of increased progranulin expression is post-translational and tissue-specific. We also demonstrate for the first time an association between progranulin mRNA and FMRP, suggesting that progranulin mRNA is an FMRP target. Subsequently, we show that progranulin over-expression in Fmr1 wild-type mice causes reduced repetitive behaviour engagement in females and mild hyperactivity in males but is largely insufficient to recapitulate FXS-associated behavioural, morphological, and electrophysiological abnormalities. Lastly, we determine that genetic reduction of progranulin expression on an Fmr1 KO background reduces macroorchidism but does not alter other FXS-associated behaviours or biochemical phenotypes.

Inducing apoptosis by using microRNA in radio-resistant prostate cancer: an in-silico study with an in-vitro validation

BACKGROUND

One of the problems with radiation therapy (RT) is that prostate tumor cells are often radio-resistant, which results in treatment failure. This study aimed to determine the procedure involved in radio-resistant prostate cancer apoptosis. For a deeper insight, we devoted a novel bioinformatics approach to analyze the targeting between microRNAs and radio-resistant prostate cancer genes.

METHOD

This study uses the Tarbase, and the Mirtarbase databases as validated experimental databases and mirDIP as a predicted database to identify microRNAs that target radio-resistant anti-apoptotic genes. These genes are used to construct the radio-resistant prostate cancer genes network using the online tool STRING. The validation of causing apoptosis by using microRNA was confirmed with flow cytometry of Annexin V.

RESULTS

The anti-apoptotic gene of radio-resistant prostate cancer included BCL-2, MCL1, XIAP, STAT3, NOTCH1, REL, REL B, BIRC3, and AKT1 genes. These genes were identified as anti-apoptotic genes for radio-resistant prostate cancer. The crucial microRNA that knockdown all of these genes was hsa-miR-7-5p. The highest rate of apoptotic cells in a cell transfected with hsa-miR-7-5p was (32.90 ± 1.49), plenti III (21.99 ± 3.72), and the control group (5.08 ± 0.88) in 0 Gy (P < 0.001); also, this rate was in miR-7-5p (47.01 ± 2.48), plenti III (33.79 ± 3.40), and the control group (16.98 ± 3.11) (P < 0.001) for 4 Gy.

CONCLUSION

The use of this new treatment such as gene therapy to suppress genes involved in apoptosis can help to improve the treatment results and increase the quality of life of patients with prostate cancer.

CRISPR-Cas System: The Current and Emerging Translational Landscape

CRISPR-Cas technology has rapidly changed life science research and human medicine. The ability to add, remove, or edit human DNA sequences has transformative potential for treating congenital and acquired human diseases. The timely maturation of the cell and gene therapy ecosystem and its seamless integration with CRISPR-Cas technologies has enabled the development of therapies that could potentially cure not only monogenic diseases such as sickle cell anemia and muscular dystrophy, but also complex heterogenous diseases such as cancer and diabetes. Here, we review the current landscape of clinical trials involving the use of various CRISPR-Cas systems as therapeutics for human diseases, discuss challenges, and explore new CRISPR-Cas-based tools such as base editing, prime editing, CRISPR-based transcriptional regulation, CRISPR-based epigenome editing, and RNA editing, each promising new functionality and broadening therapeutic potential. Finally, we discuss how the CRISPR-Cas system is being used to understand the biology of human diseases through the generation of large animal disease models used for preclinical testing of emerging therapeutics.

GRN is a prognostic biomarker and correlated with immune infiltration in glioma: A study based on TCGA data

Background

Among primary brain tumors, gliomas are associated with a poor prognosis and a median survival that varies depending on the tumor grade and subtype. As the most malignant form of glioma, glioblastoma (GBM) constitutes a significant health concern. Alteration in granulin(GRN) has been proved to be accountable for several diseases. However, the relationship between GRN and GBM remains unclear. We evaluated the role of GRN in GBM through The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database

Methods

First, we assessed the relationship between GRN and GBM through the GEPIA database. Next, the relationship between GRN and GBM prognosis was analyzed by logistic regression and multivariate cox methods. Using CIBERSORT and the GEPIA correlation module, we also investigated the link between GRN and immune infiltrates in cancer. Using the TCGA data, a gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed. We also employed Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) to examine the data set of GRN expression and immune infiltration level in GBM and investigate the cumulative survival in GBM. We also validated tissues from GBM patients by Western blotting, RT-qPCR, and immunohistochemistry.

Results

Increased GRN expression was shown to have a significant relationship to tumor grade in a univariate study utilizing logistic regression. Furthermore, multivariate analysis disclosed that GRN expression down-regulation is an independent predictive factor for a favorable outcome. GRN expression level positively correlates with the number of CD4+ T cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs) that infiltrate a GBM. The GSEA also found that the high GRN expression phenotype pathway was enriched for genes involved in immune response molecular mediator production, lymphocyte-mediated immunity, cytokine-mediated signaling pathway, leukocyte proliferation, cell chemotaxis, and CD4+ alpha beta T cell activation. Differentially enriched pathways in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) include lysosome, apoptosis, primary immunodeficiency, chemokine signaling pathway, natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity, and B cell receptor signaling pathway. Validated result showed that GRN was upregulated in GBM tissues. These results suggested that GRN was a potential indicator for the status of GBM.

Conclusion

GRN is a prognostic biomarker and correlated with immune infiltrates in GBM.

Progranulin Oncogenic Network in Solid Tumors

Progranulin is a pleiotropic growth factor with important physiological roles in embryogenesis and maintenance of adult tissue homeostasis. While-progranulin deficiency is associated with a broad range of pathological conditions affecting the brain, such as frontotemporal dementia and neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, progranulin upregulation characterizes many tumors, including brain tumors, multiple myeloma, leiomyosarcoma, mesothelioma and epithelial cancers such as ovarian, liver, breast, bladder, adrenal, prostate and kidney carcinomas. The increase of progranulin levels in tumors might have diagnostic and prognostic significance. In cancer, progranulin has a pro-tumorigenic role by promoting cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasiveness, anchorage-independent growth and resistance to chemotherapy. In addition, progranulin regulates the tumor microenvironment, affects the function of cancer-associated fibroblasts, and modulates tumor immune surveillance. However, the molecular mechanisms of progranulin oncogenic function are not fully elucidated. In bladder cancer, progranulin action relies on the activation of its functional signaling receptor EphA2. Notably, more recent data suggest that progranulin can also modulate a functional crosstalk between multiple receptor-tyrosine kinases, demonstrating a more complex and context-dependent role of progranulin in cancer. Here, we will review what is currently known about the function of progranulin in tumors, with a focus on its molecular mechanisms of action and regulation.

Roles of oncogenes in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and their therapeutic potentials

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is the most common type of esophageal cancer (EC) in Asia. It is a malignant digestive tract tumor with abundant gene mutations. Due to the lack of specific diagnostic markers and early cancer screening markers, most patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Genetic and epigenetic changes are closely related to the occurrence and development of ESCC. Here, We review the activation of proto-oncogenes into oncogenes through gene mutation and gene amplification in ESCC from a genetic and epigenetic genome perspective, We also discuss the specific regulatory mechanisms through which these oncogenes mainly affect the biological function and occurrence and development of ESCC through specific regulatory mechanisms. In addition, we summarize the clinical application value of these oncogenes is summarized, and it provides a feasible direction for clinical use as potential therapeutic and diagnostic markers.

PGRN deficiency exacerbates, whereas a brain penetrant PGRN derivative protects, GBA1 mutation-associated pathologies and diseases

Mutations in GBA1, encoding glucocerebrosidase (GCase), cause Gaucher disease (GD) and are also genetic risks in developing Parkinson's disease (PD). Currently, the approved therapies are only effective for directly treating visceral symptoms, but not for primary neuronopathic involvement in GD (nGD). Progranulin (PGRN), encoded by GRN, is a novel modifier of GCase, but the impact of PGRN in GBA1 mutation-associated pathologies in vivo remains unknown. Herein, Grn^-/- mice crossed into Gba^9v/9v mice, a Gba1 mutant line homozygous for the Gba1 D409V mutation, generating Grn^-/-Gba^9v/9v (PG9V) mice. PG9V mice exhibited neurobehavioral deficits, early onset, and more severe GD phenotypes compared to Grn^-/- and Gba^9v/9v mice. Moreover, PG9V mice also displayed PD-like phenotype. Mechanistic analysis revealed that PGRN deficiency caused severe neuroinflammation with microgliosis and astrogliosis, along with impaired autophagy associated with the Gba1 mutation. A PGRN-derived peptide, termed ND7, ameliorated the disease phenotype in GD patient fibroblasts ex vivo. Unexpectedly, ND7 penetrated the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and effectively ameliorated the nGD manifestations and PD pathology in Gba^9v/null and PG9V mice. Collectively, this study not only provides the first line of in vivo but also ex vivo evidence demonstrating the crucial role of PGRN in GBA1/Gba1 mutation-related pathologies, as well as a clinically relevant mouse model for mechanistic and potential therapeutics studies for nGD and PD. Importantly, a BBB penetrant PGRN-derived biologic was developed that may provide treatment for rare lysosomal storage diseases and common neurodegenerative disorders, particularly nGD and PD.

Progranulin and Breast Cancer Mortality: 13-Year Follow-Up of a Cohort Study

Background

We have reported that serum progranulin (PGRN) levels are clinically significant in predicting recurrence in patients with HR-positive breast cancer. The aim of the present study was to examine whether PGRN levels might be associated with breast cancer mortality.

Methods

This was a cohort study of 695 newly diagnosed breast cancer patients who underwent curative surgery between 2001 and 2004. The relationship between breast cancer mortality and pre-operative serum PGRN levels in these patients with a median follow-up of 12.7 years was evaluated until May 2020.

Results

A total of 118 (17%) deaths were identified in the cohort. According to the HR status, (10, 15, and 20)-year overall survival (OS) rates were (91.4, 81.1, and 75.9) % for HR-positive patients, and (76.5, 74.2, and 69.8) % for HR-negative patients, respectively (p = 0.003). Higher levels of PGRN were significantly associated with poor OS in the HR-positive group (p for trend = 0.001). In particular, hazard ratios for PGRN quartiles suggested a dose-response relationship, with the highest quartile having the worst OS in the HR-positive group (highest vs lowest: 15-year OS, (68.3 vs 90.0) %; 20-year OS, (62.3 vs 84.8) %, even after adjusting for age, tumor stage, and metabolic confounders.

Conclusion

Pre-operative serum PGRN levels had clinical significance for predicting cancer mortality in breast cancer patients independent of tumor stage and metabolic parameters, especially in HR-positive tumors.

Preclinical Interventions in Mouse Models of Frontotemporal Dementia Due to Progranulin Mutations

Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) cause frontotemporal dementia (FTD), a leading cause of early-onset dementia characterized clinically by behavioral, social, and language deficits. There are currently no FDA-approved therapeutics for FTD-GRN, but this has been an active area of investigation, and several approaches are now in clinical trials. Here, we review preclinical development of therapies for FTD-GRN with a focus on testing in mouse models. Since most FTD-GRN-associated mutations cause progranulin haploinsufficiency, these approaches focus on raising progranulin levels. We begin by considering the disorders associated with altered progranulin levels, and then review the basics of progranulin biology including its lysosomal, neurotrophic, and immunomodulatory functions. We discuss mouse models of progranulin insufficiency and how they have been used in preclinical studies on a variety of therapeutic approaches. These include approaches to raise progranulin expression from the normal allele or facilitate progranulin production by the mutant allele, as well as approaches to directly increase progranulin levels by delivery across the blood-brain barrier or by gene therapy. Several of these approaches have entered clinical trials, providing hope that new therapies for FTD-GRN may be the next frontier in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease.

Progranulin is essential for bone homeostasis and immunology

Intercellular communication or crosstalk between immune and skeletal cells is considered a crucial element in bone homeostasis modulation. Progranulin (PGRN) is an autocrine growth factor that is structured as beads-on-a-string and participates in multiple pathophysiological processes, including atherosclerosis, arthritis, neurodegenerative pathologies, cancer, and wound repair. PGRN functions as a competitor that binds to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), thereby blocking the TNF-α pathway. PGRN is regarded as an agonist of chondrogenesis and osteogenesis, delaying the progression of inflammation through the TNFR2 pathway. The exploitation of PGRN may bring benefits for inflammatory bone diseases and the stabilization of bone homeostasis. The PGRN-modified analog Atsttrin possesses three TNFR-binding fragments and thereby exerts superior therapeutic effects on multiple preclinical animal models compared to PGRN. In this review, we highlight the emerging roles of PGRN in bone formation, as well as in physiological and TNF-α-mediated inflammatory conditions revealed in recent discoveries. We address potential therapies for the treatment of inflammatory bone conditions, such as periodontitis, by the use of PGRN and its derivative Atsttrin.

Can serum progranulin level be used as a prognostic biomarker in non-small cell lung cancer?

Progranulin has been considered to be a poor prognostic biomarker for some types of malignancies. However, the clinical significance of serum progranulin level and the prognostic value are still not explored in advanced stages of lung cancer.  The current study investigates the prognostic significance of progranulin serum levels in advanced-stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. This study involved 94 subjects (70 advanced-stage NSCLC patients and 24 healthy controls). Serum progranulin level was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and was correlated with patient outcome. The association between circulating progranulin level and clinicopathological parameters was detected. Serum progranulin cut-off level predicting six-month survival was determined. Serum progranulin level was found significantly elevated in NSCLC patients than in the control group (p<0.001). We did not determine a significant difference between stage IIIB and stage IV NSCLC patients for serum progranulin levels (p=0.166). When we evaluated the laboratory parameters, only serum LDH level was found significantly correlated with serum progranulin level (p=0.043), also bone and liver metastasis showed a significant correlation with progranulin level (p=0.008 and p = 0.024, respectively). The cut-off level of serum progranulin in predicting six months of survival was determined as 16.03 ng/ml (AUC = 0.973, 95%Cl: 0.903-0.997, p<0.001) with 97.06% sensitivity and 88.89% specificity. Overall survival was determined shorter in patients with progranulin level ≥16 ng/ml than those with <16 ng/ml (p<0.001). Also, in the multivariate analysis using the Cox regression model serum progranulin level was found as an independent prognostic factor for NSCLC (p=0.001). Serum progranulin level may be a useful biomarker for predicting poor survival in advanced-stage NSCLC patients.

Nanobodies for the Early Detection of Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer ranks fifth in cancer-related deaths among women. Since ovarian cancer patients are often asymptomatic, most patients are diagnosed only at an advanced stage of disease. This results in a 5-year survival rate below 50%, which is in strong contrast to a survival rate as high as 94% if detected and treated at an early stage. Monitoring serum biomarkers offers new possibilities to diagnose ovarian cancer at an early stage. In this study, nanobodies targeting the ovarian cancer biomarkers human epididymis protein 4 (HE4), secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), and progranulin (PGRN) were evaluated regarding their expression levels in bacterial systems, epitope binning, and antigen-binding affinity by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and surface plasmon resonance. The selected nanobodies possess strong binding affinities for their cognate antigens (K_D~0.1-10 nM) and therefore have a pronounced potential to detect ovarian cancer at an early stage. Moreover, it is of utmost importance that the limits of detection (LOD) for these biomarkers are in the pM range, implying high specificity and sensitivity, as demonstrated by values in human serum of 37 pM for HE4, 163 pM for SLPI, and 195 pM for PGRN. These nanobody candidates could thus pave the way towards multiplexed biosensors.

CRISPR Technology in Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment: Opportunities and Challenges

A novel gene editing tool, the Cas system, associated with the CRISPR system, is emerging as a potential method for genome modification. This simple method, based on the adaptive immune defense system of prokaryotes, has been developed and used in human cancer research. These technologies have tremendous therapeutic potential, especially in gene therapy, where a patient-specific mutation is genetically corrected to cure diseases that cannot be cured with conventional treatments. However, translating CRISPR/Cas9 into the clinic will be challenging, as we still need to improve the efficiency, specificity, and application of the technology. In this review, we will explain how CRISPR-Cas9 technology can treat cancer at the molecular level, focusing on ordination and the epigenome. We will also focus on the promise and shortcomings of this system to ensure its application in the treatment and prevention of cancer.

Helicobacter pylori-Induced Progranulin Promotes the Progression of the Gastric Epithelial Cell Cycle by Regulating CDK4

Helicobacter pylori, a group 1 carcinogen, colonizes the stomach and affects the development of stomach diseases. Progranulin (PGRN) is an autocrine growth factor that regulates multiple cellular processes and plays a tumorigenic role in many tissues. Nevertheless, the mechanism of action of PGRN in gastric cancer caused by H. pylori infection remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of PGRN in cell cycle progression and the cell proliferation induced by H. pylori infection. We found that the increased PGRN was positively associated with CDK4 expression in gastric cancer tissue. PGRN was upregulated by H. pylori infection, thereby promoting cell proliferation, and that enhanced level of proliferation was reduced by PGRN inhibitor. CDK4, a target gene of PGRN, is a cyclin-dependent kinase that binds to cyclin D to promote cell cycle progression, which was upregulated by H. pylori infection. We also showed that knockdown of CDK4 reduced the higher cell cycle progression caused by upregulated PGRN. Moreover, when the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway (which is promoted by PGRN) was blocked, the upregulation of CDK4 mediated by PGRN was reduced. These results reveal the potential mechanism by which PGRN plays a major role through CDK4 in the pathological mechanism of H. pylori infection.

Advances in Potential Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers for Autoimmune Encephalitis: A Review

Autoimmune encephalitis (AE) is a severe inflammatory disease of the brain. Patients with AE demonstrate amnesia, seizures, and psychosis. Recent studies have identified numerous associated autoantibodies (e.g., against NMDA receptors (NMDARs), LGI1, etc.) involved in the pathogenesis of AE, and the levels of diagnosis and treatment are thus improved dramatically. However, there are drawbacks of clinical diagnosis and treatment based solely on antibody levels, and thus the application of additional biomarkers is urgently needed. Considering the important role of immune mechanisms in AE development, we summarize the relevant research progress in identifying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers with a focus on cytokines/chemokines, demyelination, and nerve damage.

Evaluation of the Cytotoxic Activity and Anti-Migratory Effect of Berberine–Phytantriol Liquid Crystalline Nanoparticle Formulation on Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer In Vitro

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common form of lung cancer, which is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Berberine is an isoquinoline alkaloid that is commercially available for use as a supplement for the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. However, the therapeutic benefits of berberine are limited by its extremely low bioavailability and toxicity at higher doses. Increasing evidence suggests that the incorporation of drug compounds in liquid crystal nanoparticles provides a new platform for the safe, effective, stable, and controlled delivery of the drug molecules. This study aimed to formulate an optimized formulation of berberine–phytantriol-loaded liquid crystalline nanoparticles (BP-LCNs) and to investigate the in vitro anti-cancer activity in a human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line. The BP-LCN formulation possessing optimal characteristics that was used in this study had a favorable particle size and entrapment efficiency rate (75.31%) and a superior drug release profile. The potential mechanism of action of the formulation was determined by measuring the mRNA levels of the tumor-associated genes PTEN, P53, and KRT18 and the protein expression levels with a human oncology protein array. BP-LCNs decreased the proliferation, migration, and colony-forming activity of A549 cells in a dose-dependent manner by upregulating the mRNA expression of PTEN and P53 and downregulating the mRNA expression of KRT18. Similarly, BP-LCNs also decreased the expression of proteins related to cancer cell proliferation and migration. This study highlights the utility of phytantriol-based LCNs in incorporating drug molecules with low GI absorption and bioavailability to increase their pharmacological effectiveness and potency in NSCLC.

Molecular Mechanisms Linking Risk Factors to Cholangiocarcinoma Development

The poor prognosis of cholangiocarcinoma in humans is related to several factors, such as (i) the heterogeneity of the disease, (ii) the late onset of symptoms and (iii) the limited comprehension of the carcinogenic pathways determining neoplastic changes, which all limit the pursuit of appropriate treatment. Several risk factors have been recognized, including different infective, immune-mediated, and dysmorphogenic disorders of the biliary tree. In this review, we report the details of possible mechanisms that lead a specific premalignant pathological condition to become cholangiocarcinoma. For instance, during liver fluke infection, factors secreted from the worms may play a major role in pathogenesis. In primary sclerosing cholangitis, deregulation of histamine and bile-acid signaling may determine important changes in cellular pathways. The study of these molecular events may also shed some light on the pathogenesis of sporadic (unrelated to risk factors) forms of cholangiocarcinoma, which represent the majority (nearly 75%) of cases.

Non-Coding RNAs in the Crosstalk between Breast Cancer Cells and Tumor-Associated Macrophages

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a pivotal role in regulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) by controlling gene expression at multiple levels. In tumors, ncRNAs can mediate the crosstalk between cancer cells and other cells in the TME, such as immune cells, stromal cells, and endothelial cells, influencing tumor development and progression. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are among the most abundant inflammatory cells infiltrating solid cancers that promote tumorigenesis, and their infiltration correlates with a poor prognosis in many tumors. Cancer cells produce different ncRNAs that orchestrate TAM recruitment and polarization toward a tumor-promoting phenotype. Tumor-reprogrammed macrophages shape the TME by promoting angiogenesis and tissue remodeling, and suppressing the anti-tumor activity of adaptive immune cells. TAMs can also produce ncRNA molecules that boost cancer cell proliferation and direct their phenotype and metabolic changes facilitating cancer progression and metastasis. This review will focus on the crosstalk between cancer cells and TAMs mediated by microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs during breast cancer (BC) initiation and progression.

The Potential Diagnostic and Prognostic Value of Circulating MicroRNAs in the Assessment of Patients With Prostate Cancer: Rational and Progress

Prostate cancer (P.C.) is one of the most frequent diagnosed cancers among men and the first leading cause of death with an annual incidence of 1.4 million worldwide. Prostate-specific antigen is being used for screening/diagnosis of prostate disease, although it is associated with several limitations. Thus, identification of novel biomarkers is warranted for diagnosis of patients at earlier stages. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are recently being emerged as potential biomarkers. It has been shown that these small molecules can be circulated in body fluids and prognosticate the risk of developing P.C. Several miRNAs, including MiR-20a, MiR-21, miR-375, miR-378, and miR-141, have been proposed to be expressed in prostate cancer. This review summarizes the current knowledge about possible molecular mechanisms and potential application of tissue specific and circulating microRNAs as diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic targets in prostate cancer.

Physical activity, body mass index, and blood progranulin in older adults: cross-sectional associations in the MAPT study

Physical activity (PA) has been shown to moderate the negative effects of obesity on pro-inflammatory cytokines but its relationship with the adipokine progranulin (PGRN) remains poorly investigated. This study aimed to examine the cross-sectional main and interactive associations of body mass index (BMI) and PA level with circulating PGRN in older adults. Five-hundred and twelve subjects aged 70 years and over involved in the Multidomain Alzheimer Prevention Trial (MAPT) Study who underwent plasma PGRN measurements (ng/ml) were included. Self -reported PA levels were assessed using questionnaires. People were classified into three BMI categories: normal weight, overweight or obesity. Further categorization using PA tertiles was used to define highly active, moderately active and low active individuals. Multiple linear regressions were performed in order to test the associations of BMI, PA level, and their interaction with PGRN levels. Multiple linear regressions adjusted by age, sex, diabetes mellitus status, total cholesterol, creatinine level and MAPT group demonstrated significant interactive associations of BMI status and continuous PA such that in people without obesity, higher PA levels were associated with lower PGRN concentrations, while an opposite pattern was found in individuals with obesity. In addition, continuous BMI was positively associated with circulating PGRN in highly active individuals but not in their less active peers. This cross-sectional study demonstrated reverse patterns in older adults with obesity compared to those without obesity regarding the relationships between PA and PGRN levels. Longitudinal and experimental investigations are required to understand the mechanisms that underlie the present findings.

Single-Cell RNA-Seq Analysis Reveals the Acquisition of Cancer Stem Cell Traits and Increase of Cell-Cell Signaling during EMT Progression

Intermediate cell states (ICSs) during the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are emerging as a driving force of cancer invasion and metastasis. ICSs typically exhibit hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal characteristics as well as cancer stem cell (CSC) traits including proliferation and drug resistance. Here, we analyze several single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) datasets to investigate the relation between several axes of cancer progression including EMT, CSC traits, and cell-cell signaling. To accomplish this task, we integrate computational methods for clustering and trajectory inference with analysis of EMT gene signatures, CSC markers, and cell-cell signaling pathways, and highlight conserved and specific processes across the datasets. Our analysis reveals that "standard" measures of pluripotency often used in developmental contexts do not necessarily correlate with EMT progression and expression of CSC-related markers. Conversely, an EMT circuit energy that quantifies the co-expression of epithelial and mesenchymal genes consistently increases along EMT trajectories across different cancer types and anatomical locations. Moreover, despite the high context specificity of signal transduction across different cell types, cells undergoing EMT always increased their potential to send and receive signals from other cells.

Progranulin signaling in sepsis, community-acquired bacterial pneumonia and COVID-19: a comparative, observational study

Background

Progranulin is a widely expressed pleiotropic growth factor with a central regulatory effect during the early immune response in sepsis. Progranulin signaling has not been systematically studied and compared between sepsis, community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), COVID-19 pneumonia and a sterile systemic inflammatory response (SIRS). We delineated molecular networks of progranulin signaling by next-generation sequencing (NGS), determined progranulin plasma concentrations and quantified the diagnostic performance of progranulin to differentiate between the above-mentioned disorders using the established biomarkers procalcitonin (PCT), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) for comparison.

Methods

The diagnostic performance of progranulin was operationalized by calculating AUC and ROC statistics for progranulin and established biomarkers in 241 patients with sepsis, 182 patients with SIRS, 53 patients with CAP, 22 patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and 53 healthy volunteers. miRNAs and mRNAs in blood cells from sepsis patients (n = 7) were characterized by NGS and validated by RT-qPCR in an independent cohort (n = 39) to identify canonical gene networks associated with upregulated progranulin at sepsis onset.

Results

Plasma concentrations of progranulin (ELISA) in patients with sepsis were 57.5 (42.8–84.9, Q25–Q75) ng/ml and significantly higher than in CAP (38.0, 33.5–41.0 ng/ml, p < 0.001), SIRS (29.0, 25.0–35.0 ng/ml, p < 0.001) and the healthy state (28.7, 25.5–31.7 ng/ml, p < 0.001). Patients with COVID-19 had significantly higher progranulin concentrations than patients with CAP (67.6, 56.6–96.0 vs. 38.0, 33.5–41.0 ng/ml, p < 0.001). The diagnostic performance of progranulin for the differentiation between sepsis vs. SIRS (n = 423) was comparable to that of procalcitonin. AUC was 0.90 (95% CI = 0.87–0.93) for progranulin and 0.92 (CI = 0.88–0.96, p = 0.323) for procalcitonin. Progranulin showed high discriminative power to differentiate bacterial CAP from COVID-19 (sensitivity 0.91, specificity 0.94, AUC 0.91 (CI = 0.8–1.0) and performed significantly better than PCT, IL-6 and CRP. NGS and partial RT-qPCR confirmation revealed a transcriptomic network of immune cells with upregulated progranulin and sortilin transcripts as well as toll-like-receptor 4 and tumor-protein 53, regulated by miR-16 and others.

Conclusions

Progranulin signaling is elevated during the early antimicrobial response in sepsis and differs significantly between sepsis, CAP, COVID-19 and SIRS. This suggests that progranulin may serve as a novel indicator for the differentiation between these disorders.

Trial registration: Clinicaltrials.gov registration number NCT03280576 Registered November 19, 2015.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40635-021-00406-7.

Serum GP88 as a predictive biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with viral hepatitis C after direct-acting antiviral agents

BACKGROUND

Progranulin (GP88) is an 88-kDa glycoprotein growth factor with important biological effects in tumorigenesis and tumour survival. We investigated the usefulness of measuring serum GP88 concentrations as a predictive biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with viral hepatitis C after treatment with direct-acting antiviral agents.

METHODS

We measured the serum GP88 concentrations by using a sandwich enzyme-linked immunoassay from 67 healthy control subjects and 29 patients (20 patients who did not develop hepatocellular carcinoma and 9 patients who developed hepatocellular carcinoma after treatment) with viral hepatitis C after treatment with asunaprevir and daclatasvir.

RESULTS

The serum GP88 concentrations of patients with chronic hepatitis C prior to antiviral treatment were significantly higher than those of healthy control subjects. After antiviral treatment, the serum GP88 concentrations of patients who eventually developed hepatocellular carcinoma were significantly higher than those who did not develop hepatocellular carcinoma. The changes in the serum GP88 concentrations before and after treatment in patients who developed hepatocellular carcinoma were significantly lower than those in patients who did not develop hepatocellular carcinoma. The cumulative incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma was significantly higher in either patients with high serum GP88 concentrations after treatment or those with small changes of serum GP88 concentrations pre- and post-treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Sustained high concentrations of serum GP88 in patients treated with direct-acting antiviral agents are correlated with the risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma.

Tweaking Progranulin Expression: Therapeutic Avenues and Opportunities

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a neurodegenerative disease, leading to behavioral changes and language difficulties. Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) induce haploinsufficiency of the protein and are associated with up to one-third of all genetic FTD cases worldwide. While the loss of GRN is primarily associated with neurodegeneration, the biological functions of the secreted growth factor-like protein are more diverse, ranging from wound healing, inflammation, vasculogenesis, and metabolic regulation to tumor cell growth and metastasis. To date, no disease-modifying treatments exist for FTD, but different therapeutic approaches to boost GRN levels in the central nervous system are currently being developed (including AAV-mediated GRN gene delivery as well as anti-SORT1 antibody therapy). In this review, we provide an overview of the multifaceted regulation of GRN levels and the corresponding therapeutic avenues. We discuss the opportunities, advantages, and potential drawbacks of the diverse approaches. Additionally, we highlight the therapeutic potential of elevating GRN levels beyond patients with loss-of-function mutations in GRN.

WFDC Protein: A Promising Diagnosis Biomarker of Ovarian Cancer

An initial diagnosis of cancer is usually based on symptoms, abnormal physical examination and imaging tests. Ovarian cancer is difficult to be diagnosed timely due to the nonspecific symptoms, thus resulting in the high-risk mortality. Despite of the various diagnostic methods, there is still no reliable diagnostic test. Clinically, carbohydrate antigen 125(CA125) is widely recognized as a diagnosis biomarker of ovary cancer. However, CA125 is not sensitive to detect the ovary cancer at the early stage. It is essential to explore other potential biomarkers. Human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) in the whey/four-disulfide core (WFDC) proteins family shows satisfactory sensitivity in the early diagnosis of ovary cancer. In this present review, we summarized the important effects of WFDC family proteins on the proliferation, apoptosis and migration of ovary cancer and intended to provide more evidence to explore the possibility of WFDC protein as a diagnosis biomarker.

Granulin: An Invasive and Survival-Determining Marker in Colorectal Cancer Patients

Background: Granulin is a secreted, glycosylated peptide—originated by cleavage from a precursor protein—which is involved in cell growth, tumor invasion and angiogenesis. However, the specific prognostic impact of granulin in human colorectal cancer has only been studied to a limited extent. Thus, we wanted to assess the expression of granulin in colorectal cancer patients to evaluate its potential as a prognostic biomarker. Methods: Expressional differences of granulin in colorectal carcinoma tissue (n = 94) and corresponding healthy colon mucosa were assessed using qRT-PCR. Immunohistochemistry was performed in colorectal cancer specimens (n = 97), corresponding healthy mucosa (n = 47) and colorectal adenomas (n = 19). Subsequently, the results were correlated with histopathological and clinical patients’ data. HCT-116 cells were transfected with siRNA for invasion and migration assays. Results: Immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR revealed tumoral over expression of granulin in colorectal cancer specimens compared to corresponding healthy colon mucosa and adenomas. Tumoral overexpression of granulin was associated with a significantly impaired overall survival. Moreover, downregulation of granulin by siRNA significantly diminished the invasive capacities of HCT-116 cells in vitro. Conclusion: Expression of granulin differs in colorectal cancer tissue, adenomas and healthy colon mucosa. Furthermore, granulin features invasive and migrative capabilities and overexpression of granulin correlates with a dismal prognosis. This reveals its potential as a prognostic biomarker and granulin could be a worthwhile molecular target for individualized anticancer therapy.

A zebrafish model of granulin deficiency reveals essential roles in myeloid cell differentiation

Granulin is a pleiotropic protein involved in inflammation, wound healing, neurodegenerative disease, and tumorigenesis. These roles in human health have prompted research efforts to use granulin to treat rheumatoid arthritis and frontotemporal dementia and to enhance wound healing. But how granulin contributes to each of these diverse biological functions remains largely unknown. Here, we have uncovered a new role for granulin during myeloid cell differentiation. We have taken advantage of the tissue-specific segregation of the zebrafish granulin paralogues to assess the functional role of granulin in hematopoiesis without perturbing other tissues. By using our zebrafish model of granulin deficiency, we revealed that during normal and emergency myelopoiesis, myeloid progenitors are unable to terminally differentiate into neutrophils and macrophages in the absence of granulin a (grna), failing to express the myeloid-specific genes cebpa, rgs2, lyz, mpx, mpeg1, mfap4, and apoeb. Functionally, macrophages fail to recruit to the wound, resulting in abnormal healing. Our CUT&RUN experiments identify Pu.1, which together with Irf8, positively regulates grna expression. In vivo imaging and RNA sequencing experiments show that grna inhibits the expression of gata1, leading to the repression of the erythroid program. Importantly, we demonstrated functional conservation between the mammalian granulin and the zebrafish ortholog grna. Our findings uncover a previously unrecognized role for granulin during myeloid cell differentiation, which opens a new field of study that can potentially have an impact on different aspects of human health and expand the therapeutic options for treating myeloid disorders such as neutropenia or myeloid leukemia.

The converging roles of Batten disease proteins in neurodegeneration and cancer

Epidemiological studies have reported an inverse correlation between cancer and neurodegenerative disorders, and increasing evidence shows that similar genes and pathways are dysregulated in both diseases but in a contrasting manner. Given the genetic convergence of the neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs), a family of rare neurodegenerative disorders commonly known as Batten disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases, we sought to explore the relationship between cancer and the NCLs. In this review, we survey data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and available literature on the roles of NCL genes in different oncogenic processes to reveal links between all the NCL genes and cancer-related processes. We also discuss the potential contributions of NCL genes to cancer immunology. Based on our findings, we propose that further research on the relationship between cancer and the NCLs may help shed light on the roles of NCL genes in both diseases and possibly guide therapy development.

Obesity and Overweight Are Associated with Minimal Extrathyroidal Extension, Multifocality and Bilaterality of Papillary Thyroid Cancer

Epidemiological studies have shown a strong association between high body mass index (BMI) and papillary thyroid cancer (PTC). We assessed the clinical and histopathological features of PTC in patients with a higher BMI and compared them to analogous parameters in PTC patients with a normal BMI. We retrospectively analyzed 5021 medical records of patients admitted and surgically treated for thyroid tumors in one center between 2008 and 2018. Finally, we extracted data from 523 adult patients with PTC and stratified patients into two groups according to BMI: Group 1 with BMI < 25 kg/m² and Group 2 with BMI ≥ 25 kg/m². Data stratification was performed to estimate the association of overweight and obesity with clinical and histopathological features of PTC in both univariable and multivariable binary logistic regression analyses. Overall, compared to patients with a normal BMI, overweight and obese patients had a greater risk of minimal extrathyroidal extension (minimal ETE), multifocality and bilaterality of PTC (p < 0.001 for all). Analysis did not show that BMI was significantly associated with the more advanced tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage (p = 0.894). Obesity and overweight were significantly associated with higher aggressiveness of PTC. When considering various management options for PTC patients, these findings regarding overweight and obesity should be taken into consideration during the decision-making process.

Targeting cancer epigenetics with CRISPR-dCAS9: Principles and prospects

Cancer therapeutics is an ever-evolving field due to incessant demands for effective and precise treatment options. Over the last few decades, cancer treatment strategies have shifted somewhat from surgery to targeted precision medicine. CRISPR-dCas9 is an emerging version of precision cancer therapy that has been adapted from the prokaryotic CRISPR-Cas system. Once ligated to epigenetic effectors (EE), CRISPR-dCas9 can function as an epigenetic editing tool and CRISPR-dCas9-EE complexes could be exploited to alter cancerous epigenetic features associated with different cancer hallmarks. In this article, we discuss the rationale of epigenetic editing as a therapeutic strategy against cancer. We also outline how sgRNA-dCas9 was derived from the CRISPR-Cas system. In addition, the current status of sgRNA-dCas9 use (in vivo and in vitro) in cancer is updated with a molecular illustration of CRISPR-dCas9-mediated epigenetic and transcriptional modulation. As sgRNA-dCas9 is still at the developmental phase, challenges are inherent to its use. We evaluate major challenges in targeting cancer with sgRNA-dCas9 such as off-target effects, lack of sgRNA designing rubrics, target site selection dilemmas and deficient sgRNA-dCas9 delivery systems. Finally, we appraise the sgRNA-dCas9 as a prospective cancer therapeutic by summarizing ongoing improvements of sgRNA-dCas9 methodology.

Human progranulin-expressing mice as a novel tool for the development of progranulin-modulating therapeutics

The granulin protein (also known as, and hereafter referred to as, progranulin) is a secreted glycoprotein that contributes to overall brain health. Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in the gene encoding the progranulin protein (Granulin Precursor, GRN) are a common cause of familial frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Gene therapy approaches that aim to increase progranulin expression from a single wild-type allele, an area of active investigation for the potential treatment of GRN-dependent FTD, will benefit from the availability of a mouse model that expresses a genomic copy of the human GRN gene. Here we report the development and characterization of a novel mouse model that expresses the entire human GRN gene in its native genomic context as a single copy inserted into a defined locus (Hprt) in the mouse genome. We show that human and mouse progranulin are expressed in a similar tissue-specific pattern, suggesting that the two genes are regulated by similar mechanisms. Human progranulin rescues a phenotype characteristic of progranulin-null mice, the exaggerated and early deposition of the aging pigment lipofuscin in the brain, indicating that the two proteins are functionally similar. Longitudinal behavioural and neuropathological analyses revealed no significant differences between wild-type and human progranulin-overexpressing mice up to 18 months of age, providing evidence that long-term increase of progranulin levels is well tolerated in mice. Finally, we demonstrate that human progranulin expression can be increased in the brain using an antisense oligonucleotide that inhibits a known GRN-regulating micro-RNA, demonstrating that the transgene is responsive to potential gene therapy drugs. Human progranulin-expressing mice represent a novel and valuable tool to expedite the development of progranulin-modulating therapeutics.

Tumor co-expression of progranulin and sortilin as a prognostic biomarker in breast cancer

Background

The growth factor progranulin has been implicated in numerous biological processes such as wound healing, inflammation and progressive tumorigenesis. Both progranulin and its receptor sortilin are known to be highly expressed in subgroups of breast cancer and have been associated with various clinical properties including tamoxifen resistance. Recent data further suggest that progranulin, via its receptor sortilin, drives breast cancer stem cell propagation in vitro and increases metastasis formation in an in vivo breast cancer xenograft model. In this retrospective biomarker analysis, we aimed to determine whether tumor co-expression of progranulin and sortilin has prognostic and treatment predictive values for breast cancer patients.

Methods

We explored how co-expression of progranulin and sortilin was associated with established clinical markers by analyzing a tissue microarray including 560 randomized premenopausal breast cancer patients receiving either 2 years of tamoxifen treatment or no adjuvant treatment, with a median follow-up time of 28 years. Breast cancer-specific survival was analyzed using Kaplan-Meier and Cox Proportional Hazards regression models to assess the prognostic and predictive value of progranulin and sortilin in relation to known clinical markers.

Results

Co-expression of progranulin and sortilin was observed in 20% of the breast cancer samples. In untreated patients, prognostic considerations could be detailed separately from treatment prediction and the high progranulin and sortilin expressing subgroup was significantly associated with breast cancer-specific death in multivariable analyses (HR=2.188, CI: 1.317–3.637, p=0.003) along with tumor size, high tumor grade and lymph node positivity. When comparing the untreated patients with tamoxifen treated patients in the ERα positive subgroup, co-expression of progranulin and sortilin was not linked to tamoxifen resistance.

Conclusion

Data suggest that co-expression of progranulin and its receptor sortilin is a novel prognostic biomarker combination identifying a highly malignant subgroup of breast cancer. Importantly, this subpopulation could potentially be targeted with anti-sortilin based therapies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-07854-0.

Anti-progranulin/GP88 antibody AG01 inhibits triple negative breast cancer cell proliferation and migration

BACKGROUND

Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) is characterized by invasiveness and short survival. Identifying novel TNBC-targeted therapies, to potentiate standard of care (SOC) therapy, is an unmet need. Progranulin (PGRN/GP88) is a biological driver of tumorigenesis, survival, and drug resistance in several cancers including breast cancer (BC). PGRN/GP88 tissue expression is an independent prognostic factor of recurrence while elevated serum PGRN/GP88 level is associated with poor outcomes. Since PGRN/GP88 expression is elevated in 30% TNBC, we investigated the involvement of progranulin on TNBC.

METHODS

The effect of inhibiting PGRN/GP88 expression in TNBC cells by siRNA was investigated. The effects of a neutralizing anti-human PGRN/GP88 monoclonal antibody AG01 on the proliferation and migration of two TNBC cell lines expressing PGRN/GP88 were then examined in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

Inhibition of GP88 expression by siRNA and AG01 treatment to block PGRN/GP88 action reduced proliferation and migration in a dose-dependent fashion in MDA-MB-231 and HS578-T cells. Western blot analysis showed decreased expression of phosphorylated protein kinases p-Src, p-AKT, and p-ERK upon AG01 treatment, as well as inhibition of tumor growth and Ki67 expression in vivo.

CONCLUSION

PGRN/GP88 represents a therapeutic target with companion diagnostics. Blocking PGRN/GP88 with antibody treatment may provide novel-targeted solutions in TNBC treatment which could eventually address the issue of toxicity and unresponsiveness associated with SOC.

Blood Biomarkers in Frontotemporal Dementia: Review and Meta-Analysis

Biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are useful in the differential diagnosis between frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and Alzheimer’s dementia (AD), but require lumbar puncture, which is a moderately invasive procedure that can cause anxiety to patients. Gradually, the measurement of blood biomarkers has been attracting great interest. Testing blood instead of CSF, in order to measure biomarkers, offers numerous advantages because it negates the need for lumbar puncture, it is widely available, and can be repeated, allowing the prediction of disease course. In this study, a systematic review of the existing literature was conducted, as well as meta-analysis with greater emphasis on the most studied biomarkers, p-tau and progranulin. The goal was to give prominence to evidence regarding the use of plasma biomarkers in clinical practice.

Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Liver Fluke-Induced Cholangiocarcinoma

Simple Summary

Parasitic infection remains a health threat in many countries. Liver flukes, parasitic flatworms endemic to southeast and east Asia, cause bile duct inflammation and are major risk factors of bile duct cancer (cholangiocarcinoma). As the only group of eukaryotic organisms listed as carcinogens, liver flukes can increase cholangiocarcinoma incidence by 100-fold in some parts of Thailand. How they interact with bile duct epithelial cells during tumor initiation and progression is unknown. In this review, we summarize molecular and cellular evidence linking liver fluke-associated cholangiocarcinoma with mis-regulation of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), a multicellular morphogenetic process known to be involved in many normal and pathological settings, including cancer. EMT markers and regulators can potentially be used to facilitate cholangiocarcinoma diagnosis and treatment.

Abstract

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is the second most common type of hepatic cancer. In east and southeast Asia, intrahepatic CCA is caused predominantly by infection of Opisthorchis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis, two species of parasitic liver flukes. In this review, we present molecular evidence that liver fluke-associated CCAs have enhanced features of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in bile duct epithelial cells (cholangiocytes) and that some of those features are associated with mis-regulation at the epigenetic level. We hypothesize that both direct and indirect mechanisms underlie parasitic infection-induced EMT in CCA.

Sequential administration of anti-PD-1 and anti-Tim-3 combined with an SA-GM-CSF-anchored vaccine overcomes adaptive immune resistance to reject established bladder cancer

Program death receptor-1 (PD-1) and T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-containing protein-3 (Tim-3) play an important role in tumor immune evasion. PD-1 blockade could produce an effective anti-tumor effect but the response rate was low due to lacking of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and existing of other negative regulatory pathways. Streptavidin(SA)-GM-CSF surface-anchored tumor cells vaccine could induce specific anti-tumor immune response. However, this vaccine failed to induce regression of established tumor because it also up-regulated PD-1 expression on tumor cells dependent on IFNγ and up-regulated PD-1/Tim-3 expression on CD8⁺ TILs. Subsets of CD8⁺ TILs assay showed that PD-1 expression was closely associated with CD8⁺ TILs exhaustion, and Tim-3 expression was closely correlated with secretion function but not proliferation of CD8⁺ TILs. Sequential administration of anti-PD-1 and anti-Tim-3 could further improve the efficacy of SA-GM-CSF-anchored vaccine therapy, and tumor regression was noted in over 50%. This triple therapy improves the specific cytotoxic activity and decreased the apoptosis of CD8⁺ TILs. These findings indicated that this triple therapy could induce a more robust anti-tumor immune response.

Clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes of gastrointestinal stromal tumors with high progranulin expression

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Progranulin (PGRN) is known to promote tumorigenesis and proliferation of several types of cancer cells. However, little is known about the clinicopathological features of patients with gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) with regard to PGRN expression.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on patients with GISTs who underwent curative surgical resection between 2007 and 2017. PGRN expression was evaluated by immunohistochemical (IHC) analysis and semi-quantitatively categorized (no expression, 0; weak, 1+; moderate, 2+; strong, 3+). Tumors with a staining intensity of 2+ or 3+ were considered high PGRN expression.

RESULTS

Fifty-four patients were analyzed; 31 patients (57%) were male. The median age at surgery was 60 years (range, 33-79), and the most common primary site was the stomach (67%). Thirty-five patients (65%) had spindle histology; 42 patients (78%) were separated as a high-risk group according to the modified National Institutes of Health (NIH) classification. High PGRN-expressing tumors were observed in 27 patients (50%), had more epithelioid/mixed histology (68% vs. 32%; p = 0.046), and KIT exon 11 mutations (76% vs. 24%; p = 0.037). Patients with high PGRN-expressing tumors had a worse recurrence-free survival (RFS) (36% of 5-year RFS) compared to those with low PGRN-expressing tumors (96%; p<0.001). Multivariate analysis showed that high PGRN expression and old age (>60 years) were independent prognostic factors for poor RFS.

CONCLUSIONS

High PGRN-expressing GISTs showed more epithelioid/mixed histology and KIT exon 11 mutations. PGRN overexpression was significantly associated with poor RFS in patients with GISTs who underwent curative resection.