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Rezaul Islam M, Akash S, Murshedul Islam M, Sarkar N, Kumer A, Chakraborty S, Dhama K, Ahmed Al-Shaeri M, Anwar Y, Wilairatana P, Rauf A, Halawani IF, Alzahrani FM, Khan H. Alkaloids as drug leads in Alzheimer's treatment: Mechanistic and therapeutic insights. Brain Res 2024; 1834:148886. [PMID: 38582413 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2024.148886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) has few effective treatment options and continues to be a major global health concern. AD is a neurodegenerative disease that typically affects elderly people. Alkaloids have potential sources for novel drug discovery due to their diverse chemical structures and pharmacological activities. Alkaloids, natural products with heterocyclic nitrogen-containing structures, are considered potential treatments for AD. This review explores the neuroprotective properties of alkaloids in AD, focusing on their ability to regulate pathways such as amyloid-beta aggregation, oxidative stress, synaptic dysfunction, tau hyperphosphorylation, and neuroinflammation. The FDA has approved alkaloids such as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors like galantamine and rivastigmine. This article explores AD's origins, current market medications, and clinical applications of alkaloids in AD therapy. This review explores the development of alkaloid-based drugs for AD, focusing on pharmacokinetics, blood-brain barrier penetration, and potential adverse effects. Future research should focus on the clinical evaluation of promising alkaloids, developing recently discovered alkaloids, and the ongoing search for novel alkaloids for medical treatment. A pharmaceutical option containing an alkaloid may potentially slow down the progression of AD while enhancing its symptoms. This review highlights the potential of alkaloids as valuable drug leads in treating AD, providing a comprehensive understanding of their mechanisms of action and therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Rezaul Islam
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Daffodil Smart City, Birulia, Savar, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
| | - Shopnil Akash
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Daffodil Smart City, Birulia, Savar, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammed Murshedul Islam
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Daffodil Smart City, Birulia, Savar, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
| | - Nadia Sarkar
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, Daffodil International University, Daffodil Smart City, Birulia, Savar, Dhaka 1216, Bangladesh
| | - Ajoy Kumer
- Laboratory of Computational Research for Drug Design and Material Science, Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences IUBAT-International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, 4 Embankment Drive Road, Sector 10, Uttara Model Town, Dhaka 1230, Bangladesh; Center for Global Health Research, Saveetha Medical College and Hospitals, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
| | - Sandip Chakraborty
- State Disease Investigation Laboratory, ARDD, Abhoynagar, Agartala, West Tripura, Pin-799005, India
| | - Kuldeep Dhama
- Division of Pathology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) Izatnagar-243 122, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Majed Ahmed Al-Shaeri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21441, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Yasir Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21441, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Abdur Rauf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Swabi, Anbar 23561, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Ibrahim F Halawani
- Department of Clinical Laboratories Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fuad M Alzahrani
- Department of Clinical Laboratories Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia
| | - Haroon Khan
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, 23200 Mardan, Pakistan.
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Ni H, Liu M, Cao M, Zhang L, Zhao Y, Yi L, Li Y, Liu L, Wang P, Du Q, Zhou H, Dong Y. Sinomenine regulates the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway to inhibit TLR4/NF-κB pathway and protect the homeostasis in brain and gut in scopolamine-induced Alzheimer's disease mice. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 171:116190. [PMID: 38278026 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Sinomenine (SIN), an alkaloid extracted from the Chinese herbal medicine Sinomenium acutum, has great potential in anti-inflammatory, immune regulation, analgesic and sedative, and is already a clinical drug for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in China. Our previous studies show SIN inhibits inflammation by regulating ɑ7nAChR, a key receptor of cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP), which plays an important role in regulating peripheral and central nervous system inflammation. Growing evidence supports the cholinergic dysregulation and inflammatory responses play the key role in the pathogenesis of AD. The intervention effects of SIN on AD by regulating CAP and homeostasis in brain and gut were analyzed for the first time in the present study using scopolamine-induced AD model mice. Behavioral tests were used to assess the cognitive performance. The neurons loss, cholinergic function, inflammation responses, biological barrier function in the mouse brain and intestinal tissues were evaluated through a variety of techniques, and the gut microbiota was detected using 16SrRNA sequencing. The results showed that SIN significantly inhibited the cognitive decline, dysregulation of cholinergic system, peripheral and central inflammation, biological barrier damage as well as intestinal flora disturbance caused by SCOP in mice. More importantly, SIN effectively regulated CAP to suppress the activation of TLR4/NF-κB and protect the homeostasis in brain and gut to alleviate cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haojie Ni
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Muqiu Liu
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Mindie Cao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Lingyu Zhang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Yijing Zhao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Lang Yi
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Yanwu Li
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Liang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Syndrome, Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Peixun Wang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China
| | - Qun Du
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China.
| | - Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Medicine Syndrome, Guangdong Provincial Hospital of Chinese Medicine, Guangdong Provincial Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510006, PR China.
| | - Yan Dong
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, PR China.
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Maitre M, Jeltsch-David H, Okechukwu NG, Klein C, Patte-Mensah C, Mensah-Nyagan AG. Myelin in Alzheimer's disease: culprit or bystander? Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:56. [PMID: 37004127 PMCID: PMC10067200 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01554-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with neuronal and synaptic losses due to the accumulation of toxic amyloid β (Αβ) peptide oligomers, plaques, and tangles containing tau (tubulin-associated unit) protein. While familial AD is caused by specific mutations, the sporadic disease is more common and appears to result from a complex chronic brain neuroinflammation with mitochondriopathies, inducing free radicals' accumulation. In aged brain, mutations in DNA and several unfolded proteins participate in a chronic amyloidosis response with a toxic effect on myelin sheath and axons, leading to cognitive deficits and dementia. Αβ peptides are the most frequent form of toxic amyloid oligomers. Accumulations of misfolded proteins during several years alters different metabolic mechanisms, induce chronic inflammatory and immune responses with toxic consequences on neuronal cells. Myelin composition and architecture may appear to be an early target for the toxic activity of Aβ peptides and others hydrophobic misfolded proteins. In this work, we describe the possible role of early myelin alterations in the genesis of neuronal alterations and the onset of symptomatology. We propose that some pathophysiological and clinical forms of the disease may arise from structural and metabolic disorders in the processes of myelination/demyelination of brain regions where the accumulation of non-functional toxic proteins is important. In these forms, the primacy of the deleterious role of amyloid peptides would be a matter of questioning and the initiating role of neuropathology would be primarily the fact of dysmyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Maitre
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France.
| | - Hélène Jeltsch-David
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
- Biotechnologie et signalisation cellulaire, UMR 7242 CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, 300 Boulevard Sébastien Brant CS 10413, Illkirch cedex, 67412, France
| | - Nwife Getrude Okechukwu
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Christian Klein
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Christine Patte-Mensah
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
| | - Ayikoe-Guy Mensah-Nyagan
- Biopathologie de la Myéline, Neuroprotection et Stratégies Thérapeutiques, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), INSERM U1119, Université de Strasbourg, Bâtiment CRBS de la Faculté de Médecine, 1 rue Eugène Boeckel, Strasbourg, 67000, France
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4
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Guo Q, Li Y, Xu S, Wang P, Qian K, Yang P, Sheng D, Wang L, Cheng Y, Meng R, Cao J, Luo H, Wei Y, Zhang Q. Brain-neuron targeted nanoparticles for peptide synergy therapy at dual-target of Alzheimer's disease. J Control Release 2023; 355:604-621. [PMID: 36738970 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2023.01.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Since the complex interactions of multiple mechanisms involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) preclude the monotherapeutic approaches from clinical application, combination therapy has become an attractive strategy for AD treatment. However, to be emphasized, the realization of the edges of combination therapy greatly depends on the reasonable choice of targets and the rational design of combination scheme. Acknowledgedly, amyloid plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau (p-tau) are two main hallmarks in AD with close pathological correlations, implying the hopeful prospect of combined intervention in them for AD treatment. Herein, we developed the nano-combination system, neuron-targeting PEG-PLA nanoparticles (CT-NP) loading two peptide drugs H102, a β-sheet breaker acting on Aβ, and NAP, a microtubule stabilizer acting on p-tau. Compared with free peptide combination, nano-combination system partly aligned the in vivo behaviors of combined peptides and enhanced peptide accumulation in lesion neurons by the guidance of targeting peptide CGN and Tet1, facilitating the therapeutic performance of peptide combination. Further, to maximize the therapeutic potential of nano-combination system, the combination ratio and mode were screened by the quantitative evaluation with combination index and U test, respectively, in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that the separated-loading CT-NP at the combination molar ratio of 2:1 (H102:NAP), CT-NP/H102 + CT-NP/NAP(2:1), generated the strongest synergistic therapeutic effects on Aβ, p-tau and their linkage, and effectually prevented neuroinflammation, reversed the neuronal damage and restored cognitive performance in 3 × Tg-AD transgenic mice. Our studies provide critical data on the effectiveness of nano-combination therapy simultaneously intervening in Aβ and p-tau, confirming the promising application of nano-combination strategy in AD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Guo
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China; Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Organ Repair, School of Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yixian Li
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuting Xu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Pengzhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Kang Qian
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyu Sheng
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Liuchang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunlong Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Ran Meng
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinxu Cao
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Haichang Luo
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Wei
- Institute of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200436, China.
| | - Qizhi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, People's Republic of China.
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Sinclair P, Kabbani N. Nicotinic receptor components of amyloid beta 42 proteome regulation in human neural cells. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270479. [PMID: 35960729 PMCID: PMC9374227 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is associated with chronic neurodegeneration often accompanied by elevated levels of the neurotoxic peptide amyloid-beta 1–42 (Aβ42) in the brain. Studies show that extracellular Aβ42 binds to various cell surface receptors including the human α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) and activates pathways of neurotoxicity leading to cell death. The α7 nAChR is thus considered a promising drug target for therapy against neurodegenerative disease such as AD. In this study, we use mass spectrometry-based label-free precursor ion quantification to identify proteins and pathways that are changed by a 72-hour treatment with Aβ42 or Aβ42 in the presence of the α7 nAChR blocker, α-bungarotoxin (Bgtx) in the human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line. Bioinformatic gene ontology enrichment analysis was used to identify and characterize proteins and pathways altered by Aβ42 presentation. The results support evidence on the involvement of mitochondrial proteins in Aβ42 responses and define potential mechanisms of α7 nAChR mediated amyloid toxicity. These findings can inform pharmacological strategies for drug design and treatment against amyloid disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Sinclair
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States of America
| | - Nadine Kabbani
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States of America
- School of System Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Pfundstein G, Nikonenko AG, Sytnyk V. Amyloid precursor protein (APP) and amyloid β (Aβ) interact with cell adhesion molecules: Implications in Alzheimer’s disease and normal physiology. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:969547. [PMID: 35959488 PMCID: PMC9360506 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.969547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disorder in which dysfunction and loss of synapses and neurons lead to cognitive impairment and death. Accumulation and aggregation of neurotoxic amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides generated via amyloidogenic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) is considered to play a central role in the disease etiology. APP interacts with cell adhesion molecules, which influence the normal physiological functions of APP, its amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic processing, and formation of Aβ aggregates. These cell surface glycoproteins also mediate attachment of Aβ to the neuronal cell surface and induce intracellular signaling contributing to Aβ toxicity. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge surrounding the interactions of cell adhesion molecules with APP and Aβ and analyze the evidence of the critical role these proteins play in regulating the processing and physiological function of APP as well as Aβ toxicity. This is a necessary piece of the complex AD puzzle, which we should understand in order to develop safe and effective therapeutic interventions for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant Pfundstein
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Vladimir Sytnyk
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Vladimir Sytnyk,
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Krafft GA, Jerecic J, Siemers E, Cline EN. ACU193: An Immunotherapeutic Poised to Test the Amyloid β Oligomer Hypothesis of Alzheimer’s Disease. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:848215. [PMID: 35557606 PMCID: PMC9088393 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.848215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease that affects 50 million people worldwide, with 10 million new cases occurring each year. The emotional and economic impacts of AD on patients and families are devastating. Approved treatments confer modest improvement in symptoms, and recently one treatment obtained accelerated approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and may have modest disease modifying benefit. Research over the past three decades has established a clear causal linkage between AD and elevated brain levels of amyloid β (Aβ) peptide, and substantial evidence now implicates soluble, non-fibrillar Aβ oligomers (AβOs) as the molecular assemblies directly responsible for AD-associated memory and cognitive failure and accompanying progressive neurodegeneration. The widely recognized linkage of elevated Aβ and AD spawned a comprehensive 20-year therapeutic campaign that focused primarily on two strategies – inhibition of the secretase enzymes responsible for Aβ production and clearance of Aβ peptide or amyloid plaques with Aβ-directed immunotherapeutics. Unfortunately, all clinical trials of secretase inhibitors were unsuccessful. Of the completed phase 3 immunotherapy programs, bapineuzumab (targeting amyloid plaque) and solanezumab (targeting Aβ monomers) were negative, and the crenezumab program (targeting Aβ monomers and to a small extent oligomers) was stopped for futility. Aducanumab (targeting amyloid plaques), which recently received FDA accelerated approval, had one positive and one negative phase 3 trial. More than 25 negative randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have evaluated Aβ-targeting therapeutics, yet none has directly evaluated whether selective blockage of disease-relevant AβOs can stop or reverse AD-associated cognitive decline. Here, we briefly summarize studies that establish the AD therapeutic rationale to target AβOs selectively, and we describe ACU193, the first AβO-selective immunotherapeutic to enter human clinical trials and the first positioned to test the AβO hypothesis of AD.
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Yi L, Shao Y, Fu M, Yan Y, Ding CF, Tang K. One-step preparation of magnetic zwitterionic–hydrophilic dual functional nanospheres for in-depth glycopeptides analysis in Alzheimer's disease patients' serum. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1669:462929. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.462929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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9
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Tang Y, Zhang D, Gong X, Zheng J. A mechanistic survey of Alzheimer's disease. Biophys Chem 2021; 281:106735. [PMID: 34894476 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2021.106735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common, age-dependent neurodegenerative disorder. While AD has been intensively studied from different aspects, there is no effective cure for AD, largely due to a lack of a clear mechanistic understanding of AD. In this mini-review, we mainly focus on the discussion and summary of mechanistic causes of Alzheimer's disease (AD). While different AD mechanisms illustrate different molecular and cellular pathways in AD pathogenesis, they do not necessarily exclude each other. Instead, some of them could work together to initiate, trigger, and promote the onset and development of AD. In a broader viewpoint, some AD mechanisms (e.g., amyloid aggregation mechanism, microbial infection/neuroinflammation mechanism, and amyloid cross-seeding mechanism) could also be applicable to other amyloid diseases including type II diabetes, Parkinson's disease, and prion disease. Such common mechanisms for AD and other amyloid diseases explain not only the pathogenesis of individual amyloid diseases, but also the spreading of pathologies between these diseases, which will inspire new strategies for therapeutic intervention and prevention for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijing Tang
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, The University of Akron, OH, United States of America
| | - Dong Zhang
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, The University of Akron, OH, United States of America
| | - Xiong Gong
- Department of Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, OH, United States of America
| | - Jie Zheng
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, The University of Akron, OH, United States of America.
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Britton RJ, Hutchison JM, Sanders CR. The transmembrane amyloid precursor C99 protein exhibits non-specific interaction with tau. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 576:48-52. [PMID: 34481234 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.08.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Historically, the two most prominent proteins in Alzheimer's disease (AD) research have been the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the microtubule assembly protein tau. In the classical model for the etiology of AD, amyloid-β (Aβ)-an APP derivative and hyperphosphorylated tau form aggregates in the brain that underlie the pathogenesis of the disease. However, the connection between Aβ and tau pathologies remains unclear. Several studies have provided evidence that the presence of Aβ can induce or enhance neurofibrillary tangle formation by tau. Others have reported a direct interaction between tau and short fragments of the APP transmembrane domain, C99. Structural studies of C99 show that these in vitro tau-binding fragments of C99 are buried in the lipid bilayer and are likely unavailable to bind tau in vivo. Given the importance of APP and tau in AD, we sought to characterize the potential interaction of the Aβ precursor, full length C99, and tau in vitro using NMR spectroscopy. We found that C99 and soluble tau interact only weakly and, most likely, non-specifically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhett J Britton
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - James M Hutchison
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA; Chemical and Physical Biology Graduate Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA
| | - Charles R Sanders
- Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37240, USA; Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, 37232, USA.
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11
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Mitochondrial Disruption by Amyloid Beta 42 Identified by Proteomics and Pathway Mapping. Cells 2021; 10:cells10092380. [PMID: 34572029 PMCID: PMC8468661 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is marked by chronic neurodegeneration associated with the occurrence of plaques containing amyloid β (Aβ) proteins in various parts of the human brain. An increase in several Aβ fragments is well documented in patients with AD and anti-amyloid targeting is an emerging area of therapy. Soluble Aβ can bind to various cell surface and intracellular molecules with the pathogenic Aβ42 fragment leading to neurotoxicity. Here we examined the effect of Aβ42 on network adaptations in the proteome of nerve growth factor (NGF) differentiated PC12 cells using liquid-chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESI MS/MS) proteomics. Whole-cell peptide mass fingerprinting was coupled to bioinformatic gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) in order to identify differentially represented proteins and related gene ontology (GO) pathways within Aβ42 treated cells. Our results underscore a role for Aβ42 in disrupting proteome responses for signaling, bioenergetics, and morphology in mitochondria. These findings highlight the specific components of the mitochondrial response during Aβ42 neurotoxicity and suggest several new biomarkers for detection and surveillance of amyloid disease.
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12
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On the Common Journey of Neural Cells through Ischemic Brain Injury and Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22189689. [PMID: 34575845 PMCID: PMC8472292 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22189689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease (AD) both lead to cell death in the central nervous system (CNS) and thus negatively affect particularly the elderly population. Due to the lack of a definitive cure for brain ischemia and AD, it is advisable to carefully study, compare, and contrast the mechanisms that trigger, and are involved in, both neuropathologies. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms may help ameliorate, or even prevent, the destructive effects of neurodegenerative disorders. In this review, we deal with ischemic damage and AD, with the main emphasis on the common properties of these CNS disorders. Importantly, we discuss the Wnt signaling pathway as a significant factor in the cell fate determination and cell survival in the diseased adult CNS. Finally, we summarize the interesting findings that may improve or complement the current sparse and insufficient treatments for brain ischemia and AD, and we delineate prospective directions in regenerative medicine.
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13
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Reinscheid F. A new proposal for the causative agent of the sporadic form of Alzheimer's disease. Med Hypotheses 2020; 146:110453. [PMID: 33373829 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Group B streptococcus (Streptococcus agalactiae) is proposed as causative agent for the development of the sporadic form of Alzheimer's disease. Using a fibrinogen binding protein, aggregates are formed including A-beta. After triggering Alzheimer's disease by the bacterium, the next down-stream events mainly follow the well known so called A-beta hypothesis. The combination of the two hypotheses is able to explain a number of epidemiological and biochemial aspects of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frauke Reinscheid
- Institution: GoePharmResearch, Pfaffenstück 16, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
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14
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Choi YR, Park SJ, Park SM. Molecular events underlying the cell-to-cell transmission of α-synuclein. FEBS J 2020; 288:6593-6602. [PMID: 33332736 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), which is a progressive neurodegenerative disease, is associated with the formation of protein inclusion bodies called Lewy bodies (LB) or Lewy neurites (LN). α-Synuclein (α-Syn) is a major component of LB and LN. The formation of LB or LN is mediated by formation of α-Syn fibrils, which are formed from α-Syn monomers and oligomers. Additionally, intercellular α-Syn propagation has been proposed to be important for the progression of PD. Thus, various studies have focused on elucidating the role of α-Syn propagation in the pathogenesis of PD. Previous studies have reported that α-Syn species are released from the cells through various pathways, including the unconventional secretion pathways. The released α-Syn species are internalized by the cells through multiple mechanisms, including receptor-mediated endocytosis. Some molecular processes involved in intercellular α-Syn propagation have been recently elucidated. This review discusses the current studies on the molecular mechanisms underlying the release and uptake of α-Syn and their physiological relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ree Choi
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,BK21 Plus Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Soo Jin Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Sang Myun Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,BK21 Plus Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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15
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Karisetty BC, Bhatnagar A, Armour EM, Beaver M, Zhang H, Elefant F. Amyloid-β Peptide Impact on Synaptic Function and Neuroepigenetic Gene Control Reveal New Therapeutic Strategies for Alzheimer's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:577622. [PMID: 33304239 PMCID: PMC7693454 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.577622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides can form protease-resistant aggregates within and outside of neurons. Accumulation of these aggregates is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathology and contributes to devastating cognitive deficits associated with this disorder. The primary etiological factor for Aβ aggregation is either an increase in Aβ production or a decrease in its clearance. Aβ is produced by the sequential activity of β- and γ-secretase on the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the clearance is mediated by chaperone-mediated mechanisms. The Aβ aggregates vary from soluble monomers and oligomers to insoluble senile plaques. While excess intraneuronal oligomers can transduce neurotoxic signals into neurons causing cellular defects like oxidative stress and neuroepigenetic mediated transcriptional dysregulation, extracellular senile plaques cause neurodegeneration by impairing neural membrane permeabilization and cell signaling pathways. Paradoxically, senile plaque formation is hypothesized to be an adaptive mechanism to sequester excess toxic soluble oligomers while leaving native functional Aβ levels intact. This hypothesis is strengthened by the absence of positive outcomes and side effects from immunotherapy clinical trials aimed at complete Aβ clearance, and support beneficial physiological roles for native Aβ in cellular function. Aβ has been shown to modulate synaptic transmission, consolidate memory, and protect against excitotoxicity. We discuss the current understanding of beneficial and detrimental roles for Aβ in synaptic function and epigenetic gene control and the future promising prospects of early therapeutic interventions aimed at mediating Aβ induced neuroepigenetic and synaptic dysfunctions to delay AD onset.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Felice Elefant
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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16
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Wang ZX, Wan Q, Xing A. HLA in Alzheimer's Disease: Genetic Association and Possible Pathogenic Roles. Neuromolecular Med 2020; 22:464-473. [PMID: 32894413 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-020-08612-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is commonly considered as the most prominent dementing disorder globally and is characterized by the deposition of misfolded amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and the aggregation of neurofibrillary tangles. Immunological disturbances and neuroinflammation, which result from abnormal immunological reactivations, are believed to be the primary stimulating factors triggering AD-like neuropathy. It has been suggested by multiple previous studies that a bunch of AD key influencing factors might be attributed to genes encoding human leukocyte antigen (HLA), whose variety is an essential part of human adaptive immunity. A wide range of activities involved in immune responses may be determined by HLA genes, including inflammation mediated by the immune response, T-cell transendothelial migration, infection, brain development and plasticity in AD pathogenesis, and so on. The goal of this article is to review the recent epidemiological findings of HLA (mainly HLA class I and II) associated with AD and investigate to what extent the genetic variations of HLA were clinically significant as pathogenic factors for AD. Depending on the degree of contribution of HLA in AD pathogenesis, targeted research towards HLA may propel AD therapeutic strategies into a new era of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Xuan Wang
- Department of Geriatrics, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No.16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao, 266071, Shandong Province, China.
- Institute of Neuroregeneration and Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No.308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Qi Wan
- Institute of Neuroregeneration and Neurorehabilitation, Qingdao University, No.308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Department of Neurosurgery, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
- Department of Pathophysiology, Qingdao University, Qingdao, 266071, China.
| | - Ang Xing
- Department of Geriatrics, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No.16 Jiangsu Road, Qingdao, 266071, Shandong Province, China
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17
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Muralidar S, Ambi SV, Sekaran S, Thirumalai D, Palaniappan B. Role of tau protein in Alzheimer's disease: The prime pathological player. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 163:1599-1617. [PMID: 32784025 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalently found tauopathy characterized by memory loss and cognitive insufficiency. AD is an age-related neurodegenerative disease with two major hallmarks which includes extracellular amyloid plaques made of amyloid-β (Aβ) and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau. With population aging worldwide, there is an indispensable need for treatment strategies that can potentially manage this developing dementia. Despite broad researches on targeting Aβ in the past two decades, research findings on Aβ targeted therapeutics failed to prove efficacy in the treatment of AD. Tau protein with its extensive pathological role in several neurodegenerative diseases can be considered as a promising target candidate for developing therapeutic interventions. The abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau plays detrimental pathological functions which ultimately lead to neurodegeneration. This review will divulge the importance of tau in AD pathogenesis, the interplay of Aβ and tau, the pathological functions of tau, and potential therapeutic strategies for an effective management of neuronal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shibi Muralidar
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Senthil Visaga Ambi
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Saravanan Sekaran
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India; Centre for Nanotechnology & Advanced Biomaterials (CeNTAB), School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Diraviyam Thirumalai
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Balamurugan Palaniappan
- School of Chemical and Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed-to-be-University, Thanjavur 613401, Tamil Nadu, India
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18
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Folch J, Olloquequi J, Ettcheto M, Busquets O, Sánchez-López E, Cano A, Espinosa-Jiménez T, García ML, Beas-Zarate C, Casadesús G, Bulló M, Auladell C, Camins A. The Involvement of Peripheral and Brain Insulin Resistance in Late Onset Alzheimer's Dementia. Front Aging Neurosci 2019; 11:236. [PMID: 31551756 PMCID: PMC6743006 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2019.00236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe sociological and clinical problem. Since it was first described, there has been a constant increase in its incidence and, for now, there are no effective treatments since current approved medications have only shown short-term symptomatic benefits. Therefore, it is imperative to increase efforts in the search for molecules and non-pharmacological strategies that are capable of slowing or stopping the progress of the disease and, ideally, to reverse it. The amyloid cascade hypothesis based on the fundamental role of amyloid has been the central hypothesis in the last 30 years. However, since amyloid-directed treatments have shown no relevant beneficial results other theories have been postulated to explain the origin of the pathology. The brain is a highly metabolically active energy-consuming tissue in the human body. It has an almost complete dependence on the metabolism of glucose and uses most of its energy for synaptic transmission. Thus, alterations on the utilization or availability of glucose may be cause for the appearance of neurodegenerative pathologies like AD. In this review article, the hypothesis known as Type 3 Diabetes (T3D) will be evaluated by summarizing some of the data that has been reported in recent years. According to published research, the adherence over time to low saturated fatty acids diets in the context of the Mediterranean diet would reduce the inflammatory levels in brain, with a decrease in the pro-inflammatory glial activation and mitochondrial oxidative stress. In this situation, the insulin receptor pathway would be able to fine tune the mitochondrial biogenesis in neuronal cells, regulation the adenosine triphosphate/adenosine diphosphate intracellular balance, and becoming a key factor involved in the preservation of the synaptic connexions and neuronal plasticity. In addition, new targets and strategies for the treatment of AD will be considered in this review for their potential as new pharmacological or non-pharmacological approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Folch
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Rovira i Virgili (URV), Reus, Spain.,Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Zoologisches Institut, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.,Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Olloquequi
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca, Chile
| | - Miren Ettcheto
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Rovira i Virgili (URV), Reus, Spain.,Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia, Toxicologia i Química Terapèutica, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oriol Busquets
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Rovira i Virgili (URV), Reus, Spain.,Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia, Toxicologia i Química Terapèutica, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Sánchez-López
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Unitat de Farmàcia, Tecnologia Farmacèutica i Fisico-Química, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Amanda Cano
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Unitat de Farmàcia, Tecnologia Farmacèutica i Fisico-Química, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Triana Espinosa-Jiménez
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia, Toxicologia i Química Terapèutica, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Luisa García
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Unitat de Farmàcia, Tecnologia Farmacèutica i Fisico-Química, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (IN2UB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Beas-Zarate
- Laboratorio de Regeneración y Desarrollo Neural, Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, CUCBA, Guadalajar, México
| | - Gemma Casadesús
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Mónica Bulló
- Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, University Rovira i Virgili (URV), Reus, Spain.,Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Carme Auladell
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y la Nutrición (CIBEROBN), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Antoni Camins
- Biomedical Research Networking Centre in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia, Toxicologia i Química Terapèutica, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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19
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Pérez de Vega MJ, Fernandez-Mendivil C, de la Torre Martínez R, González-Rodríguez S, Mullet J, Sala F, Sala S, Criado M, Moreno-Fernández S, Miguel M, Fernández-Carvajal A, Ferrer-Montiel A, López MG, González-Muñiz R. 1-(2',5'-Dihydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanone (RGM079): A Positive Allosteric Modulator of α7 Nicotinic Receptors with Analgesic and Neuroprotective Activity. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:3900-3909. [PMID: 31322853 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetylcholine α7 nicotinic receptors are widely expressed in the brain, where they are involved in the central processing of pain as well as in neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, and inflammatory processes. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) show the advantage of allowing the selective regulation of different subtypes of acetylcholine receptors without directly interacting with the agonist binding site. Here, we report the preparation and biological activity of a fluoro-containing compound, 1-(2',5'-dihydroxyphenyl)-3-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-propanone (8, RGM079), that behaves as a potent PAM of the α7 receptors and has a balanced pharmacokinetic profile and antioxidant properties comparable or even higher than well-known natural polyphenols. In addition, compound RGM079 shows neuroprotective properties in Alzheimer's disease (AD)-toxicity related models. Thus, it causes a concentration-dependent neuroprotective effect against the toxicity induced by okadaic acid (OA) in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Similarly, in primary cultures of rat cortical neurons, RGM079 is able to restore the cellular viability after exposure to OA and amyloid peptide Aβ1-42, with cell death almost completely prevented at 10 and 30 μM, respectively. Finally, compound RGM079 shows in vivo analgesic activity in the complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced paw inflammation model after intraperitoneal administration.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cristina Fernandez-Mendivil
- Instituto Teófilo Hernando, Department of Pharmacology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, Madrid 28029, Spain
| | - Roberto de la Torre Martínez
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, Elche, Alicante 03202, Spain
| | - Sara González-Rodríguez
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, Elche, Alicante 03202, Spain
| | - José Mullet
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Alicante 03500, Spain
| | - Francisco Sala
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Alicante 03500, Spain
| | - Salvador Sala
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Alicante 03500, Spain
| | - Manuel Criado
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad Miguel Hernández-CSIC, Sant Joan d’Alacant, Alicante 03500, Spain
| | - Silvia Moreno-Fernández
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CSIC-UAM), C/Nicolás Cabrera 9, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Marta Miguel
- Instituto de Investigación en Ciencias de la Alimentación (CSIC-UAM), C/Nicolás Cabrera 9, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Asia Fernández-Carvajal
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, Elche, Alicante 03202, Spain
| | - Antonio Ferrer-Montiel
- Instituto de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación en Biotecnología Sanitaria de Elche (IDiBE), Universidad Miguel Hernández, Avenida de la Universidad s/n, Elche, Alicante 03202, Spain
| | - Manuela G. López
- Instituto Teófilo Hernando, Department of Pharmacology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Arzobispo Morcillo 4, Madrid 28029, Spain
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20
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Castro MA, Hadziselimovic A, Sanders CR. The vexing complexity of the amyloidogenic pathway. Protein Sci 2019; 28:1177-1193. [PMID: 30897251 PMCID: PMC6566549 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The role of the amyloidogenic pathway in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), particularly the common sporadic late onset forms of the disease, is controversial. To some degree, this is a consequence of the failure of drug and therapeutic antibody trials based either on targeting the proteases in this pathway or its amyloid end products. Here, we explore the formidable complexity of the biochemistry and cell biology associated with this pathway. For example, we review evidence that the immediate precursor of amyloid-β, the C99 domain of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), may itself be toxic. We also review important new results that appear to finally establish a direct genetic link between mutations in APP and the sporadic forms of AD. Based on the complexity of amyloidogenesis, it seems possible that a major contributor to the failure of related drug trials is that we have an incomplete understanding of this pathway and how it is linked to Alzheimer's pathogenesis. If so, this highlights a need for further characterization of this pathway, not its abandonment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel A. Castro
- Departments of Biochemistry and MedicineVanderbilt University School of MedicineNashvilleTennessee 37240
| | - Arina Hadziselimovic
- Departments of Biochemistry and MedicineVanderbilt University School of MedicineNashvilleTennessee 37240
| | - Charles R. Sanders
- Departments of Biochemistry and MedicineVanderbilt University School of MedicineNashvilleTennessee 37240
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21
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Israel LL, Braubach O, Galstyan A, Chiechi A, Shatalova ES, Grodzinski Z, Ding H, Black KL, Ljubimova JY, Holler E. A Combination of Tri-Leucine and Angiopep-2 Drives a Polyanionic Polymalic Acid Nanodrug Platform Across the Blood-Brain Barrier. ACS NANO 2019; 13:1253-1271. [PMID: 30633492 PMCID: PMC7641102 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b06437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
One of the major problems facing the treatment of neurological disorders is the poor delivery of therapeutic agents into the brain. Our goal is to develop a multifunctional and biodegradable nanodrug delivery system that crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to access brain tissues affected by neurological disease. In this study, we synthesized a biodegradable nontoxic β-poly(l-malic acid) (PMLA or P) as a scaffold to chemically bind the BBB crossing peptides Angiopep-2 (AP2), MiniAp-4 (M4), and the transferrin receptor ligands cTfRL and B6. In addition, a trileucine endosome escape unit (LLL) and a fluorescent marker (rhodamine or rh) were attached to the PMLA backbone. The pharmacokinetics, BBB penetration, and biodistribution of nanoconjugates were studied in different brain regions and at multiple time points via optical imaging. The optimal nanoconjugate, P/LLL/AP2/rh, produced significant fluorescence in the parenchyma of cortical layers II/III, the midbrain colliculi, and the hippocampal CA1-3 cellular layers 30 min after a single intravenous injection; clearance was observed after 4 h. The nanoconjugate variant P/LLL/rh lacking AP2, or the variant P/AP2/rh lacking LLL, showed significantly less BBB penetration. The LLL moiety appeared to stabilize the nanoconjugate, while AP2 enhanced BBB penetration. Finally, nanoconjugates containing the peptides M4, cTfRL, and B6 displayed comparably little and/or inconsistent infiltration of brain parenchyma, likely due to reduced trans-BBB movement. P/LLL/AP2/rh can now be functionalized with intra-brain targeting and drug treatment moieties that are aimed at molecular pathways implicated in neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liron L. Israel
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Oliver Braubach
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Anna Galstyan
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Antonella Chiechi
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Ekaterina S. Shatalova
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Zachary Grodzinski
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Hui Ding
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Keith L. Black
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Julia Y. Ljubimova
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
| | - Eggehard Holler
- Nanomedicine Research Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Los Angeles, California 90048, United States
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22
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Farfán-García ED, Márquez-Gómez R, Barrón-González M, Pérez-Capistran T, Rosales-Hernández MC, Pinto-Almazán R, Soriano-Ursúa MA. Monoamines and their Derivatives on GPCRs: Potential Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2019; 16:871-894. [PMID: 30963972 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x17666190409144558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Albeit cholinergic depletion remains the key event in Alzheimer's Disease (AD), recent information describes stronger links between monoamines (trace amines, catecholamines, histamine, serotonin, and melatonin) and AD than those known in the past century. Therefore, new drug design strategies focus efforts to translate the scope on these topics and to offer new drugs which can be applied as therapeutic tools in AD. In the present work, we reviewed the state-of-art regarding genetic, neuropathology and neurochemistry of AD involving monoamine systems. Then, we compiled the effects of monoamines found in the brain of mammals as well as the reported effects of their derivatives and some structure-activity relationships. Recent derivatives have triggered exciting effects and pharmacokinetic properties in both murine models and humans. In some cases, the mechanism of action is clear, essentially through the interaction on G-protein-coupled receptors as revised in this manuscript. Additional mechanisms are inhibition of enzymes for their biotransformation, regulation of free-radicals in the central nervous system and others for the effects on Tau phosphorylation or amyloid-beta accumulation. All these data make the monoamines and their derivatives attractive potential elements for AD therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice D Farfán-García
- Departamento de Fisiologia y Bioquimica. Seccion de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigacion, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Diaz Miron s/n, 11340, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ricardo Márquez-Gómez
- MRC Anatomical Neuropharmacology Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, OX1 3TH, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Mónica Barrón-González
- Departamento de Fisiologia y Bioquimica. Seccion de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigacion, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Diaz Miron s/n, 11340, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Teresa Pérez-Capistran
- Departamento de Fisiologia y Bioquimica. Seccion de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigacion, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Diaz Miron s/n, 11340, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Martha C Rosales-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Biofisica y Biocatalisis, Seccion de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigacion Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Diaz Miron s/n, 11340, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodolfo Pinto-Almazán
- Unidad de Investigacion Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad Ixtapaluca, Carretera Federal Mexico-Puebla km 34.5, C.P. 56530. Ixtapaluca, State of Mexico, Mexico
| | - Marvin A Soriano-Ursúa
- Departamento de Fisiologia y Bioquimica. Seccion de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigacion, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Diaz Miron s/n, 11340, Mexico City, Mexico
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Lima JA, Hamerski L. Alkaloids as Potential Multi-Target Drugs to Treat Alzheimer's Disease. STUDIES IN NATURAL PRODUCTS CHEMISTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64183-0.00008-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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Morsy A, Trippier PC. Current and Emerging Pharmacological Targets for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 72:S145-S176. [PMID: 31594236 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
No cure or disease-modifying therapy for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has yet been realized. However, a multitude of pharmacological targets have been identified for possible engagement to enable drug discovery efforts for AD. Herein, we review these targets comprised around three main therapeutic strategies. First is an approach that targets the main pathological hallmarks of AD: amyloid-β (Aβ) oligomers and hyperphosphorylated tau tangles which primarily focuses on reducing formation and aggregation, and/or inducing their clearance. Second is a strategy that modulates neurotransmitter signaling. Comprising this strategy are the cholinesterase inhibitors and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blockade treatments that are clinically approved for the symptomatic treatment of AD. Additional targets that aim to stabilize neuron signaling through modulation of neurotransmitters and their receptors are also discussed. Finally, the third approach comprises a collection of 'sensitive targets' that indirectly influence Aβ or tau accumulation. These targets are proteins that upon Aβ accumulation in the brain or direct Aβ-target interaction, a modification in the target's function is induced. The process occurs early in disease progression, ultimately causing neuronal dysfunction. This strategy aims to restore normal target function to alleviate Aβ-induced toxicity in neurons. Overall, we generally limit our analysis to targets that have emerged in the last decade and targets that have been validated using small molecules in in vitro and/or in vivo models. This review is not an exhaustive list of all possible targets for AD but serves to highlight the most promising and critical targets suitable for small molecule drug intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Morsy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Paul C Trippier
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Amarillo, TX, USA
- UNMC Center for Drug Discovery, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE, USA
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25
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Chen Y, Fu AKY, Ip NY. Synaptic dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 195:186-198. [PMID: 30439458 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent neurodegenerative disease in the elderly population, is characterized by progressive cognitive decline and pathological hallmarks of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. However, its pathophysiological mechanisms are poorly understood, and diagnostic tools and interventions are limited. Here, we review recent research on the amyloid hypothesis and beta-amyloid-induced dysfunction of neuronal synapses through distinct cell surface receptors. We also review how tau protein leads to synaptotoxicity through pathological modification, localization, and propagation. Finally, we discuss experimental therapeutics for AD and propose potential applications of disease-modifying strategies targeting synaptic failure for improved treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
| | - Amy K Y Fu
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience and Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.
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26
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Mulcahy MJ, Paulo JA, Hawrot E. Proteomic Investigation of Murine Neuronal α7-Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Interacting Proteins. J Proteome Res 2018; 17:3959-3975. [PMID: 30285449 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.8b00618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR) is a ligand-gated ion channel that is expressed widely in vertebrates and is the principal high-affinity α-bungarotoxin (α-bgtx) binding protein in the mammalian CNS. α7-nAChRs associate with proteins that can modulate its properties. The α7-nAChR interactome is the summation of proteins interacting or associating with α7-nAChRs in a protein complex. To identify an α7-nAChR interactome in neural tissue, we isolated α-bgtx-affinity protein complexes from wild-type and α7-nAChR knockout (α7 KO) mouse whole brain tissue homogenates using α-bgtx-affinity beads. Affinity precipitated proteins were trypsinized and analyzed with an Orbitrap Fusion mass spectrometer. Proteins isolated with the α7-nAChR specific ligand, α-bgtx, were determined to be α7-nAChR associated proteins. The α7-nAChR subunit and 120 additional proteins were identified. Additionally, 369 proteins were identified as binding to α-bgtx in the absence of α7-nAChR expression, thereby identifying nonspecific proteins for α7-nAChR investigations using α-bgtx enrichment. These results expand on our previous investigations of α7-nAChR interacting proteins using α-bgtx-affinity bead isolation by controlling for differences between α7-nAChR and α-bgtx-specific proteins, developing an improved protein isolation methodology, and incorporating the latest technology in mass spectrometry. The α7-nAChR interactome identified in this study includes proteins associated with the expression, localization, function, or modulation of α7-nAChRs, and it provides a foundation for future studies to elucidate how these interactions contribute to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Mulcahy
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering , California Institute of Technology , 1200 East California Boulevard , Pasadena , California 91125-2900 , United States.,Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology , Brown University , Providence , Rhode Island 02912 , United States
| | - Joao A Paulo
- Department of Cell Biology , Harvard Medical School , 240 Longwood Avenue , Boston , Massachusetts 02115 , United States
| | - Edward Hawrot
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Physiology and Biotechnology , Brown University , Providence , Rhode Island 02912 , United States
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Irisin Exerts Neuroprotective Effects on Cultured Neurons by Regulating Astrocytes. Mediators Inflamm 2018; 2018:9070341. [PMID: 30356412 PMCID: PMC6178172 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9070341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 08/12/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurons suffer detrimental effects from β-amyloid toxicity in Alzheimer's disease. The exercise hormone, irisin, is found to induce a neuroprotective gene program and facilitates the beneficial effects on cognitive function. But no effort is made to test its direct protective effects on neurons against the Aβ-induced cell toxicity so far. In the present study, we investigated whether irisin could protect neurons against Aβ- (25-35) induced cell damage and explored the possible underlying mechanisms. Primary cell cultures of astrocytes and neurons were established. Conditioned medium from astrocyte was collected for the treatment and biochemistry assay study. To explore the protein expression changes, Western blot and ELISA assays were used in these in vitro cell culture models. Exposure of hippocampal neurons to 10 μM Aβ (25-35) caused significant reduction on cell viability, and the toxic effect was not significantly reduced by the coadministration of irisin. However, pretreated astrocyte-conditioned medium with irisin for 12 hours notably protected the neurons from the toxicity of Aβ. Also, we found that irisin could attenuate the release of IL-6 and IL-1β from cultured astrocytes and decrease the expression level of COX-2 and phosphorylation of AKT. Last, we found that irisin could reduce NFκB activation in astrocyte exposed to Aβ by preventing the phosphorylation and the loss of IκBα. Our finding may provide novel evidence for the future application of irisin in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and the memory dysfunction in diabetes mellitus.
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Quetiapine prevents Aβ25-35-induced cell death in cultured neuron by enhancing brain-derived neurotrophic factor release from astrocyte. Neuroreport 2018; 29:92-98. [PMID: 29120942 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
β-Amyloid (Aβ)-induced neuronal toxicity is an early event in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Quetiapine (QTP) is an atypical antipsychotic drug that has neuroprotectant properties, but little is known about its direct protective effects on neurons against the Aβ-induced cell toxicity. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of QTP on Aβ25-35-induced cell death and the possible underlying mechanisms in primary cultures of neurons. Exposure of cortical neurons to 10 μM or more Aβ25-35 caused significant viability loss in a MTT assay, and the toxic effects were not significantly prevented by the simultaneous coadministration of QTP. However, pretreated astrocyte conditioned medium (ACM) with QTP (ACMQTP) for 24 h markedly protected the neurons against the amyloid-induced cell loss. Furthermore, we revealed that QTP increased both the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor from cultured astrocytes and the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase after 24 h of treatment, which might be responsible for its protective effects on neurons. Consistent with the aforementioned findings, the protective effects of ACM on neurons could potentially be abolished by the extracellular signal-regulated kinase inhibitor and tropomyosin receptor kinase B receptor blocker. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that QTP exerted its neuroprotective effects against amyloid toxicity by enhancing the brain-derived neurotrophic factor release from astrocytes.
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29
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Foroutanpay B, Kumar J, Kang S, Danaei N, Westaway D, Sim V, Kar S. The Effects of N-terminal Mutations on β-amyloid Peptide Aggregation and Toxicity. Neuroscience 2018; 379:177-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Wang X, Kastanenka KV, Arbel-Ornath M, Commins C, Kuzuya A, Lariviere AJ, Krafft GA, Hefti F, Jerecic J, Bacskai BJ. An acute functional screen identifies an effective antibody targeting amyloid-β oligomers based on calcium imaging. Sci Rep 2018; 8:4634. [PMID: 29545579 PMCID: PMC5854710 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-22979-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble amyloid β oligomers (AβOs) are widely recognized neurotoxins that trigger aberrant signaling in specific subsets of neurons, leading to accumulated neuronal damage and memory disorders in Alzheimer's disease (AD). One of the profound downstream consequences of AβO-triggered events is dysregulation of cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i), which has been implicated in synaptic failure, cytoskeletal abnormalities, and eventually neuronal death. We have developed an in vitro/in vivo drug screening assay to evaluate putative AβO-blocking candidates by measuring AβO-induced real-time changes in [Ca2+]i. Our screening assay demonstrated that the anti-AβO monoclonal antibody ACU3B3 exhibits potent blocking capability against a broad size range of AβOs. We showed that picomolar concentrations of AβOs were capable of increasing [Ca2+]i in primary neuronal cultures, an effect prevented by ACU3B3. Topical application of 5 nM AβOs onto exposed cortical surfaces also elicited significant calcium elevations in vivo, which was completely abolished by pre-treatment of the brain with 1 ng/mL (6.67 pM) ACU3B3. Our results provide strong support for the utility of this functional screening assay in identifying and confirming the efficacy of AβO-blocking drug candidates such as the human homolog of ACU3B3, which may emerge as the first experimental AD therapeutic to validate the amyloid oligomer hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueying Wang
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
- Harvard University, Center for Brain Science, 52 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Ksenia V Kastanenka
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Michal Arbel-Ornath
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Caitlin Commins
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Akira Kuzuya
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Amanda J Lariviere
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Grant A Krafft
- Acumen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4435 North First Street, #360, Livermore, CA, 94551, USA
| | - Franz Hefti
- Acumen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4435 North First Street, #360, Livermore, CA, 94551, USA
| | - Jasna Jerecic
- Acumen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 4435 North First Street, #360, Livermore, CA, 94551, USA.
| | - Brian J Bacskai
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Neurology, 114 16th Street, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA.
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Purro SA, Nicoll AJ, Collinge J. Prion Protein as a Toxic Acceptor of Amyloid-β Oligomers. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:358-368. [PMID: 29331212 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The initial report that cellular prion protein (PrPC) mediates toxicity of amyloid-β species linked to Alzheimer's disease was initially treated with scepticism, but growing evidence supports this claim. That there is a high-affinity interaction is now clear, and its molecular basis is being unraveled, while recent studies have identified possible downstream toxic mechanisms. Determination of the clinical significance of such interactions between PrPC and disease-associated amyloid-β species will require experimental medicine studies in humans. Trials of compounds that inhibit PrP-dependent amyloid-β toxicity are commencing in humans, and although it is clear that only a fraction of Alzheimer's disease toxicity could be governed by PrPC, a partial, but still therapeutically useful, role in human disease may soon be testable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia A Purro
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit, Institute of Prion Diseases, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J Nicoll
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit, Institute of Prion Diseases, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom; Elkington and Fife LLP, Kent, United Kingdom.
| | - John Collinge
- Medical Research Council Prion Unit, Institute of Prion Diseases, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom.
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32
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Choi YR, Cha SH, Kang SJ, Kim JB, Jou I, Park SM. Prion-like Propagation of α-Synuclein Is Regulated by the FcγRIIB-SHP-1/2 Signaling Pathway in Neurons. Cell Rep 2018; 22:136-148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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33
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Kargbo RB. Allosteric Modulators of the M4 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor. ACS Med Chem Lett 2017; 8:903-904. [PMID: 28947932 PMCID: PMC5601365 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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Rubenstein R, Chang B, Grinkina N, Drummond E, Davies P, Ruditzky M, Sharma D, Wang K, Wisniewski T. Tau phosphorylation induced by severe closed head traumatic brain injury is linked to the cellular prion protein. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2017; 5:30. [PMID: 28420443 PMCID: PMC5395835 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-017-0435-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies in vivo and in vitro have suggested that the mechanism underlying Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathogenesis is initiated by an interaction between the cellular prion protein (PrPC) and amyloid-β oligomers (Aβo). This PrPC-Aβo complex activates Fyn kinase which, in turn, hyperphosphorylates tau (P-Tau) resulting in synaptic dysfunction, neuronal loss and cognitive deficits. AD transgenic mice lacking PrPC accumulate Aβ, but show normal survival and no loss of spatial learning and memory suggesting that PrPC functions downstream of Aβo production but upstream of intracellular toxicity within neurons. Since AD and traumatic brain injury (TBI)-linked chronic traumatic encephalopathy are tauopathies, we examined whether similar mechanistic pathways are responsible for both AD and TBI pathophysiologies. Using transgenic mice expressing different levels of PrPC, our studies investigated the influence and necessity of PrPC on biomarker (total-tau [T-Tau], P-Tau, GFAP) levels in brain and blood as measured biochemically following severe TBI in the form of severe closed head injury (sCHI). We found that following sCHI, increasing levels of T-Tau and P-Tau in the brain were associated with the PrPC expression levels. A similar relationship between PrPC expression and P-Tau levels following sCHI were found in blood in the absence of significant T-Tau changes. This effect was not seen with GFAP which increased within 24 h following sCHI and progressively decreased by the 7 day time point regardless of the PrPC expression levels. Changes in the levels of all biomarkers were independent of gender. We further enhanced and expanded the quantitation of brain biomarkers with correlative studies using immunohisochemistry. We also demonstrate that a TBI-induced calpain hyperactivation is not required for the generation of P-Tau. A relationship was demonstrated between the presence/absence of PrPC, the levels of P-Tau and cognitive dysfunction. Our studies suggest that PrPC is important in mediating TBI related pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Rubenstein
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases and CNS Biomarker Discovery, Departments of Neurology and Physiology/ Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Box #1213, Brooklyn, 11203-2098, NY, USA.
| | - Binggong Chang
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases and CNS Biomarker Discovery, Departments of Neurology and Physiology/ Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Box #1213, Brooklyn, 11203-2098, NY, USA
| | - Natalia Grinkina
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases and CNS Biomarker Discovery, Departments of Neurology and Physiology/ Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Box #1213, Brooklyn, 11203-2098, NY, USA
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Center for Cognitive Neurology and Department of Neurology, New York University School of Medicine, Alexandria ERSP, 450 East 29th Street, New York, 10016, NY, USA
| | - Peter Davies
- Litwin-Zucker Center for Research in Alzheimer's Disease, Feinstein Institute for Medical Research, Manhasset, 11030, NY, USA
| | - Meir Ruditzky
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases and CNS Biomarker Discovery, Departments of Neurology and Physiology/ Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Box #1213, Brooklyn, 11203-2098, NY, USA
| | - Deep Sharma
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases and CNS Biomarker Discovery, Departments of Neurology and Physiology/ Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Box #1213, Brooklyn, 11203-2098, NY, USA
| | - Kevin Wang
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics and Biomarker Research, Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611, FL, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Center for Cognitive Neurology and Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, Alexandria ERSP, 450 East 29th Street, New York, 10016, NY, USA
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35
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Li Y, Sun Z, Cao Q, Chen M, Luo H, Lin X, Xiao F. Role of amyloid β protein receptors in mediating synaptic plasticity. Biomed Rep 2017; 6:379-386. [PMID: 28413635 PMCID: PMC5374942 DOI: 10.3892/br.2017.863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
There are few diseases in modern biomedicine that have garnered as much scientific interest and public concern as Alzheimer's disease (AD). The amyloid hypothesis has become the dominant model of AD pathogenesis; however, the details of the hypothesis are changing over time. Recently, given the increasing recognition, subtle effects of amyloid β protein (Aβ) on synaptic efficacy may be critical to AD progression. Synaptic plasticity is the important neurochemical foundation of learning and memory. Recent studies have identified that soluble Aβ oligomers combine with certain receptors to impair synaptic plasticity in AD, which advanced the amyloid hypothesis. The aim of the present review was to summarize the role of Aβ-relevant receptors in regulating synaptic plasticity and their downstream signaling cascades, which may provide novel insights into the understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and the development of therapeutic strategies to slow down the progression of AD-associated memory decline in the early stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Zhongqing Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Qiaoyu Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Meiwan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau 999078, P.R. China
| | - Huanmin Luo
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Xi Lin
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
| | - Fei Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, P.R. China
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36
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Tanokashira D, Mamada N, Yamamoto F, Taniguchi K, Tamaoka A, Lakshmana MK, Araki W. The neurotoxicity of amyloid β-protein oligomers is reversible in a primary neuron model. Mol Brain 2017; 10:4. [PMID: 28137266 PMCID: PMC5282621 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-016-0284-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized by the accumulation of extracellular amyloid β-protein (Aβ) and intracellular hyperphosphorylated tau proteins. Recent evidence suggests that soluble Aβ oligomers elicit neurotoxicity and synaptotoxicity, including tau abnormalities, and play an initiating role in the development of AD pathology. In this study, we focused on the unclarified issue of whether the neurotoxicity of Aβ oligomers is a reversible process. Using a primary neuron culture model, we examined whether the neurotoxic effects induced by 2-day treatment with Aβ42 oligomers (Aβ-O) are reversible during a subsequent 2-day withdrawal period. Aβ-O treatment resulted in activation of caspase-3 and eIF2α, effects that were considerably attenuated following Aβ-O removal. Immunocytochemical analyses revealed that Aβ-O induced aberrant phosphorylation and caspase-mediated cleavage of tau, both of which were mostly reversed by Aβ-O removal. Furthermore, Aβ-O caused intraneuronal dislocation of β-catenin protein and a reduction in its levels, and these alterations were partially reversed upon Aβ-O withdrawal. The dislocation of β-catenin appeared to reflect synaptic disorganization. These findings indicate that removal of extracellular Aβ-O can fully or partially reverse Aβ-O-induced neurotoxic alterations in our neuron model. Accordingly, we propose that the induction of neurotoxicity by Aβ oligomers is a reversible process, which has important implications for the development of AD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Tanokashira
- Department of Demyelinating Disease and Aging, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Naomi Mamada
- Department of Demyelinating Disease and Aging, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Fumiko Yamamoto
- Department of Demyelinating Disease and Aging, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan.,Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Kaori Taniguchi
- Department of Demyelinating Disease and Aging, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan
| | - Akira Tamaoka
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8575, Japan
| | - Madepalli K Lakshmana
- Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies, Port St. Lucie, 34987-2352, Florida, USA
| | - Wataru Araki
- Department of Demyelinating Disease and Aging, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), Kodaira, Tokyo, 187-8502, Japan.
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Ricciarelli R, Fedele E. The Amyloid Cascade Hypothesis in Alzheimer's Disease: It's Time to Change Our Mind. Curr Neuropharmacol 2017; 15:926-935. [PMID: 28093977 PMCID: PMC5652035 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170116143743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery in 1984, the beta amyloid peptide has treaded the boards of neurosciences as the star molecule in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. In the last decade, however, this vision has been challenged by evidence-based medicine showing the almost complete failure of clinical trials that experimented anti-amyloid therapies with great hopes. Moreover, data have accumulated which clearly indicate that this small peptide plays a key role in the physiological processes of memory formation. In the present review, we will discuss the different aspects of the amyloid cascade hypothesis, highlighting its pros and cons, and we will analyse the results of the therapeutic approaches attempted to date that should change the direction of Alzheimer's disease research in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Ricciarelli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of General Pathology, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Ernesto Fedele
- Department of Pharmacy, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
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38
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Forloni G, Artuso V, La Vitola P, Balducci C. Oligomeropathies and pathogenesis of Alzheimer and Parkinson's diseases. Mov Disord 2016; 31:771-81. [DOI: 10.1002/mds.26624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gianluigi Forloni
- Departement of Neuroscience; IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri,”; Milano Italy
| | | | - Pietro La Vitola
- Departement of Neuroscience; IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri,”; Milano Italy
| | - Claudia Balducci
- Departement of Neuroscience; IRCCS, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche “Mario Negri,”; Milano Italy
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative illness associated with dementia and is most prevalent among the elderly population. Current medications can only treat symptoms. Alkaloids are structurally diverse and have been an important source of therapeutics for various brain disorders. Two US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for AD, galantamine and rivastigmine, are in fact alkaloids. In addition, clinical trials of four other extensively studied alkaloids-huperzine A, caffeine, nicotine, and indomethacin-have been conducted but do not convincingly demonstrate their clinical efficacy for AD. Interestingly, rhynchophylline, a known neuroprotective alkaloid, was recently discovered by in silico screening as an inhibitor of EphA4, a novel target for AD. Here, we review the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying AD, current treatment strategies, and therapeutic potential of several selected plant alkaloids in AD, highlighting their various drug targets and the key supportive preclinical and clinical studies. Future research should include more rigorous clinical studies of the most promising alkaloids, the further development of recently discovered candidate alkaloids, and the continual search for new alkaloids for relevant drug targets. It remains promising that an alkaloid drug candidate could significantly affect the progression of AD in addition to providing symptomatic relief.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Pong Ng
- Division of Life Science, Molecular Neuroscience Center, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China
| | - Terry Cho Tsun Or
- Division of Life Science, Molecular Neuroscience Center, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, Molecular Neuroscience Center, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Hong Kong, China.
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