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Deng X, Hu X, Wang S, Zhao H, Wei Y, Fu J, Wu W, Liu J, Zhang C, Wang L, Yuan P. Neural stem cell-derived exosomes regulate cell proliferation, migration, and cell death of brain microvascular endothelial cells via the miR-9/Hes1 axis under hypoxia. Animal Model Exp Med 2024; 7:24-35. [PMID: 38369683 PMCID: PMC10961869 DOI: 10.1002/ame2.12394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Our previous study found that mouse embryonic neural stem cell (NSC)-derived exosomes (EXOs) regulated NSC differentiation via the miR-9/Hes1 axis. However, the effects of EXOs on brain microvascular endothelial cell (BMEC) dysfunction via the miR-9/Hes1 axis remain unknown. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the effects of EXOs on BMEC proliferation, migration, and death via the miR-9/Hes1 axis. METHODS Immunofluorescence, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, cell counting kit-8 assay, wound healing assay, calcein-acetoxymethyl/propidium iodide staining, and hematoxylin and eosin staining were used to determine the role and mechanism of EXOs on BMECs. RESULTS EXOs promoted BMEC proliferation and migration and reduced cell death under hypoxic conditions. The overexpression of miR-9 promoted BMEC proliferation and migration and reduced cell death under hypoxic conditions. Moreover, miR-9 downregulation inhibited BMEC proliferation and migration and also promoted cell death. Hes1 silencing ameliorated the effect of amtagomiR-9 on BMEC proliferation and migration and cell death. Hyperemic structures were observed in the regions of the hippocampus and cortex in hypoxia-induced mice. Meanwhile, EXO treatment improved cerebrovascular alterations. CONCLUSION NSC-derived EXOs can promote BMEC proliferation and migration and reduce cell death via the miR-9/Hes1 axis under hypoxic conditions. Therefore, EXO therapeutic strategies could be considered for hypoxia-induced vascular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Deng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Shanghai Sixth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoyi Hu
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shang Wang
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- Institute of Bismuth Science, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Yaqin Wei
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiaqi Fu
- Institute of Bismuth Science, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenhui Wu
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinming Liu
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Caicai Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Hainan Medical University Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Lili Wang
- Department of Clinical Medical Laboratory Center, Hangzhou Red Cross Hospital, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ping Yuan
- Department of Cardio-Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
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Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells reduced transient cerebral ischemia injury by modulation of inflammatory factors and AMPK signaling. Behav Brain Res 2022; 433:114001. [PMID: 35809694 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Stem cell-based treatments have been recommended as a feasible therapy for stroke victims due to their potential for angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and synaptic plasticity. The intracellular mechanisms of stem cells against cerebral hypoperfusion are not well recognized. In this study, by releasing the clips, the reperfusion period was extended to 96 h, and two hours after cerebral ischemia, animals received adipose-derived MSCs. MSCs were isolated from the inguinal fat pads of rats and injected into two-vessel occlusion (2VO) rats 1 h after ischemia induction. Ninety-six hours after 2VO induction, behavioral and molecular tests were assessed. Adipose-derived MSCs treatment improves neurological scores, passive avoidance memory, and novel object recognition tests in the 2VO model compared to 2VO rats (P < 0.001). MSCs treatment decreased TNF-α (P < 0.01) and IL-6 (P < 0.01) and apoptotic factors (Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3 level (P < 0.01)) compared with ischemic rats. MSCs treatment of ischemic rats could enhance Klotho-α and AMPK-α compared with ischemic rats (P < 0.001). The study disclosed that adipose-derived MSCs could improve neurological damage and memory deficits by reducing neuronal death in cerebral ischemia. Data proposed that adipose-derived MSCs inhibit pro-inflammatory factors such as IL-6 and TNF-α, consequently decreasing apoptosis in the hippocampus of CCAO rats. Besides, the Klotho-α and AMPK-α measurements found that MSCs might induce intracellular neuroprotective pathways via activation of Klotho-α/AMPK-α signaling.
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Intercellular Communication in the Brain through Tunneling Nanotubes. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14051207. [PMID: 35267518 PMCID: PMC8909287 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14051207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) are a means of cell communication which have been recently discovered. They allow the intercellular trafficking of many types of cellular compounds ranging from ions, such as Ca2+, to whole organelles such as mitochondria. TNTs are found in many tissues, both in physiological and pathological conditions. They are also found in the brain where they contribute to brain development and function and also to degenerative diseases and glioma. Abstract Intercellular communication is essential for tissue homeostasis and function. Understanding how cells interact with each other is paramount, as crosstalk between cells is often dysregulated in diseases and can contribute to their progression. Cells communicate with each other through several modalities, including paracrine secretion and specialized structures ensuring physical contact between them. Among these intercellular specialized structures, tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) are now recognized as a means of cell-to-cell communication through the exchange of cellular cargo, controlled by a variety of biological triggers, as described here. Intercellular communication is fundamental to brain function. It allows the dialogue between the many cells, including neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, glial cells, microglia, necessary for the proper development and function of the brain. We highlight here the role of TNTs in connecting these cells, for the physiological functioning of the brain and in pathologies such as stroke, neurodegenerative diseases, and gliomas. Understanding these processes could pave the way for future therapies.
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Secretome and Tunneling Nanotubes: A Multilevel Network for Long Range Intercellular Communication between Endothelial Cells and Distant Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22157971. [PMID: 34360735 PMCID: PMC8347715 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22157971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As a cellular interface between the blood and tissues, the endothelial cell (EC) monolayer is involved in the control of key functions including vascular tone, permeability and homeostasis, leucocyte trafficking and hemostasis. EC regulatory functions require long-distance communications between ECs, circulating hematopoietic cells and other vascular cells for efficient adjusting thrombosis, angiogenesis, inflammation, infection and immunity. This intercellular crosstalk operates through the extracellular space and is orchestrated in part by the secretory pathway and the exocytosis of Weibel Palade Bodies (WPBs), secretory granules and extracellular vesicles (EVs). WPBs and secretory granules allow both immediate release and regulated exocytosis of messengers such as cytokines, chemokines, extracellular membrane proteins, coagulation or growth factors. The ectodomain shedding of transmembrane protein further provide the release of both receptor and ligands with key regulatory activities on target cells. Thin tubular membranous channels termed tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) may also connect EC with distant cells. EVs, in particular exosomes, and TNTs may contain and transfer different biomolecules (e.g., signaling mediators, proteins, lipids, and microRNAs) or pathogens and have emerged as a major triggers of horizontal intercellular transfer of information.
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Patient-derived glioblastoma stem cells transfer mitochondria through tunneling nanotubes in tumor organoids. Biochem J 2021; 478:21-39. [PMID: 33245115 PMCID: PMC7800365 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20200710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most aggressive brain cancer and its relapse after surgery, chemo and radiotherapy appears to be led by GBM stem cells (GSCs). Also, tumor networking and intercellular communication play a major role in driving GBM therapy-resistance. Tunneling Nanotubes (TNTs), thin membranous open-ended channels connecting distant cells, have been observed in several types of cancer, where they emerge to drive a more malignant phenotype. Here, we investigated whether GBM cells are capable to intercommunicate by TNTs. Two GBM stem-like cells (GSLCs) were obtained from the external and infiltrative zone of one GBM from one patient. We show, for the first time, that both GSLCs, grown in classical 2D culture and in 3D-tumor organoids, formed functional TNTs which allowed mitochondria transfer. In the organoid model, recapitulative of several tumor's features, we observed the formation of a network between cells constituted of both Tumor Microtubes (TMs), previously observed in vivo, and TNTs. In addition, the two GSLCs exhibited different responses to irradiation in terms of TNT induction and mitochondria transfer, although the correlation with the disease progression and therapy-resistance needs to be further addressed. Thus, TNT-based communication is active in different GSLCs derived from the external tumoral areas associated to GBM relapse, and we propose that they participate together with TMs in tumor networking.
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D'Souza A, Dave KM, Stetler RA, S. Manickam D. Targeting the blood-brain barrier for the delivery of stroke therapies. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 171:332-351. [PMID: 33497734 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A variety of neuroprotectants have shown promise in treating ischemic stroke, yet their delivery to the brain remains a challenge. The endothelial cells lining the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are emerging as a dynamic factor in the response to neurological injury and disease, and the endothelial-neuronal matrix coupling is fundamentally neuroprotective. In this review, we discuss approaches that target the endothelium for drug delivery both across the BBB and to the BBB as a viable strategy to facilitate neuroprotective effects, using the example of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). We highlight the advances in cell-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) used for CNS targeting and drug delivery. We also discuss the potential of engineered EVs as a potent strategy to deliver BDNF or other drug candidates to the ischemic brain, particularly when coupled with internal components like mitochondria that may increase cellular energetics in injured endothelial cells.
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Opportunities and Challenges in Tunneling Nanotubes Research: How Far from Clinical Application? Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052306. [PMID: 33669068 PMCID: PMC7956326 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) are recognized long membrane nanotubes connecting distance cells. In the last decade, growing evidence has shown that these subcellular structures mediate the specific transfer of cellular materials, pathogens, and electrical signals between cells. As intercellular bridges, they play a unique role in embryonic development, collective cell migration, injured cell recovery, cancer treatment resistance, and pathogen propagation. Although TNTs have been considered as potential drug targets for treatment, there is still a long way to go to translate the research findings into clinical practice. Herein, we emphasize the heterogeneous nature of TNTs by systemically summarizing the current knowledge on their morphology, structure, and biogenesis in different types of cells. Furthermore, we address the communication efficiency and biological outcomes of TNT-dependent transport related to diseases. Finally, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of TNTs as an exciting therapeutic approach by focusing on the development of efficient and safe drugs targeting TNTs.
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Exosomes Derived from CXCR4-Overexpressing BMSC Promoted Activation of Microvascular Endothelial Cells in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury. Neural Plast 2021; 2020:8814239. [PMID: 33381162 PMCID: PMC7762674 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8814239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Ischemic stroke is a severe acute cerebrovascular disease which can be improved with neuroprotective therapies at an early stage. However, due to the lack of effective neuroprotective drugs, most stroke patients have varying degrees of long-term disability. In the present study, we investigated the role of exosomes derived from CXCR4-overexpressing BMSCs in restoring vascular function and neural repair after ischemic cerebral infarction. Methods BMSCs were transfected with lentivirus encoded by CXCR4 (BMSCCXCR4). Exosomes derived from BMSCCXCR4 (ExoCXCR4) were isolated and characterized by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. Western blot and qPCR were used to analyze the expression of CXCR4 in BMSCs and exosomes. The acute middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was prepared, ExoCXCR4 were injected into the rats, and behavioral changes were analyzed. The role of ExoCXCR4 in promoting the proliferation and tube formation for angiogenesis and protecting brain endothelial cells was determined in vitro. Results Compared with the control groups, the ExoCXCR4 group showed a significantly lower mNSS score at 7 d, 14 d, and 21 d after ischemia/reperfusion (P < 0.05). The bEnd.3 cells in the ExoCXCR4 group have stronger proliferation ability than other groups (P < 0.05), while the CXCR4 inhibitor can reduce this effect. Exosomes control (ExoCon) can significantly promote the migration of bEnd.3 cells (P < 0.05), while there was no significant difference between the ExoCXCR4 and ExoCon groups (P > 0.05). ExoCXCR4 can further promote the proliferation and tube formation for the angiogenesis of the endothelium compared with ExoCon group (P < 0.05). In addition, cobalt chloride (COCl2) can increase the expression of β-catenin and Wnt-3, while ExoCon can reduce the expression of these proteins (P < 0.05). ExoCXCR4 can further attenuate the activation of Wnt-3a/β-catenin pathway (P < 0.05). Conclusions In ischemia/reperfusion injury, ExoCXCR4 promoted the proliferation and tube formation of microvascular endothelial cells and play an antiapoptotic role via the Wnt-3a/β-catenin pathway.
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RNA transfer through tunneling nanotubes. Biochem Soc Trans 2020; 49:145-160. [PMID: 33367488 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It was already suggested in the early '70's that RNA molecules might transfer between mammalian cells in culture. Yet, more direct evidence for RNA transfer in animal and plant cells was only provided decades later, as this field became established. In this mini-review, we will describe evidence for the transfer of different types of RNA between cells through tunneling nanotubes (TNTs). TNTs are long, yet thin, open-ended cellular protrusions that are structurally distinct from filopodia. TNTs connect cells and can transfer many types of cargo, including small molecules, proteins, vesicles, pathogens, and organelles. Recent work has shown that TNTs can also transfer mRNAs, viral RNAs and non-coding RNAs. Here, we will review the evidence for TNT-mediated RNA transfer, discuss the technical challenges in this field, and conjecture about the possible significance of this pathway in health and disease.
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Filippova N, Nabors LB. ELAVL1 Role in Cell Fusion and Tunneling Membrane Nanotube Formations with Implication to Treat Glioma Heterogeneity. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E3069. [PMID: 33096700 PMCID: PMC7590168 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12103069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Homotypic and heterotypic cell fusions via permanent membrane fusions and temporal tunneling nanotube formations in the glioma microenvironment were recently documented in vitro and in vivo and mediate glioma survival, plasticity, and recurrence. Chronic inflammation, a hypoxic environment, aberrant mitochondrial function, and ER stress due to unfolded protein accumulation upregulate cell fusion events, which leads to tumor heterogeneity and represents an adaptive mechanism to promote tumor cell survival and plasticity in cytotoxic, nutrient-deprived, mechanically stressed, and inflammatory microenvironments. Cell fusion is a multistep process, which consists of the activation of the cellular stress response, autophagy formation, rearrangement of cytoskeletal architecture in the areas of cell-to-cell contacts, and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and fusogenic proteins. The mRNA-binding protein of ELAV-family HuR is a critical node, which orchestrates the stress response, autophagy formation, cytoskeletal architecture, and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and fusogenic proteins. HuR is overexpressed in gliomas and is associated with poor prognosis and treatment resistance. Our review provides a link between the HuR role in the regulation of cell fusion and tunneling nanotube formations in the glioma microenvironment and the potential suppression of these processes by different classes of HuR inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Filippova
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Louis B. Nabors
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Nussenzveig HM. Are cell membrane nanotubes the ancestors of the nervous system? EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2019; 48:593-598. [DOI: 10.1007/s00249-019-01388-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Jash E, Prasad P, Kumar N, Sharma T, Goldman A, Sehrawat S. Perspective on nanochannels as cellular mediators in different disease conditions. Cell Commun Signal 2018; 16:76. [PMID: 30409198 PMCID: PMC6222982 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-018-0281-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tunnelling nanotubes (TNTs), also known as membrane nanochannels, are actin-based structures that facilitate cytoplasmic connections for rapid intercellular transfer of signals, organelles and membrane components. These dynamic TNTs can form de novo in animal cells and establish complex intercellular networks between distant cells up to 150 μm apart. Within the last decade, TNTs have been discovered in different cell types including tumor cells, macrophages, monocytes, endothelial cells and T cells. It has also been further elucidated that these nanotubes play a vital role in diseased conditions such as cancer, where TNT formation occurs at a higher pace and is used for rapid intercellular modulation of chemo-resistance. Viruses such as HIV, HSV and prions also hijack the existing TNT connections between host cells for rapid transmission and evasion of the host immune responses. The following review aims to describe the heterogeneity of TNTs, their role in different tissues and disease conditions in order to enhance our understanding on how these nanotubes can be used as a target for therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eshna Jash
- Brain Metastasis and NeuroVascular Disease Modeling Lab, Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, NCR, India
| | - Peeyush Prasad
- Brain Metastasis and NeuroVascular Disease Modeling Lab, Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, NCR, India
| | - Naveen Kumar
- Brain Metastasis and NeuroVascular Disease Modeling Lab, Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, NCR, India
| | - Taruna Sharma
- Brain Metastasis and NeuroVascular Disease Modeling Lab, Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, NCR, India
| | - Aaron Goldman
- Mitra Biotech, Integrative Immuno-Oncology Center, Woburn, MA, 01801, USA. .,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA. .,Division of Engineering in Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
| | - Seema Sehrawat
- Brain Metastasis and NeuroVascular Disease Modeling Lab, Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, NCR, India. .,Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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Mittal R, Karhu E, Wang JS, Delgado S, Zukerman R, Mittal J, Jhaveri VM. Cell communication by tunneling nanotubes: Implications in disease and therapeutic applications. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:1130-1146. [PMID: 30206931 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Intercellular communication is essential for the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) are a recently recognized means of long and short distance communication between a wide variety of cell types. TNTs are transient filamentous membrane protrusions that connect cytoplasm of neighboring or distant cells. Cytoskeleton fiber-mediated transport of various cargoes occurs through these tubules. These cargoes range from small ions to whole organelles. TNTs have been shown to contribute not only to embryonic development and maintenance of homeostasis, but also to the spread of infectious particles and resistance to therapies. These functions in the development and progression of cancer and infectious disease have sparked increasing scrutiny of TNTs, as their contribution to disease progression lends them a promising therapeutic target. Herein, we summarize the current knowledge of TNT structure and formation as well as the role of TNTs in pathology, focusing on viral, prion, and malignant disease. We then discuss the therapeutic possibilities of TNTs in light of their varied functions. Despite recent progress in the growing field of TNT research, more studies are needed to precisely understand the role of TNTs in pathological conditions and to develop novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Mittal
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Elisa Karhu
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Jay-Shing Wang
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Stefanie Delgado
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Ryan Zukerman
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Jeenu Mittal
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Vasanti M Jhaveri
- Department of Otolaryngology, University of Miami-Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
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Yu X, Wang X, Zeng S, Tuo X. Protective effects of primary neural stem cell treatment in ischemic stroke models. Exp Ther Med 2018; 16:2219-2228. [PMID: 30186461 PMCID: PMC6122422 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2018.6466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Strokes are a major cause of neurological disability. Stem cell replacement therapy is a potential novel strategy of treating patients that have experienced strokes. The present study examined the protective role of neural stem cell (NSC) administration in oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) injury and ischemic stroke animal models. Primary cultured embryonic NSCs and brain microvascular endothelial cells were indirectly co-cultured for in vitro testing. A rat model of embolic middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was used to assess the morphological and functional changes that occur following treatment with NSCs. The role of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase b/glycogen synthase kinase 3β (PI3K/Akt/GSK-3β) signaling pathway in the neuroprotective effects of NSC treatment was also determined. It was demonstrated in vivo and in vitro that NSC administration may attenuate the brain injury caused by stroke. Furthermore, the results suggest that activation of PI3k/Akt/GSK-3β signaling pathway serves a role in attenuating OGD injury. Inflammation, synaptic remodeling and autophagy may be improved following NSC treatment and behavioral testing suggests that treatment with NSCs improves functional recovery in rats following MCAO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Yu
- Department of Gerontology, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoqing Wang
- Department of Neurology, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
| | - Shuxiong Zeng
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
| | - Xiping Tuo
- Department of Gerontology, Changhai Hospital, The Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, P.R. China
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Pedicini L, Miteva KT, Hawley V, Gaunt HJ, Appleby HL, Cubbon RM, Marszalek K, Kearney MT, Beech DJ, McKeown L. Homotypic endothelial nanotubes induced by wheat germ agglutinin and thrombin. Sci Rep 2018; 8:7569. [PMID: 29765077 PMCID: PMC5953990 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-25853-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Endothelial barrier formation is maintained by intercellular communication through junctional proteins. The mechanisms involved in maintaining endothelial communication subsequent to barrier disruption remain unclear. It is known that low numbers of endothelial cells can be interconnected by homotypic actin-driven tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) which could be important for intercellular transfer of information in vascular physiology. Here we sought insight into the triggers for TNT formation. Wheat germ agglutinin, a C-type lectin and known label for TNTs, unexpectedly caused striking induction of TNTs. A succinylated derivative was by contrast inactive, suggesting mediation by a sialylated protein. Through siRNA-mediated knockdown we identified that this protein was likely to be CD31, an important sialylated membrane protein normally at endothelial cell junctions. We subsequently considered thrombin as a physiological inducer of endothelial TNTs because it reduces junctional contact. Thrombin reduced junctional contact, redistributed CD31 and induced TNTs, but its effect on TNTs was CD31-independent. Thrombin-induced TNTs nevertheless required PKCα, a known mediator of thrombin-dependent junctional remodelling, suggesting a necessity for junctional proteins in TNT formation. Indeed, TNT-inducing effects of wheat germ agglutinin and thrombin were both correlated with cortical actin rearrangement and similarly Ca2+-dependent, suggesting common underlying mechanisms. Once formed, Ca2+ signalling along TNTs was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Pedicini
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Katarina T Miteva
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Verity Hawley
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Hannah J Gaunt
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Hollie L Appleby
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Richard M Cubbon
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Katarzyna Marszalek
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Mark T Kearney
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - David J Beech
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
| | - Lynn McKeown
- Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
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16
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Lee HJ, Choi BT. Effects of α-asarone on Proliferation and Differentiation of Neural Progenitor Cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.11637/kjpa.2018.31.2.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Ju Lee
- Department of Korean Medical Science, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
- BK21 Graduate Training Program of Korean Medicine for Healthy-Aging, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Byung Tae Choi
- Department of Korean Medical Science, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
- BK21 Graduate Training Program of Korean Medicine for Healthy-Aging, School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
- Korean Medical Science Research Center for Healthy-Aging, Pusan National University, Busan, Korea
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17
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Intercellular mRNA trafficking via membrane nanotube-like extensions in mammalian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E9873-E9882. [PMID: 29078295 PMCID: PMC5699038 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1706365114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
mRNA molecules convey genetic information within cells, beginning from genes in the nucleus to ribosomes in the cell body, where they are translated into proteins. Here we show a mode of transferring genetic information from one cell to another. Contrary to previous publications suggesting that mRNAs transfer via extracellular vesicles, we provide visual and quantitative data showing that mRNAs transfer via membrane nanotubes and direct cell-to-cell contact. We predict that this process has a major role in regulating local cellular environments with respect to tissue development and maintenance and cellular responses to stress, interactions with parasites, tissue transplants, and the tumor microenvironment. RNAs have been shown to undergo transfer between mammalian cells, although the mechanism behind this phenomenon and its overall importance to cell physiology is not well understood. Numerous publications have suggested that RNAs (microRNAs and incomplete mRNAs) undergo transfer via extracellular vesicles (e.g., exosomes). However, in contrast to a diffusion-based transfer mechanism, we find that full-length mRNAs undergo direct cell–cell transfer via cytoplasmic extensions characteristic of membrane nanotubes (mNTs), which connect donor and acceptor cells. By employing a simple coculture experimental model and using single-molecule imaging, we provide quantitative data showing that mRNAs are transferred between cells in contact. Examples of mRNAs that undergo transfer include those encoding GFP, mouse β-actin, and human Cyclin D1, BRCA1, MT2A, and HER2. We show that intercellular mRNA transfer occurs in all coculture models tested (e.g., between primary cells, immortalized cells, and in cocultures of immortalized human and murine cells). Rapid mRNA transfer is dependent upon actin but is independent of de novo protein synthesis and is modulated by stress conditions and gene-expression levels. Hence, this work supports the hypothesis that full-length mRNAs undergo transfer between cells through a refined structural connection. Importantly, unlike the transfer of miRNA or RNA fragments, this process of communication transfers genetic information that could potentially alter the acceptor cell proteome. This phenomenon may prove important for the proper development and functioning of tissues as well as for host–parasite or symbiotic interactions.
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18
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Ariazi J, Benowitz A, De Biasi V, Den Boer ML, Cherqui S, Cui H, Douillet N, Eugenin EA, Favre D, Goodman S, Gousset K, Hanein D, Israel DI, Kimura S, Kirkpatrick RB, Kuhn N, Jeong C, Lou E, Mailliard R, Maio S, Okafo G, Osswald M, Pasquier J, Polak R, Pradel G, de Rooij B, Schaeffer P, Skeberdis VA, Smith IF, Tanveer A, Volkmann N, Wu Z, Zurzolo C. Tunneling Nanotubes and Gap Junctions-Their Role in Long-Range Intercellular Communication during Development, Health, and Disease Conditions. Front Mol Neurosci 2017; 10:333. [PMID: 29089870 PMCID: PMC5651011 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2017.00333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-to-cell communication is essential for the organization, coordination, and development of cellular networks and multi-cellular systems. Intercellular communication is mediated by soluble factors (including growth factors, neurotransmitters, and cytokines/chemokines), gap junctions, exosomes and recently described tunneling nanotubes (TNTs). It is unknown whether a combination of these communication mechanisms such as TNTs and gap junctions may be important, but further research is required. TNTs are long cytoplasmic bridges that enable long-range, directed communication between connected cells. The proposed functions of TNTs are diverse and not well understood but have been shown to include the cell-to-cell transfer of vesicles, organelles, electrical stimuli and small molecules. However, the exact role of TNTs and gap junctions for intercellular communication and their impact on disease is still uncertain and thus, the subject of much debate. The combined data from numerous laboratories indicate that some TNT mediate a long-range gap junctional communication to coordinate metabolism and signaling, in relation to infectious, genetic, metabolic, cancer, and age-related diseases. This review aims to describe the current knowledge, challenges and future perspectives to characterize and explore this new intercellular communication system and to design TNT-based therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Monique L Den Boer
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Erasmus MC - Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stephanie Cherqui
- Division of Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Haifeng Cui
- GlaxoSmithKline, Collegeville, PA, United States
| | | | - Eliseo A Eugenin
- Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ, United States.,Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - David Favre
- GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States
| | - Spencer Goodman
- Division of Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Karine Gousset
- Department of Biology, College of Science and Math, California State University, Fresno, CA, United States
| | - Dorit Hanein
- Bioinformatics and System Biology Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | | | - Shunsuke Kimura
- Laboratory of Histology and Cytology, Graduate School of Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | | | - Nastaran Kuhn
- Division of Cancer Biology, Physical Sciences-Oncology Network, Cancer Tissue Engineering Collaborative Research Program, Program Director, Structural Biology and Molecular Applications Branch, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Claire Jeong
- GlaxoSmithKline, King of Prussia, PA, United States
| | - Emil Lou
- Division of Hematology, Oncology and Transplantation, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Robbie Mailliard
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Stephen Maio
- GlaxoSmithKline, King of Prussia, PA, United States
| | | | - Matthias Osswald
- Neurology Clinic and National Center for Tumor Diseases, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.,Clinical Cooperation Unit Neurooncology, German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jennifer Pasquier
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Qatar Foundation, Ar-Rayyan, Qatar
| | - Roel Polak
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Erasmus MC - Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Gabriele Pradel
- Division of Cellular and Applied Infection Biology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Bob de Rooij
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Erasmus MC - Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Vytenis A Skeberdis
- Institute of Cardiology, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Kaunas, Lithuania
| | - Ian F Smith
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ahmad Tanveer
- Section of Intracellular Trafficking and Neurovirology, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Niels Volkmann
- Bioinformatics and System Biology Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Zhenhua Wu
- GlaxoSmithKline, Collegeville, PA, United States
| | - Chiara Zurzolo
- Unit of Membrane Trafficking and Pathogenesis, Department of Cell Biology and Infection, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
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19
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Nawaz M, Fatima F. Extracellular Vesicles, Tunneling Nanotubes, and Cellular Interplay: Synergies and Missing Links. Front Mol Biosci 2017; 4:50. [PMID: 28770210 PMCID: PMC5513920 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2017.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of intercellular communication seems to have been a highly conserved evolutionary process. Higher eukaryotes use several means of intercellular communication to address both the changing physiological demands of the body and to fight against diseases. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in understanding how cell-derived nanovesicles, known as extracellular vesicles (EVs), can function as normal paracrine mediators of intercellular communication, but can also elicit disease progression and may be used for innovative therapies. Over the last decade, a large body of evidence has accumulated to show that cells use cytoplasmic extensions comprising open-ended channels called tunneling nanotubes (TNTs) to connect cells at a long distance and facilitate the exchange of cytoplasmic material. TNTs are a different means of communication to classical gap junctions or cell fusions; since they are characterized by long distance bridging that transfers cytoplasmic organelles and intracellular vesicles between cells and represent the process of heteroplasmy. The role of EVs in cell communication is relatively well-understood, but how TNTs fit into this process is just emerging. The aim of this review is to describe the relationship between TNTs and EVs, and to discuss the synergies between these two crucial processes in the context of normal cellular cross-talk, physiological roles, modulation of immune responses, development of diseases, and their combinatory effects in tissue repair. At the present time this review appears to be the first summary of the implications of the overlapping roles of TNTs and EVs. We believe that a better appreciation of these parallel processes will improve our understanding on how these nanoscale conduits can be utilized as novel tools for targeted therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Nawaz
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil.,Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburg, Sweden
| | - Farah Fatima
- Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of São PauloSão Paulo, Brazil
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20
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Rinaldi C, Mäger I, Wood MJ. Proteostasis and Diseases of the Motor Unit. Front Mol Neurosci 2016; 9:164. [PMID: 28082869 PMCID: PMC5187379 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2016.00164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The accumulation in neurons of aberrant protein species, the pathological hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, results from a global impairment of key cellular processes governing protein synthesis/degradation and repair mechanisms, also known as the proteostasis network (PN). The growing number of connections between dysfunction of this intricate network of pathways and diseases of the motor unit, where both motor neurons and muscle are primarily affected, has provided momentum to investigate the muscle- and motor neuron-specific response to physiological and pathological stressors and to explore the therapeutic opportunities that manipulation of this process may offer. Furthermore, these diseases offer an unparalleled opportunity to deepen our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the intertissue communication and transfer of signals of proteostasis. The most compelling aspect of these investigations is their immediate potential for therapeutic impact: targeting muscle to stem degeneration of the motor unit would represent a dramatic paradigm therapeutic shift for treating these devastating diseases. Here we will review the current state of the art of the research on the alterations of the PN in diseases of the motor unit and its potential to result in effective treatments for these devastating neuromuscular disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Rinaldi
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Imre Mäger
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
| | - Matthew J Wood
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford Oxford, UK
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21
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Scholkmann F. Long range physical cell-to-cell signalling via mitochondria inside membrane nanotubes: a hypothesis. Theor Biol Med Model 2016; 13:16. [PMID: 27267202 PMCID: PMC4896004 DOI: 10.1186/s12976-016-0042-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Coordinated interaction of single cells by cell-to-cell communication (signalling) enables complex behaviour necessary for the functioning of multicellular organisms. A quite newly discovered cell-to-cell signalling mechanism relies on nanotubular cell-co-cell connections, termed "membrane nanotubes" (MNTs). The present paper presents the hypothesis that mitochondria inside MNTs can form a connected structure (mitochondrial network) which enables the exchange of energy and signals between cells. It is proposed that two modes of energy and signal transmission may occur: electrical/electrochemical and electromagnetic (optical). Experimental work supporting the hypothesis is reviewed, and suggestions for future research regarding the discussed topic are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Scholkmann
- Biomedical Optics Research Laboratory, Department of Neonatology, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Frauenklinikstr. 10, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Research Office for Complex Physical and Biological Systems (ROCoS), Mutschellenstr. 179, 8038, Zurich, Switzerland.
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22
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Kaushik S, Cuervo AM. Proteostasis and aging. Nat Med 2016; 21:1406-15. [PMID: 26646497 DOI: 10.1038/nm.4001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 530] [Impact Index Per Article: 66.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Accumulation of intracellular damage is an almost universal hallmark of aging. An improved understanding of the systems that contribute to cellular protein quality control has shed light on the reasons for the increased vulnerability of the proteome to stress in aging cells. Maintenance of protein homeostasis, or proteostasis, is attained through precisely coordinated systems that rapidly correct unwanted proteomic changes. Here we focus on recent developments that highlight the multidimensional nature of the proteostasis networks, which allow for coordinated protein homeostasis intracellularly, in between cells and even across organs, as well as on how they affect common age-associated diseases when they malfunction in aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Kaushik
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Institute for Aging Studies, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ana Maria Cuervo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Institute for Aging Studies, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, New York, USA
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23
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Yu QJ, Tao H, Wang X, Li MC. Targeting brain microvascular endothelial cells: a therapeutic approach to neuroprotection against stroke. Neural Regen Res 2016; 10:1882-91. [PMID: 26807131 PMCID: PMC4705808 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.170324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain microvascular endothelial cells form the interface between nervous tissue and circulating blood, and regulate central nervous system homeostasis. Brain microvascular endothelial cells differ from peripheral endothelial cells with regards expression of specific ion transporters and receptors, and contain fewer fenestrations and pinocytotic vesicles. Brain microvascular endothelial cells also synthesize several factors that influence blood vessel function. This review describes the morphological characteristics and functions of brain microvascular endothelial cells, and summarizes current knowledge regarding changes in brain microvascular endothelial cells during stroke progression and therapies. Future studies should focus on identifying mechanisms underlying such changes and developing possible neuroprotective therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi-Jin Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Hong Tao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ming-Chang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
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