Thiacremonone Potentiates Anti-Oxidant Effects to Improve Memory Dysfunction in an APP/PS1 Transgenic Mice Model

Gastrodin ameliorates synaptic impairment, mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in N2a/APP cells

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by abnormal β-amyloid and tau accumulation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and synaptic dysfunction. Here, we aimed to assess the mechanisms and signalling pathways in the neuroprotective effect of gastrodin, a phenolic glycoside, on murine neuroblastoma N2a cells expressing human Swedish mutant APP (N2a/APP). We found that gastrodin increased the levels of presynaptic-SNAP, synaptophysin, and postsynaptic-PSD95 and reduced phospho-tau Ser396, APP and Aβ1-42 levels in N2a/APP cells. Gastrodin treatment reduced reactive oxygen species generation, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial fragmentation and DNA oxidation; restored mitochondrial membrane potential and intracellular ATP production. Upregulated phospho-GSK-3β and reduced phospho-ERK and phospho-JNK were involved in the protective effect of gastrodin. In conclusion, we demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of gastrodin in the N2a/APP cell line by ameliorating the impairment on synaptic and mitochondrial function, reducing tau phosphorylation, Aβ1-42 levels as well as reactive oxygen species generation. These results provide new mechanistic insights into the potential effect of gastrodin in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Using the concept of food as medicine to mitigate inflammation in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis

The most common kidney replacement therapy (KRT) worldwide is hemodialysis (HD), and only 5%-10% of patients are prescribed peritoneal dialysis (PD) as KRT. Despite PD being a different method, these patients also present particular complications, such as oxidative stress, gut dysbiosis, premature aging, and mitochondrial dysfunction, leading to an inflammation process and high cardiovascular mortality risk. Although recent studies have reported nutritional strategies in patients undergoing HD with attempts to mitigate these complications, more information must be needed for PD patients. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive analysis of recent studies of nutritional intervention to mitigate inflammation in PD patients.

Unveiling the Significance of Peroxiredoxin 6 in Central Nervous System Disorders

Peroxiredoxin 6 (Prdx6), a unique 1-Cys member of the peroxiredoxin family, exhibits peroxidase activity, phospholipase activity, and lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase (LPCAT) activity. Prdx6 has been known to be an important enzyme for the maintenance of lipid peroxidation repair, cellular metabolism, inflammatory signaling, and antioxidant damage. Growing research has demonstrated that the altered activity of this enzyme is linked with various pathological processes including central nervous system (CNS) disorders. This review discusses the distinctive structure, enzyme activity, and function of Prdx6 in different CNS disorders, as well as emphasizing the significance of Prdx6 in neurological disorders.

Dihydromyricetin confers cerebroprotection against subarachnoid hemorrhage via the Nrf2-dependent Prx2 signaling cascade

BACKGROUND

Several clinical and experimental studies have shown that therapeutic strategies targeting oxidative damage are beneficial for subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). A brain-permeable flavonoid, dihydromyricetin (DHM), can modulate redox/oxidative stress and has cerebroprotective effects in several neurological disorders. The effects of DHM on post-SAH early brain injury (EBI) and the underlying mechanism have yet to be clarified.

PURPOSE

This work investigated a potential role for DHM in SAH, together with the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

Cerebroprotection by DHM was studied using a SAH rat model and primary cortical neurons. Atorvastatin (Ato) was a positive control drug in this investigation. The effects of DHM on behavior after SAH were evaluated by performing the neurological rotarod and Morris water maze tests, as well as by examining its effects on brain morphology and on the molecular and functional phenotypes of primary cortical neurons using dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), immunofluorescent staining, biochemical analysis, and Western blot.

RESULTS

DHM was found to significantly reduce the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS), suppress mitochondrial disruption, and increase intrinsic antioxidant enzymatic activity following SAH. DHM also significantly reduced neuronal apoptosis in SAH rats and improved short- and long-term neurological functions. DHM induced significant increases in peroxiredoxin 2 (Prx2) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression, while decreasing phosphorylation of p38 and apoptotic signal-regulated kinase 1 (ASK1). In contrast, reduction of Prx2 expression using small interfering ribonucleic acid or by inhibiting Nrf2 with ML385 attenuated the neuroprotective effect of DHM against SAH. Moreover, DHM dose-dependently inhibited oxidative damage, decreased neuronal apoptosis, and increased the viability of primary cultured neurons in vitro. These positive effects were associated with Nrf2 activation and stimulation of Prx2 signaling, whereas ML385 attenuated the beneficial effects.

CONCLUSION

These results reveal that DHM protects against SAH primarily by modulating the Prx2 signaling cascade through the Nrf2-dependent pathway. Hence, DHM could be a valuable therapeutic candidate for SAH treatment.

Antioxidant Compounds in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: Natural, Hybrid, and Synthetic Products

Alzheimer's disease (AD) which is associated with cognitive dysfunction and memory lapse has become a health concern. Various targets and pathways have been involved in AD's progress, such as deficit of acetylcholine (ACh), oxidative stress, inflammation, β-amyloid (Aβ) deposits, and biometal dyshomeostasis. Multiple pieces of evidence indicate that stress oxidative participation in an early stage of AD and the generated ROS could enable neurodegenerative disease leading to neuronal cell death. Hence, antioxidant therapies are applied in treating AD as a beneficial strategy. This review refers to the development and use of antioxidant compounds based on natural products, hybrid designs, and synthetic compounds. The results of using these antioxidant compounds were discussed with the given examples, and future directions for the development of antioxidants were evaluated.

Activation of ERK-Drp1 signaling promotes hypoxia-induced Aβ accumulation by upregulating mitochondrial fission and BACE1 activity

Hypoxia is a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD). Besides, mitochondrial fission is increased in response to hypoxia. In this study, we sought to investigate whether hypoxia‐induced mitochondrial fission plays a critical role in regulating amyloid‐β (Aβ) production. Hypoxia significantly activated extracellular signal‐regulated kinase (ERK), increased phosphorylation of dynamin‐related protein 1 (Drp1) at serine 616, and decreased phosphorylation of Drp1 at serine 637. Importantly, hypoxia triggered mitochondrial dysfunction, elevated β‐secretase 1 (BACE1) and γ‐secretase activities, and promoted Aβ accumulation in HEK293 cells transfected with β‐amyloid precursor protein (APP) plasmid harboring the Swedish and Indiana familial Alzheimer's disease mutations (APPSwe/Ind HEK293 cells). Then, we investigated whether the ERK inhibitor PD325901 and Drp1 inhibitor mitochondrial division inhibitor‐1 (Mdivi‐1) would attenuate hypoxia‐induced mitochondrial fission and Aβ generation in APPSwe/Ind HEK293 cells. PD325901 and Mdivi‐1 inhibited phosphorylation of Drp1 at serine 616, resulting in reduced mitochondrial fission under hypoxia. Furthermore, hypoxia‐induced mitochondrial dysfunction, BACE1 activation, and Aβ accumulation were downregulated by PD325901 and Mdivi‐1. Our data demonstrate that hypoxia induces mitochondrial fission, impairs mitochondrial function, and facilitates Aβ generation. The ERK–Drp1 signaling pathway is partly involved in the hypoxia‐induced Aβ generation by regulating mitochondrial fission and BACE1 activity. Therefore, inhibition of hypoxia‐induced mitochondrial fission may prevent or slow the progression of AD.

The Roles of Peroxiredoxin 6 in Brain Diseases

Peroxiredoxin 6 (PRDX6), the only mammalian 1-Cys member of the peroxiredoxins (PRDXs) family, has multiple functions of glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) activity, acidic calcium-independent phospholipase (aiPLA2) activity, and lysophosphatidylcholine acyl transferase (LPCAT) activity. It has been documented to be involved in redox homeostasis, phospholipid turnover, glycolipid metabolism, and cellular signaling. Here, we reviewed the characteristics of the available Prdx6 genetic mouse models and the research progresses made with regard to PRDX6 in neuropsychiatric disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases, brain aging, stroke, neurotrauma, gliomas, major depressive disorder, drug addiction, post-traumatic stress disorder, and schizophrenia. The present review highlights the important roles of PRDX6 in neuropsychiatric disorders and may provide novel insights for the development of effective pharmacological treatments and genetic therapies.

The Potential Roles of Redox Enzymes in Alzheimer's Disease: Focus on Thioredoxin

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative diseases. Increasing studies have demonstrated the critical importance for redox proteins mediating neuronal protection in models of AD. This review briefly describes some of the risk factors contributing to AD, specifically highlighting the important roles of oxidative stress in the pathology of AD. Then this article concisely introduces the dysregulation and functions of two main redox enzymes, peroxiredoxins and glutaredoxins, in AD models. This review emphasizes the neuroprotective role of the third redox enzyme thioredoxin (Trx), an important multifunctional protein regulating cellular redox status. This commentary not only summarizes the alterations of Trx expression in AD patients and models, but also reviews the potential effects and mechanisms of Trx, Trx-related molecules and Trx-inducing compounds against AD. In conclusion, Trx has a potential neuroprotection in AD and may be very promising for clinical therapy of AD in the future.

Peroxiredoxins in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Substantial evidence indicates that oxidative/nitrosative stress contributes to the neurodegenerative diseases. Peroxiredoxins (PRDXs) are one of the enzymatic antioxidant mechanisms neutralizing reactive oxygen/nitrogen species. Since mammalian PRDXs were identified 30 years ago, their significance was long overshadowed by the other well-studied ROS/RNS defense systems. An increasing number of studies suggests that these enzymes may be involved in the neurodegenerative process. This article reviews the current knowledge on the expression and putative roles of PRDXs in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease.

Attenuation of Nrf2/Keap1/ARE in Alzheimer's Disease by Plant Secondary Metabolites: A Mechanistic Review

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neuronal/cognitional dysfunction, leading to disability and death. Despite advances in revealing the pathophysiological mechanisms behind AD, no effective treatment has yet been provided. It urges the need for finding novel multi-target agents in combating the complex dysregulated mechanisms in AD. Amongst the dysregulated pathophysiological pathways in AD, oxidative stress seems to play a critical role in the pathogenesis progression of AD, with a dominant role of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1 (Keap1)/antioxidant responsive elements (ARE) pathway. In the present study, a comprehensive review was conducted using the existing electronic databases, including PubMed, Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus, as well as related articles in the field. Nrf2/Keap1/ARE has shown to be the upstream orchestrate of oxidative pathways, which also ameliorates various inflammatory and apoptotic pathways. So, developing multi-target agents with higher efficacy and lower side effects could pave the road in the prevention/management of AD. The plant kingdom is now a great source of natural secondary metabolites in targeting Nrf2/Keap1/ARE. Among natural entities, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, terpene/terpenoids, carotenoids, sulfur-compounds, as well as some other miscellaneous plant-derived compounds have shown promising future accordingly. Prevailing evidence has shown that activating Nrf2/ARE and downstream antioxidant enzymes, as well as inhibiting Keap1 could play hopeful roles in overcoming AD. The current review highlights the neuroprotective effects of plant secondary metabolites through targeting Nrf2/Keap1/ARE and downstream interconnected mediators in combating AD.

Prevention of multiple system atrophy using human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells by reducing polyamine and cholesterol-induced neural damages

Background

Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is a sporadic neurodegenerative disorder of unknown etiology, but is closely associated with damage to dopaminergic neurons. MSA progression is rapid. Hence, long-term drug treatments do not have any therapeutic benefits. We assessed the inhibitory effect of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) on double-toxin-induced dopaminergic neurodegenerative MSA.

Results

Behavioral disorder was significantly improved and neurodegeneration was prevented following MSC transplantation. Proteomics revealed lower expression of polyamine modulating factor-binding protein 1 (PMFBP1) and higher expression of 3-hydroxymethyl-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase (HMGCL), but these changes were reversed after MSC transplantation. In the in vitro study, the 6-OHDA-induced effects were reversed following co-culture with MSC. However, PMFBP1 knockdown inhibited the recovery effect due to the MSCs. Furthermore, HMGCL expression was decreased following co-culture with MSCs, but treatment with recombinant HMGCL protein inhibited the recovery effects due to MSCs.

Conclusions

These data indicate that MSCs protected against neuronal loss in MSA by reducing polyamine- and cholesterol-induced neural damage.

Natural silibinin modulates amyloid precursor protein processing and amyloid-β protein clearance in APP/PS1 mice

Silibinin has been shown to attenuate cognitive dysfunction and inhibit amyloid-beta (Aβ) aggregation in Alzheimer's disease (AD) models. However, the underlying mechanism by which silibinin improves cognition remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of silibinin on β-secretase levels, Aβ enzymatic degradation, and oxidative stress in the brains of APP/PS1 mice with cognitive impairments. Oral administration of silibinin for 2 months significantly attenuated the cognitive deficits of APP/PS1 mice in the Y-maze test, novel object recognition test, and Morris water maze test. Biochemical analyses revealed that silibinin decreased Aβ deposition and the levels of soluble Aβ1-40/1-42 in the hippocampus by downregulating APP and BACE1 and upregulating NEP in APP/PS1 mice. In addition, silibinin decreased the MDA content and increased the activities of the antioxidant enzymes CAT, SOD, and NO. Based on our findings, silibinin is a potentially promising agent for preventing AD-associated Aβ pathology.

Peroxiredoxin 6 Inhibits Osteogenic Differentiation and Bone Formation Through Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells and Induces Delayed Bone Development

Aims: Peroxiredoxins (PRDXs) are thiol-specific antioxidant enzymes that regulate redox balance that are critical for maintaining the cellular potential for self-renewal and stemness. Stem cell-based regenerative medicine is a promising approach in tissue reconstruction. However, to obtain functional cells for use in clinical applications, stem cell technology still requires improvements. Results: In this study, we found that PRDX6 levels were decreased during osteogenic differentiation in human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs). hDPSCs stably expressing Myc-PRDX6 (hDPSC/myc-PRDX6) inhibited cell growth in hDPSCs during osteogenic differentiation and impaired osteogenic phenotypes such as alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, mineralized nodule formation, and osteogenic marker genes [ALP and osteocalcin (OCN)]. hDPSC cell lines stably expressing mutant glutathione peroxidase (PRDX6(C47S)) and independent phospholipase A2 (PRDX6(S32A)) were also generated. Each mutant form of PRDX6 abolished the impaired osteogenic phenotypes, the transforming growth factor-β-mediated Smad2 and p38 pathways, and RUNX2 expression. Furthermore, in vivo experiments revealed that hDPSC/myc-PRDX6 suppressed hDPSC-based bone regeneration in calvarial defect mice, and newborn PRDX6 transgenic mice exhibited delayed bone development and reduced RUNX2 expression. Innovation and Conclusion: These findings illuminate the effects of PRDX6 during osteogenic differentiation of hDPSCs, and also suggest that regulating PRDX6 may improve the clinical utility of stem cell-based regenerative medicine for the treatment of bone diseases. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 30, 1969-1982.

The neuroprotective effect of deep brain stimulation at nucleus basalis of Meynert in transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease

BACKGROUND

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and mainly treated by drugs, while the therapeutic outcomes are very limited. This study aimed to determine the optimized parameters of deep brain stimulation (DBS) which was applied to the treatment of AD and propose the involved mechanisms.

METHODS

Amyloid-β precursor protein/Presenilin1 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice were used and received DBS at nucleus basalis of Meynert (NBM). The optimized parameters of DBS were determined by using different stimulation frequencies, durations and ages of mice under Morris water maze test. The involved mechanisms and the possible signal pathways were also investigated.

RESULTS

The optimized parameters for DBS were high frequency (100 Hz) for 21 days starting from early age (4 months old). Under the above parameters, the soluble Aβ40 and Aβ42 in the hippocampus and cortex were down-regulated significantly. DBS increased survival neurons and reduced apoptotic cells in the hippocampus and cortex. Meanwhile, the apoptosis-related proteins caspase-3, caspase-8 and Bid were down-regulated. Moreover, DBS caused a significant increase of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and choline acetyltransferase activity as well as a decrease of methane dicarboxylic aldehyde content and acetylcholine esterase activity. Phosphorylation of Akt (p-Akt)/total Akt (t-Akt) was up-regulated while p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)/t-ERK1/2 was down-regulated. The neuroprotective effect of DBS was attenuated by their inhibitors.

CONCLUSIONS

NBM-DBS starting from 4 months of age for 21 days at a high frequency (100 Hz) has therapeutic effects on AD through activating phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway and inhibiting ERK1/2 pathway.

Inflammation, insulin signaling and cognitive function in aged APP/PS1 mice

Cognitive dysfunction and neuroinflammation are typical in Alzheimer's disease (AD), but are also associated with normal aging, albeit less severely. Insulin resistance in the brain has been demonstrated in AD patients and is thought to be involved in AD pathophysiology. Using 15-18 month-old APP/PS1 mice, this study measured peripheral and central insulin signaling and sensitivity, inflammatory markers in brain and plasma and oxidative stress and synapse density in the brain. Novel object recognition, Morris water maze and reversal water maze tasks were performed to assess cognitive function in aged APP/PS1 mice and wild type littermates. Glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity were similar in APP/PS1 mice and wild type controls, however IRS-1 pSer⁶¹⁶ was increased in cortex and dentate gyrus of APP/PS1 mice. Recognition and spatial memory was impaired in both APP/PS1 and wild type mice, however learning impairments were apparent in APP/PS1 mice. Expression of GLP-1 receptor, ERK2, IKKβ, mTOR, PKCθ, NF-κB1 and TLR4 was similar between aged APP/PS1 mice and age-matched wild types. Compared to age-matched wild type mice, IFNγ and IL-4 were increased in brains of APP/PS1 mice. These results suggest that normal aging may be associated with enhanced neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and cognitive decline, however distinctions are apparent in the brain of APP/PS1 mice in terms of inflammation and insulin signaling and in certain cognitive domains. Demarcation of pathological events that distinguish AD from normal aging will allow for improvements in diagnostic tools and the development of more effective therapeutics.

Inhibitory effect of thiacremonone on MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration through inhibition of p38 activation

Neuroinflammation is implicated for dopaminergic neurodegeneration. Sulfur compounds extracted from garlic have been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties. Previously, we have investigated that thiacremonone, a sulfur compound isolated from garlic has anti-inflammatory effects on several inflammatory disease models. To investigate the protective effect of thiacremonone against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced behavioral impairment and dopaminergic neurodegeneration, 8 week old ICR mice were given thiacremonone (10 mg/kg) in drinking water for 1 month and received intraperitoneal injection of MPTP (15 mg/kg, four times with 2 h interval) during the last 7 days of treatment. Our data showed that thiacremonone decreased MPTP-induced behavioral impairments (Rotarod test, Pole test, and Gait test), dopamine depletion and microglia and astrocytes activations as well as neuroinflammation. Higher activation of p38 was found in the substantia nigra and striatum after MPTP injection, but p38 activation was reduced in thiacremonone treated group. In an in vitro study, thiacremonone (1, 2, and 5 μg/ml) effectively decreased MPP+ (0.5 mM)-induced glial activation, inflammatory mediators generation and dopaminergic neurodegeneration in cultured astrocytes and microglial BV-2 cells. Moreover, treatment of p38 MAPK inhibitor SB203580 (10 μM) further inhibited thiacremonone induced reduction of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. These results indicated that the anti-inflammatory compound, thiacremonone, inhibited neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neurodegeneration through inhibition of p38 activation.

(E)-2-Methoxy-4-(3-(4-methoxyphenyl) prop-1-en-1-yl) Phenol Ameliorates LPS-Mediated Memory Impairment by Inhibition of STAT3 Pathway

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is pathologically characterized by an excessive accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) fibrils within the brain. We tested the anti-inflammatory and anti-amyloidogenic effects of (E)-2-methoxy-4-(3-(4-methoxyphenyl) prop-1-en-1-yl) phenol (MMPP), a selective signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) inhibitor. We examined whether MMPP (5 mg/kg in drinking water for 1 month) prevents amyloidogenesis and cognitive impairment on AD model mice induced by intraperitoneal LPS (250 μg/kg daily 7 times) injections. Additionally, we investigated the anti-neuroinflammatory and anti-amyloidogenic effect of MMPP (1, 5, and 10 μg/mL) in LPS (1 μg/mL)-treated cultured astrocytes and microglial BV-2 cells. MMPP treatment reduced LPS-induced memory loss. This memory recovery effect was associated with the reduction of LPS-induced inflammatory proteins; cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) as well as activation of microglial cells and astrocytes in the brain. Furthermore, MMPP reduced LPS-induced β-secretase and Aβ generation. In in vitro study, LPS-induced expression of inflammatory proteins and amyloidogenic proteins was decreased in microglial BV-2 cells and cultured astrocytes by MMPP treatment. Moreover, MMPP treatment suppressed DNA binding activities of the activation of STAT3 in in vivo and in vitro. These results indicated that MMPP inhibits LPS-induced amyloidogenesis and neuroinflammation via inhibition of STAT3.

Prdx6 Upregulation by Curcumin Attenuates Ischemic Oxidative Damage via SP1 in Rats after Stroke

Background

The role of Peroxiredoxin 6 (Prdx6) in brain ischemia remains unclear. Curcumin (Cur) treatment elicits neuroprotective effects against cerebral ischemic injury, and the associated mechanisms may involve Prdx6. In this study, we investigated whether Prdx6 and the transcription factor specific protein 1 (SP1) were involved in the antioxidant effect of Cur after stoke.

Methods

Focal cerebral ischemic injury was induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion for 2 hours in male Sprague-Dawley rats treated with or without Prdx6 siRNA. Expression of Prdx6 in the penumbra was assessed by Real-Time PCR (RT-PCR), Western blot analysis, and immunoflourescent staining. In addition, infarct volume, neurological deficit score, and oxidative stress were evaluated. Prdx6 levels were also determined in the presence and absence of SP1 antagonist mithramycin A (MTM-A).

Results

Cur treatment upregulated Prdx6 protein expression and the number of Prdx6-positive neuronal cells 24 hours after reperfusion. Cur treatment also attenuated oxidative stress and induced neuroprotective effects against ischemic damage, whereas the beneficial effects of Cur treatment were lost in animals treated with Prdx6-siRNA. Prdx6 upregulation by Cur treatment was abolished by SP1 antagonists MTM.

Conclusions

Prdx6 upregulation by Cur treatment attenuates ischemic oxidative damage through SP1 induction in rats after stroke. This represents a novel mechanism of Cur-induced neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia.

A novel organosulfur compound, thiacremonone, regulates RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation

The medicinal properties of functionally active organosulfur compounds have received great attention for applications in treating various diseases.

Aberrant control of NF-κB in cancer permits transcriptional and phenotypic plasticity, to curtail dependence on host tissue: molecular mode

The role of the transcription factor NF-κB in shaping the cancer microenvironment is becoming increasingly clear. Inflammation alters the activity of enzymes that modulate NF-κB function, and causes extensive changes in genomic chromatin that ultimately drastically alter cell-specific gene expression. NF-κB regulates the expression of cytokines and adhesion factors that control interactions among adjacent cells. As such, NF-κB fine tunes tissue cellular composition, as well as tissues' interactions with the immune system. Therefore, NF-κB changes the cell response to hormones and to contact with neighboring cells. Activating NF-κB confers transcriptional and phenotypic plasticity to a cell and thereby enables profound local changes in tissue function and composition. Research suggests that the regulation of NF-κB target genes is specifically altered in cancer. Such alterations occur not only due to mutations of NF-κB regulatory proteins, but also because of changes in the activity of specific proteostatic modules and metabolic pathways. This article describes the molecular mode of NF-κB regulation with a few characteristic examples of target genes.