Cypermethrin-Induced Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration Alters the Mitochondrial Function:A Proteomics Study

Analysis of mitochondrial DNA copy number variation in Brazilian farmers occupationally exposed to pesticides

The use of pesticide use has been linked to the higher production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in oxidative stress, which in turn can cause genomic instability. A marker for instability is the copy number variation of the mitochondrial genome (mtDNAcn), which has been found to be altered in diverse human diseases, including tumors. This research aimed to examine the variation of mtDNAcn in individuals occupationally exposed to pesticides. Real-time PCR assays were conducted on 154 individuals (78 exposed and 76 non-exposed). Pesticide-exposed ndividuals exhibited a significant reduction in mtDNAcn (1.11 ± 0.37mtDNAcn/genome) compared to non-exposed individuals (1.30 ± 0.33mtDNAcn/genome; p = 0.001). The multivariate analysis indicated that individuals who reported using haloxyfop and copper sulfate demonstrated an increase (β = 0.200, p = 0.053) and a decrease (β=-0.2, p = 0.021), respectively, in mtDNAcn. In conclusion, our findings suggest that chronic exposure to pesticides results in changes in mtDNAcn.

Deferoxamine Ameliorates Cypermethrin-Induced Iron Accumulation and Associated Alterations

Iron is widely linked with the onset and development of Parkinson's disease (PD). Accumulation of iron induces free radical generation and promotes α-synuclein aggregation, oxidative stress, and autophagy impairment. Deferoxamine, an iron chelator, is shown to ameliorate iron dyshomeostasis in rodents and humans. However, the role of deferoxamine in cypermethrin-induced iron accumulation is not yet known. Although an iron accumulation and impaired chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) contribute to PD, a link between the two is not yet widely understood. Current study is undertaken to explore the possible association between an iron accumulation and CMA in cypermethrin model of PD in the presence of deferoxamine. Level of iron, iron transporter proteins, oxidative stress, and CMA proteins along with indicators of Parkinsonism were measured. Deferoxamine attenuated cypermethrin-induced iron accumulation and number of iron-positive cells and ameliorated the demise of dopaminergic cells and dopamine content. Deferoxamine significantly normalizes cypermethrin-induced changes in iron transporter proteins, α-synuclein, lysosome-associated membrane protein-2A, and oxidative stress. The results demonstrate that deferoxamine ameliorates cypermethrin-induced iron dyshomeostasis and impairment in CMA.

Cypermethrin: An Emerging Pollutant and Its Adverse Effect on Fish Health and some Preventive Approach-A Review

Pesticides are substance that are used to manage pests, such as aquatic weeds, plant diseases and insects. It has been shown that these substances are highly hazardous to fish as well as other organisms that are part of the food chain. The presence of cypermethrin in food and groundwater has raised environmental concerns, there is a need to develop economical, rapid, and reliable techniques that can be used for field applications Many studies have shown that Cypermethrin (CYP) can cause toxic effect in various animals including fishes. But the molecular mechanism behind the toxicity mediated Cypermethrin (CYP) at genome levels and proteome levels is still need to be studied. However, there is a gap in emerging and undeveloped nations to begin to use these methods and several other recently developed approaches to inhibit the negative consequences and enhance health which may be profitable. The toxicological information currently available might be used to gain a clear understanding of the possibilities of these synthetic pyrethroid insecticides causing various health hazards to environmental and provides insight for future research evaluating the toxic effects of pyrethroid insecticides. This present review article is concerned with the toxicological effects of pesticides and a brief overview of sources, classification of pesticides with an emphasis on the effects of Cypermethrin (CYP) on fish as well mode of toxicity and the mechanism of action (CYP) and toxicity signs in several fish species have been illustrated. The primary controls and appropriate preventive measures that must be adopted are also discussed.

Neurotoxicity of Pyrethroids in neurodegenerative diseases: From animals' models to humans' studies

Neurodegenerative diseases are associated with diverse symptoms, both motor and mental. Genetic and environmental factors can trigger neurodegenerative diseases. Chemicals as pesticides are constantly used in agriculture and also domestically. In this regard, pyrethroids (PY), are a class of insecticides in which its main mechanism of action is through disruption of voltage-dependent sodium channels function in insects. However, in mammals, they can also induce oxidative stress and enzyme dysfunction. This review investigates the association between PY and neurodegenerative diseases as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, and Autism in animal models and humans. Published works using specific and non-specific models for these diseases were selected. We showed a tendency toward the development and/or aggravating of these neurodegenerative diseases following exposure to PYs. In animal models, the biochemical mechanisms of the diseases and their interaction with the insecticides are more deeply investigated. Nonetheless, only a few studies considered the specific model for each type of disease to analyze the impacts of the exposure. The choice of a specific model during the research is an important step and our review highlights the knowledge gaps of PYs effects using these models reinforcing the importance of them during the design of the experiments.

A Complex Interplay of DJ-1, LRRK2, and Nrf2 in the Regulation of Mitochondrial Function in Cypermethrin-Induced Parkinsonism

Cypermethrin impairs mitochondrial function, induces redox imbalance, and leads to Parkinsonism in experimental animals. Knockdown of deglycase-1 (DJ-1) gene, which encodes a redox-sensitive antioxidant protein, aggravates cypermethrin-mediated α-synuclein overexpression and oxidative alteration of proteins. DJ-1 is also reported to be essential for maintaining stability of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), shielding cells against oxidative insult. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), another protein associated with Parkinson's disease, is also involved in regulating mitochondrial function. However, underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. The study intended to explore an interaction of DJ-1, LRRK2, and Nrf2 in the regulation of mitochondrial function in cypermethrin-induced Parkinsonism. Small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of DJ-1 and LRRK2 gene and pharmacological activation of Nrf2 were performed in rats and/or human neuroblastoma cells with or without cypermethrin. Indexes of oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, and Parkinsonism along with α-synuclein expression, post-translational modification, and aggregation were measured. DJ-1 gene knockdown exacerbated cypermethrin-induced increase in oxidative stress and intrinsic apoptosis and reduction in expression of mitochondrial antioxidant proteins via inhibiting nuclear translocation of Nrf2. Additionally, cypermethrin-induced oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, and α-synuclein expression and aggregation were found to be suppressed by LRRK2 gene knockdown, by promoting Nrf2 nuclear translocation and expression of mitochondrial antioxidant proteins. Furthermore, Nrf2 activator, sulforaphane, ameliorated cypermethrin-induced mitochondrial impairment and oxidative stress and provided protection against dopaminergic neuronal death. The findings indicate that DJ-1 and LRRK2 independently alter Nrf2-mediated changes and a complex interplay among DJ-1, LRRK2, and Nrf2 exists in the regulation of mitochondrial function in cypermethrin-induced Parkinsonism.

An adverse outcome pathway-based approach to assess the neurotoxicity by combined exposure to current-use pesticides

Exposure to multiple pesticides in daily life has become an important public health concern. However, the combined effects of pesticide mixtures have not been fully elucidated by the conventional toxicological testing used for individual chemicals. Grouping of chemicals by mode of action using common key events (KEs) in the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) as endpoints could be applied for efficient risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether exposure to multiple pesticides has synergistic neurotoxic effects on mammalian nervous systems. According to the AOP-based approach, we evaluated the effects of 10 current-use pesticides (4 neonicotinoids, 4 pyrethroids and 2 phenylpyrazoles) on the common KEs in AOPs for neurotoxicity, such as KEs involving mitochondrial and proteolytic functions, in a mammalian neuronal cell model. Our data showed that several pyrethroids and phenylpyrazoles partly shared the effects on several common KEs, including decreases in mitochondrial membrane potential and proteasome activity and increases in autophagy activity. Furthermore, we also found that combined exposure to a type-I pyrethroid permethrin or a type-II pyrethroid deltamethrin and the phenylpyrazole fipronil decreased the cell viability and the benchmark doses much more than either single exposure, indicating that the pair exhibited synergistic effects, since the combination indexes were less than 1. These findings revealed that novel pairs of different classes of pesticides with similar effects on common KEs exhibited synergistic neurotoxicity and provide new insights into the risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals.

Dyshomeostasis of Iron and Its Transporter Proteins in Cypermethrin-Induced Parkinson's Disease

The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is highly complex and is still indefinable. However, a number of studies have indicated the involvement of pesticides and transition metals. Copper, magnesium, iron, and zinc have emerged as important metal contributors. Exposure to pesticides causes an accumulation of transition metals in the substantia nigra (SN) region of the brain. The cypermethrin model of PD is characterized by mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy impairment, oxidative stress, etc. However, the effect of cypermethrin on metal homeostasis is not yet explored. The study was designed to delineate the role of metals and their transporter proteins in cypermethrin-induced animal and cellular models of PD. The level of copper, magnesium, iron, and zinc was checked in the nigrostriatal tissue and serum by atomic absorption spectroscopy. Since cypermethrin consistently increased iron content in the nigrostriatal tissue and serum after 12 weeks of exposure, the level of iron transporter proteins, such as divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT-1), ceruloplasmin, transferrin, ferroportin, and hepcidin, and their in silico interaction with cypermethrin were checked. 3,3'-Diaminobenzidine-enhanced Perl's staining showed an elevated number of iron-positive cells in the SN of cypermethrin-treated rats. Molecular docking studies revealed a strong binding affinity between cypermethrin and iron transporter protein receptors of humans and rats. Furthermore, cypermethrin increased the expression of DMT-1 and hepcidin while reducing the expression of transferrin, ceruloplasmin, and ferroportin in the nigrostriatal tissue and human neuroblastoma cells. These observations suggest that cypermethrin alters the expression of iron transporter proteins leading to iron dyshomeostasis, which could contribute to dopaminergic neurotoxicity.

Adverse effect propensity: A new feature of Gulf War illness predicted by environmental exposures

A third of 1990-1 Gulf-deployed personnel developed drug/chemical-induced multisymptom illness, "Gulf War illness" (GWI). Veterans with GWI (VGWI) report increased drug/exposure adverse effects (AEs). Using previously collected data from a case-control study, we evaluated whether the fraction of exposures that engendered AEs ("AE Propensity") is increased in VGWI (it was); whether AE Propensity is related to self-rated "chemical sensitivity" (it did); and whether specific exposures "predicted" AE Propensity (they did). Pesticides and radiation exposure were significant predictors, with copper significantly "protective"-in the total sample (adjusted for GWI-status) and separately in VGWI and controls, on multivariable regression. Mitochondrial impairment and oxidative stress (OS) underlie AEs from many exposures irrespective of nominal specific mechanism. We hypothesize that mitochondrial toxicity and interrelated OS from pesticides and radiation position people on the steep part of the curve of mitochondrial impairment and OS versus symptom/biological disruption, amplifying impact of new exposures. Copper, meanwhile, is involved in critical OS detoxification processes.

MicroRNA‑30a‑5p regulates cypermethrin-induced apoptosis of Sertoli cells by targeting KLF9 in vitro

Cypermethrin (CYP) has been identified as one kind of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) to induce male reproduction damage. This study aimed to investigate the effects and mechanisms of miR-30a-5p on CYP induced apoptosis of TM4 mouse Sertoli cells in vitro. In the present study, 0 μM, 10 μM, 20 μM, 40 μM and 80 μM CYP were used to treat TM4 cells for 24 h. The apoptosis of TM4 cells, the expression level of miR-30a-5p, the protein expressions and the interaction between miR-30a-5p and KLF9 were detected by flow cytometry, quantitative Real-Time PCR, Western blot and luciferase reporter assays. CYP induced apoptosis of TM4 cells, inhibited expression of miR-30a-5p in TM4 cells, and overexpression of miR-30a-5p partially recovered CYP induced cells apoptosis. Furthermore, KLF9 was a potential downstream target of miR-30a-5p predicted by publicly available databases. KLF9 expression level in TM4 cells was significantly elevated after treatment with CYP, and the induction was inhibited by miR-30a-5p mimics transfection. Meanwhile, dual-luciferase reporter assay demonstrated that miR-30a-5p directly targeted KLF9-3'UTR. Moreover, in the presence of CYP, the apoptosis regulator p53 expression was also increased in TM4 cells. Overexpression miR-30a-5p or down-regulation of KLF9 both attenuated the induction of CYP on p53 expression. Overall, the present study demonstrated that miR-30a-5p regulated CYP induced TM4 cells apoptosis by targeting KLF9/p53 axis.

Developmental origins of Parkinson disease: Improving the rodent models

Numerous pesticides are inhibitors of the oxidative phosphorylation system. Oxidative phosphorylation dysfunction adversely affects neurogenesis and often accompanies Parkinson disease. Since brain development occurs mainly in the prenatal period, early exposure to pesticides could alter the development of the nervous system and increase the risk of Parkinson disease. Different rodent models have been used to confirm this hypothesis. However, more precise considerations of the selected strain, the xenobiotic, its mode of administration, and the timing of animal analysis, are necessary to resemble the model to the human clinical condition and obtain more reliable results.

Redox Modulation of Mitochondrial Proteins in the Neurotoxicant Models of Parkinson's Disease

Significance: Mitochondrial proteins regulate the oxidative phosphorylation, cellular metabolism, and free radical generation. Redox modulation alters the mitochondrial proteins and instigates the damage to dopaminergic neurons. Toxicants contribute to Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis in conjunction with aging and genetic factors. While oxidative modulation of a number of mitochondrial proteins is linked to xenobiotic exposure, little is known about its role in the toxicant-induced PD. Understanding the role of redox modulation of mitochondrial proteins in complex cellular events leading to neurodegeneration is highly relevant. Recent Advances: Many toxicants are shown to inhibit complex I or III and elicit free radical production that alters the redox status of mitochondrial proteins. Implication of redox modulation of the mitochondrial proteins makes them a target to comprehend the underlying mechanism of toxicant-induced PD. Critical Issues: Owing to multifactorial etiology, exploration of onset and progression and treatment outcomes needs a comprehensive approach. The article explains about a few mitochondrial proteins that undergo redox changes along with the promising strategies, which help to alleviate the toxicant-induced redox imbalance leading to neurodegeneration. Future Directions: Although mitochondrial proteins are linked to PD, their role in toxicant-induced parkinsonism is not yet completely known. Preservation of antioxidant defense machinery could alleviate the redox modulation of mitochondrial proteins. Targeted antioxidant delivery, use of metal chelators, and activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2, and combinational therapy that encounters multiple free radicals, could ameliorate the redox modulation of mitochondrial proteins and thereby PD progression.

Mitochondrial Toxicant-Induced Neuronal Apoptosis in Parkinson's Disease: What We Know so Far

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common progressive neurodegenerative diseases caused by the loss of dopamine-producing neuronal cells in the region of substantia nigra pars compacta of the brain. During biological aging, neuronal cells slowly undergo degeneration, but the rate of cell death increases tremendously under some pathological conditions, leading to irreversible neurodegenerative diseases. By the time symptoms of PD usually appear, more than 50 to 60% of neuronal cells have already been destroyed. PD symptoms often start with tremors, followed by slow movement, stiffness, and postural imbalance. The etiology of PD is still unknown; however, besides genetics, several factors contribute to neurodegenerative disease, including exposure to pesticides, environmental chemicals, solvents, and heavy metals. Postmortem brain tissues of patients with PD show mitochondrial abnormalities, including dysfunction of the electron transport chain. Most chemicals present in our environment have been shown to target the mitochondria; remarkably, patients with PD show a mild deficiency in NADH dehydrogenase activity, signifying a possible link between PD and mitochondrial dysfunction. Inhibition of electron transport complexes generates free radicals that further attack the macromolecules leading to neuropathological conditions. Apart from that, oxidative stress also causes neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegeneration due to the activation of microglial cells. However, the mechanism that causes mitochondrial dysfunction, especially the electron transport chain, in the pathogenesis of PD remains unclear. This review discusses the recent updates and explains the possible mechanisms of mitochondrial toxicant-induced neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in PD.

Tempol and silymarin rescue from zinc-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons through modulation of oxidative stress and inflammation

Oxidative stress and inflammation are the key players in the toxic manifestation of sporadic Parkinson's disease and zinc (Zn)-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. A synthetic superoxide dismutase (SOD) mimetic, tempol, and a naturally occurring antioxidant, silymarin protect against oxidative stress-mediated damage. The study intended to explore the effects of tempol and silymarin against Zn-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Exposure to Zn produced neurobehavioral deficits and striatal dopamine depletion. Zn reduced glutathione content and glutathione-S-transferase activity and increased lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase activity, and level of pro-inflammatory mediators [nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)]. Zn also attenuated the expression of tyrosine hydoxylase (TH), vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT-2), mitochondrial B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), and procaspase-3 and 9 proteins and number of TH-positive neurons. Conversely, Zn elevated the expression of dopamine transporter (DAT) and mitochondrial Bcl-2-associated X (Bax) protein along with mitochondrial cytochrome c release. Administration of tempol significantly alleviated Zn-induced motor impairments, dopamine depletion, reduction in TH expression, and loss of TH-positive neurons similar to silymarin. Silymarin mitigated Zn-induced oxidative stress and inflammation and restored the expression of dopamine transporters and levels of pro-apoptotic proteins akin to tempol. The results demonstrate that both tempol and silymarin protect against Zn-induced dopaminergic neuronal loss through the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation.

Proteomic profiling reveals neuronal ion channel dysregulation and cellular responses to DNA damage-induced cell cycle arrest and senescence in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells exposed to cypermethrin

Cypermethrin (CYP), a synthetic pyrethroid of class II, is widely used as a pesticide worldwide. The primary target of cypermethrin is a voltage-gated sodium channel. The neurotoxicity of CYP has been extensively studied in terms of affecting neuronal development, increasing cellular oxidative stress, and apoptosis. However, little is known about how it affects the expression of channel proteins involved in synaptic transmission, as well as the effects of cypermethrin on DNA damage and cell cycle processes. We found that the ligand and voltage-gated calcium channels and proteins involved in synaptic transmission including NMDA 1 receptor subunit, alpha 1A-voltage-dependent calcium channel, synaptotagmin-17, and synaptojanin-2 were downregulated in CYP-treated cells. After 48h of CYP exposure, cell viability was reduced with flattened and enlarged morphology. The levels of 23 proteins regulating cell cycle processes were altered in CYP-treated cells, according to a proteomic study. The cell cycle analysis showed elevated G₀/G₁ cell cycle arrest and DNA fragmentation at the sub-G₀ stage after CYP exposure. CYP treatment also increased senescence-associated β-galactosidase positive cells, DNA damage, and apoptotic markers. Taken together, the current study showed that cypermethrin exposure caused DNA damage and hastened cellular senescence and apoptosis via disrupting cell cycle regulation. In addition, despite its primary target sodium channel, CYP might cause synaptic dysfunction via the downregulation of synaptic proteins and dysregulation of synapse-associated ion channels.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction Contributes To Zinc-induced Neurodegeneration: a Link with NADPH Oxidase

Mitochondrial dysfunction and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NADPH oxidase) are the major sources of augmentation in free radical generation leading to neurodegeneration. Although NADPH oxidase involvement is reported in zinc (Zn)-induced neurodegeneration, contribution of the mitochondrial dysfunction and its association with NADPH oxidase are not known. Therefore, the study was aimed to decipher the role of mitochondrial dysfunction and its link with NADPH oxidase in Zn-induced Parkinsonism. Zn reduced the motor activities, the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons, and level of TH protein. Conversely, Zn increased the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation (LPO), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and reduced the mitochondrial membrane potential and catalytic activities of complex I and III. Zn also attenuated B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and pro-caspase 9/3 levels and augmented the translocation of cytosolic Bcl-2 associated X (Bax) protein to the mitochondria and cytochrome c release into cytosol from the mitochondria. Cyclosporine A, a mitochondrial outer membrane transition pore inhibitor and apocynin, a NADPH oxidase inhibitor, independently, ameliorated the Zn-induced changes. Similarly, Zn reduced cell viability through mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells, which were notably normalized in the presence of cyclosporine or apocynin. The results demonstrate that mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to Zn-induced neurodegeneration, which could be partially aided by the NADPH oxidase.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction as a Hallmark of Environmental Injury

Environmental factors including diet, sedentary lifestyle and exposure to pollutants largely influence human health throughout life. Cellular and molecular events triggered by an exposure to environmental pollutants are extremely variable and depend on the age, the chronicity and the doses of exposure. Only a fraction of all relevant mechanisms involved in the onset and progression of pathologies in response to toxicants has probably been identified. Mitochondria are central hubs of metabolic and cell signaling responsible for a large variety of biochemical processes, including oxidative stress, metabolite production, energy transduction, hormone synthesis, and apoptosis. Growing evidence highlights mitochondrial dysfunction as a major hallmark of environmental insults. Here, we present mitochondria as crucial organelles for healthy metabolic homeostasis and whose dysfunction induces critical adverse effects. Then, we review the multiple mechanisms of action of pollutants causing mitochondrial toxicity in link with chronic diseases. We propose the Aryl hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) as a model of “exposome receptor”, whose activation by environmental pollutants leads to various toxic events through mitochondrial dysfunction. Finally, we provide some remarks related to mitotoxicity and risk assessment.

Neurotoxicity of a pyrethroid pesticide deltamethrin is associated with the imbalance in proteolytic systems caused by mitophagy activation and proteasome inhibition

Pyrethroids are one of the most commonly used classes of synthetic pesticides in the world. Recent laboratory and epidemiological evidence suggested that pyrethroids have potential adverse effects in the mammalian brain; however, the underlying mechanisms of the neurotoxic effects of pyrethroids have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the mechanisms of effects of a type II pyrethroid deltamethrin (DM) in a neuronal cell model focusing on the proteolytic function, including autophagy and the ubiquitin-proteasome system. We confirmed that a micromolar concentration of DM dose-dependently decreased the cell viability and induced apoptotic cell death. Our results showed that DM enhanced autophagy in association with an accumulation of autophagosomes and increase in the levels of autophagy markers LC3-II/LC3-I ratio and p62 which were much elevated in the presence of lysosomal inhibitors bafilomycin A1 and chloroquine. We also found that DM caused a dysfunction of mitochondria with a decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial DNA copy number as well as colocalization with autophagosomes. Moreover, a decrease in the activities of three major proteasomal enzymes and an accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins were observed by the exposure to DM. Transcriptome analysis revealed that up-regulated genes supported the activation of autophagy with induction of cellular stress responses including oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress, while down-regulated genes related to the cell cycle and DNA replication. These findings provide novel insights into the neurotoxicity of DM which underlie the imbalance in proteolytic function caused by mitophagy activation and proteasome inhibition.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in liver of male albino rats after exposing to sub-chronic intoxication of chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and imidacloprid

The adverse effects of chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and imidacloprid on mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress biomarkers were studied in rat liver. The liver deficiency was also confirmed by histological analysis and gel electrophoresis. Each insecticide was administered orally with five doses per week for 28 days to male albino rats at 1/50 of the LD₅₀ per insecticide. The results demonstrated that the mitochondrial dysfunction was confirmed by a significant decrease in NADH dehydrogenase and ATPase activities. Oxidative stress biomarkers include malondialdehyde (MDA), and protein carbonyl content (PCC) were significantly increased. However, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) as antioxidant enzymes were significantly decreased in the mitochondria of the rat liver. HPLC analysis showed a significant increase of the 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OH-2DG) as a biomarker of the DNA damage in rat liver. In addition, the residue levels of 0.96 and 0.29 μg/mL serum were found for cypermethrin and imidacloprid, respectively. However, chlorpyrifos not detected using the HPLC analysis. Blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) analysis showed a change in the pattern and sequence of complexions of the electron transport chain in liver mitochondria with treatment by such insecticides. The hepatic histological examination also showed symptoms of abnormalities after exposure to these insecticides.

Cypermethrin induces Sertoli cell apoptosis through mitochondrial pathway associated with calcium

Cypermethrin, one kind of pyrethroid pesticides, has been shown to act as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The purpose of this study was to explore the roles of Sertoli cell apoptosis through mitochondrial pathway associated with calcium (Ca²⁺) in cypermethrin-induced male reproductive toxicology. The mouse Sertoli cells TM4 were cultured with 0 μM, 10 μM, 20 μM, 40 μM and 80 μM of cypermethrin. We used flow cytometry, Fluo-4 AM, western blot and JC-1 Assay Kit to examine apoptosis, intracellular Ca²⁺, expressions of mitochondrial apoptotic pathway-related proteins and mitochondrial membrane potential. We found cypermethrin increased apoptosis rate of TM4 cells significantly and with a significant increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. Cypermethrin significantly decreased the protein expressions of cytosolic B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) and mitochondrial cytochrome c (Cyt-c). The protein expressions of cytosolic Bcl-2-associated x (Bax), Cyt-c, cleaved caspase-3, calmodulin (CaM), Ca²⁺/CaM-dependent protein kinases II (CaMKII) and phosphorylated CaMKII were increased significantly in cypermethrin-exposed TM4 cells. Cypermethrin decreased mitochondrial membrane potential significantly. Then, Bcl-2 family and Ca²⁺/CaM/CaMKII pathway participate in cypermethrin-induced homeostasis. Ca²⁺ overload activates mitochondrial pathway by increasing permeability of mitochondrial membrane and decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential. We suggest cypermethrin induces Sertoli cell apoptosis involving mitochondrial pathway associated with Ca²⁺ regulated by Bcl-2 family and Ca²⁺/CaM/CaMKII pathway. The study provides a new insight into mechanisms involved in cypermethrin-induced male reproductive toxicology.

Peroxiredoxin 6 Plays Essential Role in Mediating Fertilization and Early Embryonic Development in Rabbit Oviduct

The oviduct is a site for early reproductive events including gamete maturation, fertilization, and early embryo development. Secretory cells lining the oviduct lumen synthesize and secrete proteins that interact with gametes and developing embryos. Although previous studies have identified some of the secretory proteins in the oviduct, however, knowledge and their precise specific functions in the oviduct are poorly understood. In this study, by using proteomic approach, we identified a secretory protein, Peroxiredoxin 6 (PRDX6), and evaluated its role in mediating early pregnancy events, fertilization, and embryo development in rabbit oviduct. The expression of PRDX6 was significantly higher in ampulla and isthmus sections of the oviduct in mated animal groups compared to non-mated controls. Furthermore, significant reduction in number of embryos recovered from PRDX6 siRNA-transfected oviductal horn was observed compared to the control contralateral horn. Moreover, in animals receiving PRDX6 siRNA in their oviductal horn, the number of implanted blastocysts was significantly less in the uterus as observed on day 9 post-coital (p.c.). Further, during embryo-rabbit oviduct epithelial cell (ROEC) co-culture, siRNA-mediated PRDX6 silencing attenuated the early embryonic development. Mechanistically, increased levels of ROS and expression of oxidative stress- and inflammation-related proteins were found in PRDX6 siRNA-treated ROEC cells as compared to control cells, implicating that ablation of PRDX6 in the oviduct creates a stress-induced micro-environment detrimental to early embryonic development in oviduct. Taken together, our data suggest that PRDX6 maintains an optimal micro-environment conducive to successful embryo development and can be considered as a candidate to evaluate its therapeutic potential in IVF strategies.

[Procyanidin B2 protects neurons from cypermethrin-induced oxidative stress through the P13K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway]

OBJECTIVE

To explore whether procyanidin B2 (PCB2) regulates the P13K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathway to protect neurons from oxidative stress induced by cypermethrin (CYP).

METHODS

Primary cultures of cerebral cortex neurons from C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into 5 groups: normal control group (cultured in serum-free neurobasal-B27 medium), PCB2 treatment group(treated with 5 μg/mL PCB2 for 24 h), CYP exposure group(treated with 50 μmol/L CYP for 24 h), PCB2 pretreatment group(pretreated with 5 μg/mL PCB2 for 30 min followed by exposure to 50 μmol/L CYP for 24 h), and LY294002 treatment group (pretreated with 20 μmol/L LY294002 for 30 min before treatment with PCB2 for 30 min and then CYP for 24 h).CCK-8 assay was used to analyze the neuronal viability after the treatments.Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the cells was detected using the fluorescent probe DCFH-DA and flow cytometry.The changes in nuclear morphology and mitochondrial membrane potential of the cells were examined with Hoechst 33342 and JC-1 staining, respectively.Western blotting was performed to detect the protein expressions of Nrf2, HO-1, p-Akt and Akt in the cells.

RESULTS

In CYP exposure group, the cells showed significantly decreased viability and mitochondrial membrane potential with obvious apoptotic morphological changes and abnormal ROS production.By comparison, the cells in PCB2 preconditioning group showed improved cell survival rate, reduced abnormalities in nuclear morphology, increased mitochondrial membrane potential, and lowered intracellular ROS production.CYP exposure caused Nrf2 nuclear translocation and up-regulated Nrf2, HO-1, p-Akt protein expressions in the cells, which were inhibited by PCB2 pretreatment.Inhibition of the P13K/Akt signaling pathway obviously neutralized the protective effect of PCB2 against CYP-induced neuronal injury.

CONCLUSIONS

PCB2 regulates the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway by activating the P13K/Akt signaling pathway to protect mouse cerebral cortical neurons against oxidative injury induced by cypermethrin.

Proanthocyanidins regulate the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway and protect neurons from cypermethrin-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis

Cypermethrin, a type II pyrethroid pesticide, is one of the most widely used pesticides in agricultural and in household settings. The toxic effects of cypermethrin are a matter of concern, as humans are almost inevitably exposed to it in daily life. It is an urgent problem to seek natural substances from plants that can eliminate or relieve the effects of pesticide residues on human health. Proanthocyanidins are the most potent antioxidants and free radical scavengers in natural plants, and are widely available in fruits, vegetables, and seeds. We found that proanthocyanidins (1, 2.5, and 5 μg/mL) can decrease ROS generation, relieve mitochondrial membrane potential loss, repair nuclear morphology, reduce cell apoptosis, and protect neurons from cypermethrin-induced oxidative insult. The protective mechanism exerted by proanthocyanidins against cypermethrin-induced neurotoxicity is negatively regulate rather than activate the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway to maintain intracellular homeostasis.

Involvement of Peroxiredoxin-3, Thioredoxin-2, and Protein Deglycase-1 in Cypermethrin-Induced Parkinsonism

Owing to its lipophilic nature, cypermethrin makes entry into the brain through the blood-brain barrier and causes severe damage to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons after prolonged exposure. Following substantial accrual in the brain, cypermethrin induces the abnormal expression and accumulation of α-synuclein. Besides, cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) causes free radical generation leading to lipid peroxidation in toxicant-induced parkinsonism. Conversely, 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), a byproduct of lipid peroxidation, is known to contribute to neuronal damage. The current investigation aimed to explicate the participation of endogenous redox-sensitive proteins in cypermethrin-induced cellular and animal models of parkinsonism. The qualitative and quantitative expressions of selected redox-sensitive proteins were evaluated employing the standard procedures. Cypermethrin reduced the expression of peroxiredoxin 3 (Prx3), thioredoxin 2 (Trx2), and protein deglycase-1 (DJ-1). Knocking down of Prx3, Trx2, or DJ-1 further reduced the level of expression in the cypermethrin-treated group. Reduction in the expression of Prx3, Trx2, or DJ-1 was found to be associated with overexpression of α-synuclein and 4-HNE modification of proteins. Besides, cypermethrin increased the expression of CYP2E1, which was not altered after Prx3 or Trx2 knockdown. However, knocking down the DJ-1 augmented the level of CYP2E1 both in the cypermethrin-treated group and its respective control. The outcomes of the study demonstrate that cypermethrin reduces the level of Prx3, Trx2, and DJ-1 proteins. While the reduction in the expression of selected redox-sensitive proteins leads to α-synuclein overexpression and 4-HNE modification of proteins, DJ-1 attenuation is also linked with increased CYP2E1 expression, which in turn could lead to oxidative stress-mediated neuronal damage.

ROS-Induced Hepatotoxicity under Cypermethrin: Involvement of the Crosstalk between Nrf2/Keap1 and NF-κB/iκB-α Pathways Regulated by Proteasome

Cypermethrin (CMN) is a man-made insecticide, and its abuse has led to potential adverse effects, particularly in sensitive populations such as aquatic organisms. The present study was focused on the toxic phenotype and detoxification mechanism in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) after treatment with waterborne CMN (0.651 μg/L) for 6 weeks in vivo or 6.392 μM for 24 h in vitro. In vivo, we describe the toxic phenotype of the liver of grass carp in terms of pathological changes, serum transaminase levels, oxidative stress indexes, and apoptosis rates. RNA-Seq analysis (2 × 3 cDNA libraries) suggested a compromise of proteasome and oxidative phosphorylation signaling pathways under CMN exposure. Thus, these two pathways were chosen for the in vitro study, which suggested that the CMN intoxication-induced proteasome pathway caused hepatotoxicity in the liver cell line of grass carp (L8824 cells). Moreover, pretreatment with MG132, a proteasome inhibitor, displayed protection against the toxic effects of CMN by enhancing antioxidative and anti-inflammatory capability by directly inhibiting the proteasomal degradation of nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor (Nrf2) and IκB-α, thus turning on the transcription of downstream genes of Nrf2 and NF-κB, respectively. Taken together, these results suggest proteasome activity as a reason for CMN-induced hepatotoxicity.

Effects of cypermethrin on the hepatic transcriptome and proteome of the red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus

Cypermethrin (CYP) is a synthetic pyrethroid broadly used for pest control, however, it is extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. To assess the toxicity of CYP in red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus, transcriptional and proteomic approaches combining two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and tandem mass spectrometry were used to compare the hepatic expression profiles. A total of 41,349 unigenes and 8839 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained, which were enriched in the process. The category of 779 (0.625 ng L^-1 CYP vs Con), 1963 (1.25 vs Con), and 2066 (1.25 vs 0.625) DEGs were screened. All findings suggested that CYP can induce antioxidant and biotransformation modulation variations in C. quadricarinatus to resist immunotoxicity and oxidative damages. The category of 196 (0.625 ng L^-1 CYP vs Con) specific proteins were differentially expressed: 24 proteins were upregulated, and 20 proteins were downregulated relative to CYP. Protein identification indicated the KEGG pathways of the human immunodeficiency virus 1 infection, insulin signaling pathway, and influenza A enriched. From the differential expression of the selected nine proteins, the increased Loc113824800, Rps19, Atp2, Rps10, Hsp40, Brafldraft_124327, and the decreased Loc117331934, Loc113213835, and Loc106806551 revealed. While for the verification of the eight genes in transcriptome and the above nine genes in proteomic, specifically, gpx5, ggt, loc106458463, chelonianin decreased in the 0.625 ng L^-1 CYP group. The transcripts of loc113816050, akr1d1 and gst, chelonianin and loc108675455 decreased and increased in the 1.25 ng L^-1 CYP group, respectively. The present study reflects the overall change in cellular structure and metabolism related to the resistance of pyrethroid insecticides.

Effect of environmental toxicants on neuronal functions

In the last few years, neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) have attracted attention due to their high prevalence worldwide. Environmental factors may be one of the biggest reasons for these diseases related to neuronal dysfunctions. Most of neuronal disorders are strongly associated with pre- and postnatal exposure to environmental toxins released from industries. Some of the neurotoxic metals such as lead, aluminum, mercury, manganese, cadmium, and arsenic as well as some pesticides and metal-based nanoparticles have been involved in AD and PD due to their ability to produce senile/amyloid plaques and NFTs which are the main feature of these neuronal dysfunctions. Exposure to solvents is also majorly responsible for neurodegenerative disorders. The present review highlights the impact of omnipresent heavy metals with some other neurotoxins on human health and how they give rise to neuronal dysfunctions which in turn causes socio-economic consequences due to increasing pollution worldwide. Graphical abstract.

Cypermethrin Induces the Activation of Rat Primary Microglia and Expression of Inflammatory Proteins

Cypermethrin activates microglia, which is found to be decisive in neurodegeneration in the experimental rats. While the involvement of microglial activation in toxicant-induced neurodegeneration is reported, the effect of low concentration of cypermethrin on the expression of inflammatory proteins from the rat primary microglia is not yet properly understood. The study intended to delineate the effect of low concentration of cypermethrin on the expression and release of proteins from the microglia. Rat primary microglial cells were treated with cypermethrin to check the expression of inflammatory proteins. Cypermethrin-treated microglia conditioned media and cells were collected to measure the expression and release of inflammatory proteins. Cypermethrin augmented the protein kinase C-δ (PKC-δ), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) p38 and p42/44, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3, and MMP-9 levels in the cell lysate and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) levels in the microglia conditioned media. Pre-treatment with minocycline, a microglial activation inhibitor or rottlerin, a PKC-δ inhibitor, notably reduced the release of TNF-α in the conditioned media and expression of iNOS protein in the microglia. Minocycline reduced the expression of PKC-δ, phosphorylated p38 and p42/44 MAPKs, MMP-3, and MMP-9 proteins in the microglia. While cypermethrin-treated conditioned media induced the toxicity in the rat primary neurons, minocycline or rottlerin reduced the cypermethrin treated microglia conditioned media-induced toxicity. The outcomes of the present study suggest that cypermethrin activates microglia and releases TNF-α and IL-1β as well as up-regulates the expression of PKC-δ, iNOS, phosphorylated p38 and p42/44 MAPKs, MMP-3, and MMP-9 proteins, which could contribute to neurodegeneration.

Mitochondria disease due to humidifier disinfectants: diagnostic criteria and its evidences

Humidifier disinfectant damages caused by the misuse of humidifier disinfects, such as polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG), resulted in chemical disasters in South Korea in 2011. About four million people were exposed to humidifier disinfectants (HDs) in the 17 years between 1994 and 2011. Although fatal lung damage was initially reported, investigations into the victims’ injuries revealed that the damage was not limited to the lungs, but that systemic damage was also confirmed. Considering the spread of HD from the lungs to the whole body, the toxic effects of PHMG from reactive oxygen species (ROS), NOTCH signaling pathways, and mitochondrial dysfunction resulted in endothelial damage in the lungs, blood vessels, liver, kidneys, bone marrow, nerves, and muscles. The main toxic mechanisms involved in HD damage may be the NOTCH pathway and mitochondrial damage. There are many case reports which include neurologic disorders (ADHD, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder), muscular disorder (exercise intolerance, myalgia), energy metabolism disorder (chronic fatigue syndrome), and immunologic disorder (rheumatoid arthritis) in HDs victims. These case reports involve multi-system involvement in HDs victims. Further well-designed study is needed to clarify whether mitochondrial dysfunction is associated with multi-organs involvement in HDs victims.

Cypermethrin-induced cortical neurons apoptosis via the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway

Pesticide residue is a common problem worldwide. Cypermethrin is a type II pyrethroid pesticide that has been widely used in recent years. It has become a widespread residual pesticide in the environment and agricultural products. The neurotoxicity of cypermethrin remains a matter of concern. However, few studies have evaluated its toxicity on cerebral cortical neurons. As the center of the nervous system, the cerebral cortex is involved in a series of biological processes, such as learning, memory, emotions, and movement. The Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway has been considered to play a protective role in several central nervous system (CNS) diseases. We investigated whether this pathway plays a protective role in cypermethrin-induced apoptosis of the cortical neurons. We established a cypermethrin-induced apoptosis model in the cortical neurons using different cypermethrin doses and different incubation periods. The changes in Nrf2 protein and mRNA expression and its downstream genes HO-1 and NQO1 were detected by quantitative real-time PCR and Western blotting to study the role of the Nrf2/ARE pathway in cypermethrin-induced apoptosis of the cortical neurons. The results showed that the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway has a protective effect in cypermethrin-induced apoptosis of the cortical neurons. However, this protective effect of the Nrf2/ARE pathway is very limited and is dependent on the exposure dose and exposure period of cypermethrin.

[Cypermethrin induces cell injury in primary cortical neurons of C57BL/6 mice by inhibiting Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway]

OBJECTIVE

To study the role of Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway in cypermethrin-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis of cerebral cortex neurons in C57BL/6 mice.

METHODS

The cortical neurons of C57BL/6 mice were cultured and identified, and a cypermethrin-induced cell injury model was established by treating the cells with 0, 25, 50 and 100 μmol/L of cypermethrin for 48 h. CCK-8 assay was used to analyze the effects of cypermethrin on the cell viability, and the fluorescence probe DCFH-DA was used for detecting intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS); flow cytometry was performed for determining the apoptosis rate of the cells. The mRNA and protein expression levels of Nrf2 and its downstream genes HO-1 and NQO1 were detected using qPCR and Western blotting.

RESULTS

Exposure to cypermethrin at different doses inhibited the viability of the cultured cortical neurons. With the increase of cypermethrin dose, the viability of the neurons decreased progressively, the intracellular ROS and the cell apoptosis rate increased, and the neuronal injury worsened. At the dose of 50 and 100 μmol/L, cypermethrin significantly down-regulated the expressions of HO-1, NQO1 and Nrf2 at both the mRNA and protein levels in the cells (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Cypermethrin exposure shows a dose-dependent neurotoxicity by inhibiting Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway, down-regulating the expression of Nrf2 and its downstream genes HO-1, NQO1 mRNA and protein, and inducing oxidative damage and apoptosis in primary mouse cortical neurons, .

Acute toxicity of cypermethrin on the juvenile of red claw crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus

In order to assess the toxicity of Cypermethrin (CYP), the 50% lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of CYP on the juvenile of Cherax quadricarinatus is assessed. Meanwhile, the transcription level and the content in the antioxidant and biotransformation enzymes in hepatopancreas and immune enzymes in the serum of C. quadricarinatus exposed to CYP (0.1, 1, 10 and 100 ng·L-1) for 96 h were analyzed to reveal the CYP toxicity and detoxification mechanism. 24, 48, 72, 96 h LC₅₀ were 1305.14, 424.52, 287.10 and 215.99 ng·L-1, respectively. There was no significant change of the content of enzymes at low concentration (0.16 ng·L-1). The fast increase of SOD and CAT content was observed at early stage (24 h), subsequent decreased at later stage of trail at medium concentration (0.32 and 0.63 ng·L-1). However, high concentration (1.25 ng·L-1) of CYP significantly inhibited SOD and CAT content. There was a significant increase in the level of MDA, PC and the content of GPx, EROD, CarE, GST at medium and high concentration after 72 h and 96 h exposure. The Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase, PO, ALK content decreased at medium and high concentration, especially at the 72-h and the 96-h exposure. The transcription was altered similarly to enzyme content, but the transcriptional response was generally more immediate than enzymatic response. Heat shock protein (hsp70) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (abcc2) genes were up-regulated.

Neurotoxicity of pesticides

Pesticides are unique environmental contaminants that are specifically introduced into the environment to control pests, often by killing them. Although pesticide application serves many important purposes, including protection against crop loss and against vector-borne diseases, there are significant concerns over the potential toxic effects of pesticides to non-target organisms, including humans. In many cases, the molecular target of a pesticide is shared by non-target species, leading to the potential for untoward effects. Here, we review the history of pesticide usage and the neurotoxicity of selected classes of pesticides, including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, to humans and experimental animals. Specific emphasis is given to linkages between exposure to pesticides and risk of neurological disease and dysfunction in humans coupled with mechanistic findings in humans and animal models. Finally, we discuss emerging techniques and strategies to improve translation from animal models to humans.

Autophagy protects murine macrophages from β-cypermethrin-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cytotoxicity via the reduction of oxidation stress

The immunotoxicity of synthetic pyrethroid (SPs) has garnered much attention, and our previous research demonstrated that β-CYP causes immunotoxicity and oxidative stress in macrophages. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism remains largely unknown. In this study, the murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells and murine peritoneal macrophages (PMs) were exposed to β-CYP. The results showed that β-CYP elevated intracellular ROS levels in both RAW 264.7 cells and PMs. Exposure to β-CYP also caused mitochondrial dysfunction with reduced mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), intracellular ATP level and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content in the two cell types. In addition, exposure of RAW 264.7 cells to β-CYP for 12 h and 24 h enhanced autophagy, with elevated Beclin1, Rab7, Lamp1 and LC3-II expression levels, while 48 h of exposure attenuated autophagy. In contrast, exposure of PMs to β-CYP for 12 h promoted autophagy, whereas exposure for 24 h and 48 h impaired autophagy. Cotreatment with an antioxidant, N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), partially blocked the reduced MMP, intracellular ATP level and autophagy disturbance. Moreover, cotreatment with an autophagy agonist, rapamycin (RAPA), partially blocked mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in the two cell types, whereas cotreatment with an autophagy inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA), augmented the abovementioned toxic effects. Furthermore, mitochondrial ROS levels in both RAW 264.7 cells and PMs were elevated by exposure to β-CYP, and molecular docking showed that β-CYP docked with mouse respiratory chain complex I by binding to the ND2, ND4, and ND5 subunits of the protein complex. Taken together, the data obtained in the present study demonstrate that oxidative stress partially mediates mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy disturbance upon exposure to β-CYP in macrophages, and autophagy plays a protective role against the toxic effects.

Pyrethroid exposure and neurotoxicity: a mechanistic approach

Pyrethroids are a class of synthetic insecticides that are used widely in and around households to control the pest. Concerns about exposure to this group of pesticides are now mainly related to their neurotoxicity and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration seen in Parkinson’s disease. The main neurotoxic mechanisms include oxidative stress, inflammation, neuronal cell loss, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The main neurodegeneration targets are ion channels. However, other receptors, enzymes, and several signalling pathways can also participate in disorders induced by pyrethroids. The aim of this review is to elucidate the main mechanisms involved in neurotoxicity caused by pyrethroids deltamethrin, permethrin, and cypermethrin. We also review common targets and pathways of Parkinson’s disease therapy, including Nrf2, Nurr1, and PPARγ, and how they are affected by exposure to pyrethroids. We conclude with possibilities to be addressed by future research of novel methods of protection against neurological disorders caused by pesticides that may also find their use in the management/treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

Novel proteomic changes in brain mitochondria provide insights into mitochondrial dysfunction in mouse models of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive ultimately fatal disorder caused by a glutamine-encoding CAG expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) gene that results in degeneration mainly in striatal and cerebro-cortical brain regions. Mitochondrial dysfunction is one important facet of HD pathogenesis. Here we used R6/2 and YAC128 HD mouse models of human HD, that express different HTT transgenes and have different progression rates, to identify HD brain mitochondrial proteomic signatures. Cerebral cortical mitochondrial preparations from HD and wild-type litter mate mice were compared by two-dimensional SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF mass spectrometry. Proteomic analyses inferred 17 and 12 differentially expressed proteins, respectively in 12 week R6/2 and 15 month YAC128 HD mice, compared to controls. Peroxiredoxin 3, stress-70, DJ-1, isocitrate dehydrogenase [NAD] α subunit and ATP synthase subunit D were differentially expressed in both models. Using the PANTHER (Protein ANalysis THrough Evolutionary Relationships) classification system we show that the inferred proteins are involved in oxidative stress defense, oxidative phosphorylation, the citric acid cycle, pyruvate metabolism, apoptosis, protein folding and iron metabolism. Common mitochondrial proteomic changes are significant in mouse models of middle (YAC128) and advanced (R6/2) HD despite differences in the HTT transgenes, age, genetic background and disease stage. The findings identify a proteomic signature of HD mitochondria in mouse models that includes previously unrecognized proteins.

Proanthocyanidins exert a neuroprotective effect via ROS/JNK signaling in MPTP‑induced Parkinson's disease models in vitro and in vivo

The pathological alterations of Parkinson's disease (PD) predominantly manifest as a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, which may be caused by oxidative stress damage. Proanthocyanidins (PCs) are a class of compounds found in various plants, which have significant antioxidant and free radical-scavenging activity. The present study investigated the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of PCs in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced PD model in vitro and in vivo. MTT assays were used to detect cell viability, and flow cytometry and TUNEL assays were used to detect cell apoptosis. Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) alterations were investigated using a JC-1 MMP Assay kit. The pole test was used to measure motor behavior in a mouse model of PD. Levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured using the fluorescent probe, 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate. Immunohistochemistry and western blotting were performed to detect the expression levels of proteins associated with PD. In vitro, it was demonstrated that in MPTP-treated PC12 cells, PCs increased cell viability and reduced cell apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, it was revealed that PC treatment inhibited striatal dopamine depletion, which resulted in significant improvements in PD-like movement impairment. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and MPTP-induced apoptosis were also inhibited. Furthermore, the results demonstrated that the neuroprotective activity of PCs may be mediated via the inhibition of ROS generation, as well as modulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation. Taken together, these data revealed that PCs may exert neuroprotective effects in in vivo and in vitro PD models, and may have potential in the prevention or treatment of PD.

Brain mitochondrial iron accumulates in Huntington's disease, mediates mitochondrial dysfunction, and can be removed pharmacologically

Mitochondrial bioenergetic dysfunction is involved in neurodegeneration in Huntington's disease (HD). Iron is critical for normal mitochondrial bioenergetics but can also contribute to pathogenic oxidation. The accumulation of iron in the brain occurs in mouse models and in human HD. Yet the role of mitochondria-related iron dysregulation as a contributor to bioenergetic pathophysiology in HD is unclear. We demonstrate here that human HD and mouse model HD (12-week R6/2 and 12-month YAC128) brains accumulated mitochondrial iron and showed increased expression of iron uptake protein mitoferrin 2 and decreased iron-sulfur cluster synthesis protein frataxin. Mitochondria-enriched fractions from mouse HD brains had deficits in membrane potential and oxygen uptake and increased lipid peroxidation. In addition, the membrane-permeable iron-selective chelator deferiprone (1 μM) rescued these effects ex-vivo, whereas hydrophilic iron and copper chelators did not. A 10-day oral deferiprone treatment in 9-week R6/2 HD mice indicated that deferiprone removed mitochondrial iron, restored mitochondrial potentials, decreased lipid peroxidation, and improved motor endurance. Neonatal iron supplementation potentiates neurodegeneration in mouse models of HD by unknown mechanisms. We found that neonatal iron supplementation increased brain mitochondrial iron accumulation and potentiated markers of mitochondrial dysfunction in HD mice. Therefore, bi-directional manipulation of mitochondrial iron can potentiate and protect against markers of mouse HD. Our findings thus demonstrate the significance of iron as a mediator of mitochondrial dysfunction and injury in mouse models of human HD and suggest that targeting the iron-mitochondrial pathway may be protective.

Cypermethrin induced toxicities in fish and adverse health outcomes: Its prevention and control measure adaptation

Pesticides are being widely employed in the modern agriculture, though in different quantities, across the globe. Although it is useful for crops yield enhancement, however, there are the serious environment, health and safety related concerns for aquatic and terrestrial living biomes that include humans, animals, and plants. Various in practice and emerging pesticides adversely affect the survival, development and biological systems stability. Several research efforts have been made to highlight the bio-safety and toxicological features of toxicants through risk assessment studies using different animal models, e.g., different fish species. Among several pesticides, cypermethrin is extensively used in agriculture and households, and the reported concentrations of this pesticide in different water bodies including rivers and streams, soil and even in rainwater are threatening. Consequently, cypermethrin is considered for risk assessment studies to know about its deep and different level of toxicological effects subject to its dose, exposure time and route. The cypermethrin existence/persistence in the environment is posing a severe threat to humans as well as another non-target terrestrial and aquatic organism. Herein, the toxic effects of pesticides, with special reference to cypermethrin, on fish, the mode of toxicity, concerns regarding public health and harmful impacts on human beings are comprehensively reviewed. The information is also given on their appropriate control and prevention strategies.

Alpha-synuclein aggregation, Ubiquitin proteasome system impairment, and L-Dopa response in zinc-induced Parkinsonism: resemblance to sporadic Parkinson's disease

Alpha-synuclein (α-synuclein) aggregation and impairment of the Ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) are implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD) pathogenesis. While zinc (Zn) induces dopaminergic neurodegeneration resulting in PD phenotype, its effect on protein aggregation and UPS has not yet been deciphered. The current study investigated the role of α-synuclein aggregation and UPS in Zn-induced Parkinsonism. Additionally, levodopa (L-Dopa) response was assessed in Zn-induced Parkinsonian model to establish its closeness with idiopathic PD. Male Wistar rats were treated with zinc sulfate (Zn; 20 mg/kg; i.p.) twice weekly for 12 weeks along with respective controls. In few subsets, animals were subsequently treated with L-Dopa for 21 consecutive days following Zn exposure. A significant increase in total and free Zn content was observed in the substantia nigra of the brain of exposed groups. Zn treatment caused neurobehavioral anomalies, striatal dopamine decline, and dopaminergic neuronal cell loss accompanied with a marked increase in α-synuclein expression/aggregation and Ubiquitin-conjugated protein levels in the exposed groups. Zn exposure substantially reduced UPS-associated trypsin-like, chymotrypsin-like, and caspase-like activities along with the expression of SUG1 and β-5 subunits of UPS in the nigrostriatal tissues of exposed groups. L-Dopa treatment rescued from Zn-induced neurobehavioral deficits and restored dopamine levels towards normalcy; however, Zn-induced dopaminergic neuronal loss, reduction in tyrosine hydroxylase expression, and increase in oxidative stress were unaffected. The results suggest that Zn caused UPS impairment, resulting in α-synuclein aggregation subsequently leading to dopaminergic neurodegeneration, and that Zn-induced Parkinsonism exhibited positive L-Dopa response similar to sporadic PD.

In utero and lactational exposure to low-doses of the pyrethroid insecticide cypermethrin leads to neurodevelopmental defects in male mice-An ethological and transcriptomic study

Accumulating evidence suggests that developmental exposure to environmental chemicals may modify the course of brain development, ultimately leading to neuropsychiatric / neurodegenerative disorders later in life. In the present study, we assessed the impact of one of the most frequently used pesticides in both residential and agricultural applications − the synthetic pyrethroid cypermethrin (CYP) − on developmental neurotoxicity (DNT). Female mice were perinatally exposed to low doses of CYP (5 and 20 mg/kg body weight) from gestation to postnatal day 15. Behavioral analyses were performed during the offspring’s early life and during adulthood. Postnatal analyses revealed that perinatal exposure to CYP disturbed motor development without modifying sensory and communicative skills. We found that later in life, CYP-exposed offspring expressed maladaptive behaviors in response to highly challenging tasks and abnormal sociability. Transcriptomic analyses performed in the offspring’s brain at the end of the exposure, highlighted mitochondrial dysfunction as a relevant pathomechanism underlying CYP-induced DNT. Interestingly, several genes involved in proteostasis maintenance were also shown to be dysregulated suggesting that alterations in biogenesis, folding, trafficking and degradation of proteins may significantly contribute to CYP-related DNT. From a regulatory perspective, this study highlights that behavioral and transcriptomic analyses are complementary tools providing useful direction for better DNT characterization, and as such, should be used together more systematically.

Tp53 gene mediates distinct dopaminergic neuronal damage in different dopaminergic neurotoxicant models

Tp53, a stress response gene, is involved in diverse cell death pathways and its activation is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. However, whether the neuronal Tp53 protein plays a direct role in regulating dopaminergic (DA) neuronal cell death or neuronal terminal damage in different neurotoxicant models is unknown. In our recent studies, in contrast to the global inhibition of Tp53 function by pharmacological inhibitors and in traditional Tp53 knock-out mice, we examined the effects of DA-specific Tp53 gene deletion after 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine and methamphetamine exposure. Our data suggests that the Tp53 gene might be involved in both neuronal apoptosis and neuronal terminal damage caused by different neurotoxicants. Additional results from other studies also suggest that as a master regulator of many pathways that regulate apoptosis and synaptic terminal damage, it is possible that Tp53 may function as a signaling hub to integrate different signaling pathways to mediate distinctive target pathways. Tp53 protein as a signaling hub might be able to evaluate the microenvironment of neurons, assess the forms and severities of injury incurred, and determine whether apoptotic cell death or neuronal terminal degeneration occurs. Identification of the precise mechanisms activated in distinct neuronal damage caused by different forms and severities of injuries might allow for development of specific Tp53 inhibitors or ways to modulate distinct downstream target pathways involved.

Cypermethrin Activates Autophagosome Formation Albeit Inhibits Autophagy Owing to Poor Lysosome Quality: Relevance to Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most familiar, progressive and movement-related neurodegenerative disorder after Alzheimer disease. This study aimed to decipher the role of autophagy in cypermethrin-induced Parkinsonism, an animal model of PD. Indicators of autophagy [expression of beclin 1, autophagy-related protein 12 (Atg 12), unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1 (Ulk 1), p62 and lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (LAMP 2) and conversion of microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3) I to II], signalling cascade [phosphorylated (p) 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK), sirtuin 1 (Sirt 1), phosphorylated-mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTOR), tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC 2), p₃₁₇Ulk 1 and p₇₅₇Ulk 1 levels] and lysosome morphology were assessed in control and cypermethrin-treated rat model of PD. Autophagy markers were also measured in cypermethrin-treated neuroblastoma cells in the presence of 3-methyl adenine, a phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K) class III inhibitor; vinblastine, an autophagosome elongation inhibitor; bafilomycin A1, an autophagolysosome and lysosome fusion/abnormal acidification inhibitor or torin 1, a mechanistic target of rapamycin inhibitor. Cypermethrin reduced LAMP 2 and increased p-AMPK and Sirt 1 without causing any change in other signalling proteins. 3-Methyl adenine did not change LC3 conversion; vinblastine and bafilomycin A1 decreased LAMP 2 expression in controls. While cypermethrin increased LC3 conversion in the presence of 3-methyl adenine, LAMP 2 reduction was more pronounced in vinblastine and bafilomycin A1-treated cells. Torin 1 normalized the expression of LAMP 2 without any change in other autophagy markers. Results demonstrate that albeit cypermethrin activates autophagosome formation, it reduces LAMP 2 expression and lysosome quality leading to autophagy inhibition.

Differential expression and characterization of cypermethrin-degrading potential proteins in Bacillus thuringiensis strain, SG4

A cypermethrin-degrading bacterium (SG4) was isolated from the pesticide-contaminated soil in the agricultural field of the crop research centre of the University, and characterized as Bacillus thuringiensis strain, SG4. The bacterium degraded 78.9 % of cypermethrin (50 ppm) in 15 days when grown in a minimal medium. To understand the functional proteins of cypermethrin degradation in Bacillus thuringiensis strain SG4, a comparative proteomic analysis was performed in the presence/absence of cypermethrin after 5 days of incubation in minimal medium. More than 450 spots corresponding to different proteins were recorded by 2D electrophoresis. We report expression of 223 and 250 unique proteins under normal and induced conditions (cypermethrin stress), respectively. Identified proteins were categorized into different functional groups on the basis of their biological functions, viz., catabolic enzymes, translational and stress proteins, etc. Characterization of cypermethrin-specific proteins in a bacterial strain will help in biodegradation practices in situ.

ZiBu PiYin recipe prevents diabetes-associated cognitive decline in rats: possible involvement of ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance pathway and histopathological changes

BACKGROUND

Disturbance in energy metabolism, as a key factor in diabetes-associated cognitive decline (DACD), has become a promising therapeutic target of Chinese medicine ZiBu PiYin Recipe (ZBPYR). However, it is still not clear how ZBPYR affects the mitochondrial function in DACD rats' brains, which is considered as the crucial cell organelle to supply energy for the brain.

METHODS

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) rat models were established by using high fat diet and streptozotocin (STZ) (30 mg/kg, ip). The evaluation of insulin sensitivity was performed by oral glucose tolerance and insulin tolerance test. After 7 weeks, the T2DM rats were treated with vehicle or ZBPYR for 11 weeks and morris water maze (MWM) test were used to evaluate memory function. The ultra structural changes of prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured with JC-1 and DCFDA assay. The levels of insulin proteins were quantified by Western Blot analysis and the markers of histopathological changes were detected by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

ZBPYR could alleviate learning and memory impairment of DACD rats. TEM showed that ZBPYR prevented mitochondrial ultra-structural alterations and number changes in the PFC and hippocampus of the DACD rats. In addition, ZBPYR significantly increased ΔΨm and lowered the levels of ROS. Further investigation indicated that ZBPYR suppressed the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, strengthened insulin signaling and inhibited GSK3β over-expression. These positive effects were associated with reduced Aβ1-42 deposition and restored expression levels of microtubule-associated protein MAP2.

CONCLUSION

ZBPYR showed excellent protective effect against DACD via ameliorating mitochondrial dysfunction, insulin resistance and histopathological changes.

Minocycline Rescues from Zinc-Induced Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic Neurodegeneration: Biochemical and Molecular Interventions

Accumulation of zinc (Zn) in dopaminergic neurons is implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD), and microglial activation plays a critical role in toxin-induced Parkinsonism. Oxidative stress is accused in Zn-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration; however, its connection with microglial activation is still not known. This study was undertaken to elucidate the role and underlying mechanism of microglial activation in Zn-induced nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Male Wistar rats were treated intraperitoneally with/without zinc sulphate (20 mg/kg) in the presence/absence of minocycline (30 mg/kg), a microglial activation inhibitor, for 2-12 weeks. While neurobehavioral and biochemical indexes of PD and number of dopaminergic neurons were reduced, the number of microglial cells was increased in the substantia nigra of the Zn-exposed animals. Similarly, Zn elevated lipid peroxidation (LPO) and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase; however, catalase activity was reduced. Besides, Zn increased an association of NADPH oxidase subunit p67(phox) with membrane, cytochrome c release from the mitochondria and cleavage of pro-caspase 3. Zn attenuated the expression of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT-2) while augmented the expression of dopamine transporter (DAT) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Minocycline alleviated Zn-induced behavioural impairments, loss of TH-positive neurons, activated microglial cells and biochemical indexes and modulated the expression of studied genes/proteins towards normalcy. The results demonstrate that minocycline reduces the number of activated microglial cells and oxidative stress, which rescue from Zn-induced changes in the expression of monoamine transporter and nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration.

Cyclosporine A and MnTMPyP Alleviate α-Synuclein Expression and Aggregation in Cypermethrin-Induced Parkinsonism

Cypermethrin induces the mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons leading to Parkinsonism in rats. Despite α-synuclein aggregation is reported to be critical in Parkinson's disease, its role and alliance with the mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage leading to cypermethrin-induced Parkinsonism have not yet been deciphered. The present study aimed to examine the effect of cypermethrin on the expression and aggregation of α-synuclein and its subsequent connection with oxidative damage and mitochondrial dysfunction leading to the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the presence or absence of a mitochondrial membrane transition pore opening inhibitor, cyclosporine A and a superoxide dismutase/catalase mimetic, manganese (III) tetrakis (1-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphyrin pentachloride (MnTMPyP). The expression of α-synuclein, 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE)-modified proteins, mitochondrial dysfunction-dependent apoptotic proteins, nitrite content, lipid peroxidation (LPO) and number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons were estimated in the substantia nigra and dopamine content in the striatum of control and treated rats employing standard procedures. Cypermethrin augmented the expression of α-synuclein, 3-NT, 4-HNE-modified proteins, caspase-3, mitochondrial Bax and cytosolic cytochrome-c along with nitrite and LPO and reduced the expression of cytosolic Bax, mitochondrial cytochrome-c, dopamine and number of TH-positive neurons. Cyclosporine A or MnTMPyP alleviated the expression and aggregation of α-synuclein along with indicators of the mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative damage and dopaminergic neurodegeneration. The results demonstrate that cypermethrin induces α-synuclein expression and aggregation while cyclosporine A or MnTMPyP rescues from α-synuclein over-expression and aggregation along with the mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage leading to Parkinsonism in rats.