CCN proteins: A centralized communication network

Expression and function of CCN2-derived circRNAs in chondrocytes

Cellular communication network factor 2 (CCN2) molecules promote endochondral ossification and articular cartilage regeneration, and circular RNAs (circRNAs), which arise from various genes and regulate gene expression by adsorbing miRNAs, are known to be synthesized from CCN2 in human vascular endothelial cells and other types of cells. However, in chondrocytes, not only the function but also the presence of CCN2-derived circRNA remains completely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the expression and function of CCN2-derived circRNAs in chondrocytes. Amplicons smaller than those from known CCN2-derived circRNAs were observed using RT-PCR analysis that could specifically amplify CCN2-derived circRNAs in human chondrocytic HCS-2/8 cells. The nucleotide sequences of the PCR products indicated novel circRNAs in the HCS-2/8 cells that were different from known CCN2-derived circRNAs. Moreover, the expression of several Ccn2-derived circRNAs in murine chondroblastic ATDC5 cells was confirmed and observed to change alongside chondrocytic differentiation. Next, one of these circRNAs was knocked down in HCS-2/8 cells to investigate the function of the human CCN2-derived circRNA. As a result, CCN2-derived circRNA knockdown significantly reduced the expression of aggrecan mRNA and proteoglycan synthesis. Our data suggest that CCN2-derived circRNAs are expressed in chondrocytes and play a role in chondrogenic differentiation. Production and role of CCN2-derived RNAs in chondrocytes.

Connective tissue growth factor: Role in trabecular meshwork remodeling and intraocular pressure lowering

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is a distinct signaling molecule modulating many physiological and pathophysiological processes. This protein is upregulated in numerous fibrotic diseases that involve extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. It mediates the downstream effects of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and is regulated via TGF-β SMAD-dependent and SMAD-independent signaling routes. Targeting CTGF instead of its upstream regulator TGF-β avoids the consequences of interfering with the pleotropic effects of TGF-β. Both CTGF and its upstream mediator, TGF-β, have been linked with the pathophysiology of glaucomatous optic neuropathy due to their involvement in the regulation of ECM homeostasis. The excessive expression of these growth factors is associated with glaucoma pathogenesis via elevation of the intraocular pressure (IOP), the most important risk factor for glaucoma. The raised in the IOP is due to dysregulation of ECM turnover resulting in excessive ECM deposition at the site of aqueous humor outflow. It is therefore believed that CTGF could be a potential therapeutic target in glaucoma therapy. This review highlights the CTGF biology and structure, its regulation and signaling, its association with the pathophysiology of glaucoma, and its potential role as a therapeutic target in glaucoma management.

The advance of CCN3 in fibrosis

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is comprised of various extracellular macromolecules, including collagen, enzymes, and glycoproteins, which offer structural and biochemical support to neighboring cells. After tissue injury, extracellular matrix proteins deposit in the damaged tissue to promote tissue healing. However, an imbalance between ECM production and degradation can result in excessive deposition, leading to fibrosis and subsequent organ dysfunction. Acting as a regulatory protein within the extracellular matrix, CCN3 plays a crucial role in numerous biological processes, such as cell proliferation, angiogenesis, tumorigenesis, and wound healing. Many studies have demonstrated that CCN3 can reduce the production of ECM in tissues through diverse mechanisms thereby exerting an inhibitory effect on fibrosis. Consequently, CCN3 emerges as a promising therapeutic target for ameliorating fibrosis.

Cooperation is the key: the CCN biological system as a gate to high complex protein superfamilies' signaling

Cellular signaling is generally understood as the support of communication between contiguous cells belonging to the same tissue or cells being far apart of each other, at a molecular scale, when the message emitted by the transmitters is traveling in liquid or solid matter to reach recipient targets. Subcellular signaling is also important to ensure the proper cell constitution and functioning. However cell signaling is mostly used in the first understanding, to describe how the message sent from one point to another one, will reach a target where it will be interpreted. The Cellular Communication Network (CCN) factors (Perbal et al. 2018) constitute a family of biological regulators thought to be responsible for signaling pathways coordination (Perbal 2018). Indeed, these proteins interact with a diverse group of cell receptors, such as integrins, low density lipoprotein receptors, heparan sulfate proteoglycan receptors (HSPG), and the immunoglobulin superfamily expressed exclusively in the nervous system, or with soluble factors such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPS) and other growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblastic growth factor, and transforming growth factor (TGFbeta). Starting from the recapitulation of basic concepts in enzymology and protein-ligands interactions, we consider, in this manuscript, interpretations of the mechanistic interactions that have been put forward to explain the diversity of CCN proteins biological activities. We suggest that the cross-talks between superfamilies of proteins under the control of CCNs might play a central role in the coordination of developmental signaling pathways.

Temperal and spatial expression of CCN1, CCN3, CCN4, CCN5 and CCN6 proteins in the developing postnatal teeth

CCN proteins are matricellular proteins and are important modulators of development and function of adult organs. However, there is no literature reporting the localization of CCN proteins during postnatal tooth development and the formation of periodontium. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the expression of CCN1, CCN3, CCN4, CCN5 and CCN6 in the developing postnatal teeth. Wistar rats were used at postnatal (PN) 3.5, 7, 16 and 21 days and maxillas were processed for immunohistochemistry. At PN3.5 and PN7, preameloblasts (PA), secretory ameloblasts (SA), odontoblasts (OD) and dental pulp (DP) showed moderate to strong staining for CCN1, CCN4 and CCN6 respectively. CCN5 was intensely expressed in predentin, whereas CCN5 was undetectable in PA, SA, OD and DP. At PN16 and PN21, moderate to strong reaction with CCN1, CCN4 and CCN6 was evident in OD, DP, reduced enamel epithelium (REE), osteoblasts (OB) and periodontal ligament (PDL) respectively, while CCN5 was negative to weakly expressed in REE, OD, DP, OB, PDL and osteocytes (OC). Interestingly, the expression of CCN1, CCN4 and CCN6 was initially negative at PN16 but strong at PN21 in OC. Furthermore, there was no staining for CCN3 in the tissues studied. These results demonstrated that the expression pattern of CCN1, CCN4 and CCN6 is similar and inversely correlated with that of CCN3. CCN5 exhibits a unique distribution pattern. These data indicate that CCN proteins might play regulatory roles in amelogenesis, dentinogenesis, osteogenesis and PDL homeostasis.

The matricellular protein Drosophila Cellular Communication Network Factor is required for synaptic transmission and female fertility

Within the extracellular matrix, matricellular proteins are dynamically expressed nonstructural proteins that interact with cell surface receptors, growth factors, and proteases, as well as with structural matrix proteins. The cellular communication network factors family of matricellular proteins serve regulatory roles to regulate cell function and are defined by their conserved multimodular organization. Here, we characterize the expression and neuronal requirement for the Drosophila cellular communication network factor family member. Drosophila cellular communication network factor is expressed in the nervous system throughout development including in subsets of monoamine-expressing neurons. Drosophila cellular communication network factor-expressing abdominal ganglion neurons innervate the ovaries and uterus and the loss of Drosophila cellular communication network factor results in reduced female fertility. In addition, Drosophila cellular communication network factor accumulates at the synaptic cleft and is required for neurotransmission at the larval neuromuscular junction. Analyzing the function of the single Drosophila cellular communication network factor family member will enhance our potential to understand how the microenvironment impacts neurotransmitter release in distinct cellular contexts and in response to activity.

CCN6 influences transcription and controls mitochondrial mass and muscle organization

Mutations in Cellular Communication Network Factor 6 (CCN6) are linked to the debilitating musculoskeletal disease Progressive Pseudo Rheumatoid Dysplasia (PPRD), which disrupts mobility. Yet, much remains unknown about CCN6 function at the molecular level. In this study, we revealed a new function of CCN6 in transcriptional regulation. We demonstrated that CCN6 localizes to chromatin and associates with RNA Polymerase II in human chondrocyte lines. Using zebrafish as a model organism we validated the nuclear presence of CCN6 and its association with RNA Polymerase II in different developmental stages from 10 hpf embryo to adult fish muscle. In concurrence with these findings, we confirmed the requirement of CCN6 in the transcription of several genes encoding mitochondrial electron transport complex proteins in the zebrafish, both in the embryonic stages and in the adult muscle. Reduction in the expression of these genes upon morpholino-mediated knockdown of CCN6 protein expression led to reduced mitochondrial mass, which correlated with defective myotome organization during zebrafish muscle development. Overall, this study suggests that the developmental musculoskeletal abnormalities linked with PPRD could be contributed at least partly by impaired expression of genes encoding mitochondrial electron transport complexes due to defects in CCN6 associated transcriptional regulation.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 reduces coronary atherosclerosis in pigs with familial hypercholesterolemia

Although murine models of coronary atherosclerotic disease have been used extensively to determine mechanisms, limited new therapeutic options have emerged. Pigs with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH pigs) develop complex coronary atheromas that are almost identical to human lesions. We reported previously that insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) reduced aortic atherosclerosis and promoted features of stable plaque in a murine model. We administered human recombinant IGF-1 or saline (control) in atherosclerotic FH pigs for 6 months. IGF-1 decreased relative coronary atheroma in vivo (intravascular ultrasound) and reduced lesion cross-sectional area (postmortem histology). IGF-1 increased plaque's fibrous cap thickness, and reduced necrotic core, macrophage content, and cell apoptosis, consistent with promotion of a stable plaque phenotype. IGF-1 reduced circulating triglycerides, markers of systemic oxidative stress, and CXCL12 chemokine levels. We used spatial transcriptomics (ST) to identify global transcriptome changes in advanced plaque compartments and to obtain mechanistic insights into IGF-1 effects. ST analysis showed that IGF-1 suppressed FOS/FOSB factors and gene expression of MMP9 and CXCL14 in plaque macrophages, suggesting possible involvement of these molecules in IGF-1's effect on atherosclerosis. Thus, IGF-1 reduced coronary plaque burden and promoted features of stable plaque in a pig model, providing support for consideration of clinical trials.

Inception and establishment of the International CCN Society (ICCNS) and of the Journal of Cell Communication and Signaling (JCCS): A response to A. Leask's Editorial entitled "Modeling the microenvironment special issue"

A little over a year ago, on January 25, 2021, the new Editor-in-Chief (EiC) of JCCS stated in his Editorial: "ICCNS and JCCS were the brainchildren of Bernard Perbal, and without his energy and drive, neither would exist, to the detriment of us who are driven to solve difficult problems in science, and not picking low-hanging fruit. All one has to do is examine all the editorials written in JCCS (and CCS!) to see evidence of this. It will be tough to fill those shoes."I disagree with the assertion in the Editorial published on March 29, 2022 that G. Martin contributed "to the initial growth of the International CCN Society, and, ultimately, to the establishment of this journal." My opinion is based on the evidence that the International CCN Society (ICCNS) and its official organ journal, the Journal of Cell Communication and Signaling (JCCS), were created by myself. Over a span of 21 years until the present, and in spite of his contribution to the early history of CTGF, we never heard from G. Martin being involved or interested in any aspect of the ICCNS and its biannual meetings, nor in any aspect in the growth of JCCS.In order to further clarify the confusion stemming from the Editorial in question and to give credit where it is due, I provide below detailed evidence that undoubtedly ascribes the true inception of both ICCNS and JCCS, and merit to the efforts of all those who trusted and supported us during the initial difficult creative moments.I am of the opinion that the Editorial, and the implications that it carries do not justice to the efforts of those who were really involved in the creation of both the ICCNS and JCCS.In the name of respectful scientific integrity, I will provide the evidence that correctly attributes the inception of ICCNS and JCCS.

Molecular and Genetic Interactions between CCN2 and CCN3 behind Their Yin-Yang Collaboration

Cellular communication network factor (CCN) 2 and 3 are the members of the CCN family that conduct the harmonized development of a variety of tissues and organs under interaction with multiple biomolecules in the microenvironment. Despite their striking structural similarities, these two members show contrastive molecular functions as well as temporospatial emergence in living tissues. Typically, CCN2 promotes cell growth, whereas CCN3 restrains it. Where CCN2 is produced, CCN3 disappears. Nevertheless, these two proteins collaborate together to execute their mission in a yin–yang fashion. The apparent functional counteractions of CCN2 and CCN3 can be ascribed to their direct molecular interaction and interference over the cofactors that are shared by the two. Recent studies have revealed the mutual negative regulation systems between CCN2 and CCN3. Moreover, the simultaneous and bidirectional regulatory system of CCN2 and CCN3 is also being clarified. It is of particular note that these regulations were found to be closely associated with glycolysis, a fundamental procedure of energy metabolism. Here, the molecular interplay and metabolic gene regulation that enable the yin–yang collaboration of CCN2 and CCN3 typically found in cartilage development/regeneration and fibrosis are described.

The TSP-1 domain of the matricellular protein CCN5 is essential for its nuclear localization and anti-fibrotic function

The matricellular protein CCN5 exerts anti-fibrotic activity in hearts partly by inducing reverse trans-differentiation of myofibroblasts (MyoFBs) to fibroblasts (FBs). CCN5 consists of three structural domains: an insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP), a von Willebrand factor type C (VWC), and a thrombospondin type 1 (TSP-1). In this study, we set out to elucidate the roles of these domains in the context of the reverse trans-differentiation of MyoFBs to FBs. First, human cardiac FBs were trans-differentiated to MyoFBs by treatment with TGF-β; this was then reversed by treatment with recombinant human CCN5 protein or various recombinant proteins comprising individual or paired CCN5 domains. Subcellular localization of these recombinant proteins was analyzed by immunocytochemistry, cellular fractionation, and western blotting. Anti-fibrotic activity was also evaluated by examining expression of MyoFB-specific markers, α-SMA and fibronectin. Our data show that CCN5 is taken up by FBs and MyoFBs mainly via clathrin-mediated endocytosis, which is essential for the function of CCN5 during the reverse trans-differentiation of MyoFBs. Furthermore, we showed that the TSP-1 domain is essential and sufficient for endocytosis and nuclear localization of CCN5. However, the TSP-1 domain alone is not sufficient for the anti-fibrotic function of CCN5; either the IGFBP or VWC domain is needed in addition to the TSP-1 domain.

The multifaceted role of Matricellular Proteins in health and cancer, as biomarkers and therapeutic targets

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of a mesh of proteins, proteoglycans, growth factors, and other secretory components. It constitutes the tumor microenvironment along with the endothelial cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, adipocytes, and immune cells. The proteins of ECM can be functionally classified as adhesive proteins and matricellular proteins (MCP). In the tumor milieu, the ECM plays a major role in tumorigenesis and therapeutic resistance. The current review encompasses thrombospondins, osteonectin, osteopontin, tenascin C, periostin, the CCN family, laminin, biglycan, decorin, mimecan, and galectins. The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are also discussed as they are an integral part of the ECM with versatile functions in the tumor stroma. In this review, the role of these proteins in tumor initiation, growth, invasion and metastasis have been highlighted, with emphasis on their contribution to tumor therapeutic resistance. Further, their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets based on existing evidence are discussed. Owing to the recent advancements in protein targeting, the possibility of agents to modulate MCPs in cancer as therapeutic options are discussed.

The CCN axis in cancer development and progression

Since the authors first reviewed this subject in 2016 significant progress has been documented in the CCN field with advances made in the understanding of how members of the CCN family of proteins, CCN1-6, contribute to the pathogenesis and progression, positive and negative, of a larger variety of cancers. As termed matricellular proteins, and more recently the connective communication network, it has become clearer that members of the CCN family interact complexly with other proteins in the extracellular microenvironment, membrane signaling proteins, and can also operate intracellularly at the transcriptional level. In this review we expand on this earlier information providing new detailed information and insights that appropriate a much greater involvement and importance of their role in multiple aspects of cancer. Despite all the new information many more questions have been raised and intriguing results generated that warrant greater investigation. In order to permit the reader to smoothly integrate the new information we discuss all relevant CCN members in the context of cancer subtypes. We have harmonized the nomenclature with CCN numbering for easier comparisons. Finally, we summarize what new has been learned and provide a perspective on how our knowledge about CCN1-6 is being used to drive new initiatives on cancer therapeutics.

Cellular communication network factor 3 in cartilage development and maintenance

Cellular communication network factor (CCN) 3 is one of the classical members of the CCN family, which are characterized by common molecular structures and multiple functionalities. Although this protein was discovered as a gene product overexpressed in a truncated form in nephroblastoma, recent studies have revealed its physiological roles in the development and homeostasis of mammalian species, in addition to its pathological association with a number of diseases. Cartilage is a tissue that creates most of the bony parts and cartilaginous tissues that constitute the human skeleton, in which CCN3 is also differentially produced to exert its molecular missions therein. In this review article, after the summary of the molecular structure and function of CCN3, recent findings on the regulation of ccn3 expression and the roles of CCN3 in endochondral ossification, cartilage development, maintenance and disorders are introduced with an emphasis on the metabolic regulation and function of this matricellular multifunctional molecule.

Matricellular protein WISP2 is an endogenous inhibitor of collagen linearization and cancer metastasis

Collagen remodeling contributes to many physiological and pathological processes. In primary tumors, the linearization of collagen fibers promotes cancer cell invasion and metastasis and is indicative of poor prognosis. However, it remains unknown whether there are endogenous inhibitors of collagen linearization that could be exploited therapeutically. Here, we show that collagen linearization is controlled by two secreted matricellular proteins with antagonistic functions. Specifically, WISP1 was secreted by cancer cells, bound to type I collagen (Col I), and linearized Col I via its cysteine-rich C-terminal (CT) domain. In contrast, WISP2, which lacks a CT domain, inhibited Col I linearization by preventing WISP1-Col I binding. Analysis of patient data revealed that WISP2 expression is lower in most solid tumors, in comparison to normal tissues. Consequently, genetic or pharmacological restoration of higher WISP2 levels impaired collagen linearization and prevented tumor cell invasion and metastasis in vivo in models of human and murine breast cancer. Thus, this study uncovers WISP2 as the first inhibitor of collagen linearization ever identified and reveals that collagen architecture can be normalized and metastasis inhibited by therapeutically restoring a high WISP2:WISP1 ratio.

CCN3 Proteins as a diagnostic marker in osteosarcoma patients: A case control study

BACKGROUND

Osteosarcoma is the most prevalent type of primary bone sarcoma and is the major cause of deaths associated with cancer in children and adolescents. Despite novel and innovative therapies, early diagnosis of the osteosarcoma is still critically needed. Our study aimed to analyse the CCN3 proteins as a diagnostic marker and correlate their expression level with the severity of primary osteosarcoma patients.

METHODS

In this prospective case-control study, after ethical clearance and informed consent, a total of 35 cases with primary osteosarcoma and ten otherwise healthy controls were enroled according to our strict inclusion-exclusion criteria. Tissue samples were collected during biopsy procedures in suspected cases and in controls during bone grafting procedures. The CCN3 expression level was measured by the western blotting assay. The clinic-radiological examinations were done in cases and graded according to the AJCC classification. Comparisons of CCN3 expression were measured between cases and controls, followed by correlation of their expression level with severity/grade of osteosarcoma in cases.

RESULTS

All the demographic parameters showed insignificant differences. The CCN3 protein expressions were significantly upregulated in tissue samples of osteosarcoma patients (cases) compared to controls. The mean difference (p<0.0001) in CCN3 protein expression between cases' and controls' bony tissues was significant but showed insignificant correlation with the different grades of osteosarcoma.

CONCLUSIONS

The upregulated CCN3 protein expression in osteosarcoma tissue along with significant differential manifestation in accordance with different grades of osteosarcoma make CCN3 suitable for a potential diagnostic biomarker. However, the author recommends further extensive multi-centric collaborative studies to increase our study reliability and generalizability.

Ccn6 Is Required for Mitochondrial Integrity and Skeletal Muscle Function in Zebrafish

Mutations in the CCN6 (WISP3) gene are linked with a debilitating musculoskeletal disorder, termed progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia (PPRD). Yet, the functional significance of CCN6 in the musculoskeletal system remains unclear. Using zebrafish as a model organism, we demonstrated that zebrafish Ccn6 is present partly as a component of mitochondrial respiratory complexes in the skeletal muscle of zebrafish. Morpholino-mediated depletion of Ccn6 in the skeletal muscle leads to a significant reduction in mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly and activity, which correlates with loss of muscle mitochondrial abundance. These mitochondrial deficiencies are associated with notable architectural and functional anomalies in the zebrafish muscle. Taken together, our results indicate that Ccn6-mediated regulation of mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly/activity and mitochondrial integrity is important for the maintenance of skeletal muscle structure and function in zebrafish. Furthermore, this study suggests that defects related to mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly/activity and integrity could be an underlying cause of muscle weakness and a failed musculoskeletal system in PPRD.

CCN2/CTGF promotor activity in the developing and adult mouse eye

CCN2/CTGF is a matricellular protein that is known to enhance transforming growth factor-β signaling and to induce a myofibroblast-like phenotype in a variety of cell types. Here, we investigated Ccn2/Ctgf promotor activity during development and in the adult mouse eye, using CTGF^LacZ/+ mice in which the β-galactosidase reporter gene LacZ had been inserted into the open reading frame of Ccn2/Ctgf. Promotor activity was assessed by staining for β-galactosidase activity and by immunolabeling using antibodies against β-galactosidase. Co-immunostaining using antibodies against glutamine synthetase, glial fibrillary acidic protein, choline acetyltransferase, and CD31 was applied to identify specific cell types. Ccn2/Ctgf promotor activity was intense in neural crest-derived cells differentiating to corneal stroma and endothelium, and to the stroma of choroid, iris, ciliary body, and the trabecular meshwork during development. In the adult eye, a persistent and very strong promotor activity was present in the trabecular meshwork outflow pathways. In addition, endothelial cells of Schlemm’s canal, and of retinal and choroidal vessels, retinal astrocytes, Müller glia, and starburst amacrine cells were stained. Very strong promoter activity was seen in the astrocytes of the glial lamina at the optic nerve head. We conclude that CCN2/CTGF signaling is involved in the processes that govern neural crest morphogenesis during ocular development. In the adult eye, CCN2/CTGF likely plays an important role for the trabecular meshwork outflow pathways and the glial lamina of the optic nerve head.

LncRNA-mRNA Co-Expression Analysis Identifies AL133346.1/CCN2 as Biomarkers in Pediatric B-Cell Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Simple Summary

Dysregulation of noncoding RNAs has been described in numerous types of cancers and it has been associated with oncogenic or tumor suppressor activities. However, the signature of clinically relevant noncoding RNAs in pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia is still poorly understood. In a search for long non-coding RNAs that characterize pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, we found that the long non-coding RNA AL133346.1 and a neighbouring protein-coding mRNA (CCN2) were significantly over-expressed in leukemia samples compared to healthy bone marrow. Survival analysis showed that patients with high CCN2 expression had a significantly better prognosis. These data suggest that AL133346.1/CCN2 could be useful for discriminating subtypes of leukemia and that CCN2 expression could predict the prognosis of pediatric patients with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Abstract

Pediatric acute B-cell lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) constitutes a heterogeneous and aggressive neoplasia in which new targeted therapies are required. Long non-coding RNAs have recently emerged as promising disease-specific biomarkers for the clinic. Here, we identified pediatric B-ALL-specific lncRNAs and associated mRNAs by comparing the transcriptomic signatures of tumoral and non-tumoral samples. We identified 48 lncRNAs that were differentially expressed between pediatric B-ALL and healthy bone marrow samples. The most relevant lncRNA/mRNA pair was AL133346.1/CCN2 (previously known as RP11-69I8.3/CTGF), whose expression was positively correlated and increased in B-ALL samples. Their differential expression pattern and their strong correlation were validated in external B-ALL datasets (Therapeutically Applicable Research to Generate Effective Treatments, Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia). Survival curve analysis demonstrated that patients with “high” expression levels of CCN2 had higher overall survival than those with “low” levels (p = 0.042), and this gene might be an independent prognostic biomarker in pediatric B-ALL. These findings provide one of the first detailed descriptions of lncRNA expression profiles in pediatric B-ALL and indicate that these potential biomarkers could help in the classification of leukemia subtypes and that CCN2 expression could predict the survival outcome of pediatric B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients.

Emerging role of CCN family proteins in fibrosis

Fibrosis is a common pathological change characterized by the excessive accumulation of fibrous connective tissue. Once uncontrolled, this pathological progress can lead to irreversible damage to the structure and function of organs, which is a serious threat to human health and life. Actually, the disability and death of patients caused by many chronic diseases have a closed relationship with fibrosis. The CCN protein family, including six members, is a small group of matrix proteins exhibiting structurally similar features. In the past 20 years, different biological functions of CCN proteins have been identified in various diseases. Of note, it has been recently shown that they are implicated in the key pathological process of fibrosis. In this review, we summarize the current status of knowledge regarding the role of CCN proteins involved in the pathogenesis of fibrosis diseases in detail. Furthermore, we highlight some of the underlying interaction mechanisms of CCN protein acting in fibrosis that helps to develop new drugs and determine appropriate clinical strategies for fibrotic diseases.

CCN3 is dynamically regulated by treatment and disease state in multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated disease that damages myelin in the central nervous system (CNS). We investigated the profile of CCN3, a known regulator of immune function and a potential mediator of myelin regeneration, in multiple sclerosis in the context of disease state and disease-modifying treatment.

METHODS

CCN3 expression was analysed in plasma, immune cells, CSF and brain tissue of MS patient groups and control subjects by ELISA, western blot, qPCR, histology and in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

Plasma CCN3 levels were comparable between collective MS cohorts and controls but were significantly higher in progressive versus relapsing-remitting MS and between patients on interferon-β versus natalizumab. Higher body mass index was associated with higher CCN3 levels in controls as reported previously, but this correlation was absent in MS patients. A significant positive correlation was found between CCN3 levels in matched plasma and CSF of MS patients which was absent in a comparator group of idiopathic intracranial hypertension patients. PBMCs and CD4+ T cells significantly upregulated CCN3 mRNA in MS patients versus controls. In the CNS, CCN3 was detected in neurons, astrocytes and blood vessels. Although overall levels of area immunoreactivity were comparable between non-affected, demyelinated and remyelinated tissue, the profile of expression varied dramatically.

CONCLUSIONS

This investigation provides the first comprehensive profile of CCN3 expression in MS and provides rationale to determine if CCN3 contributes to neuroimmunological functions in the CNS.

WISP2 promotes cell proliferation via targeting ERK and YAP in ovarian cancer cells

Background

Wnt-inducible signaling pathway protein 2 (WISP2) is a wnt1-induced signaling pathway protein 2. Although studies indicate that WISP2 may promote the development of various tumors, its role in ovarian cancer remains unclear. The objective of the current study was to analyze the effects of WISP2 on the proliferation and migration of ovarian cancer cells in vitro and in vivo.

Results

Immunohistochemistry and western blotting indicated that WISP2 was highly expressed in various ovarian cancer tissues and cell lines, but weakly expressed in normal ovary tissue. WISP2 deletion inhibited cell growth, clone formation, and migration of ovarian cancer cells while promoting cell apoptosis and affecting the cell cycle. This growth inhibitory effect caused by WISP2 loss is due to the inhibition of phosphorylated extracellular signal-related kinase (p-ERK)1/2, as well as CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α (CEBPα) and CEPBβ. In addition, WISP2 deletion also activated the Yes-associated protein (YAP).

Conclusion

WISP2 deletion inhibits ovarian cancer cell proliferation by affecting ERK signaling pathways.

CCN6 regulates mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly and activity

Cellular communication network factor 6 (CCN6) mutations are linked with Progressive Pseudo Rheumatoid Dysplasia (PPRD) a debilitating musculoskeletal disorder. The function of CCN6 and the mechanism of PPRD pathogenesis remain unclear. Accordingly, we focused on the functional characterization of CCN6 and CCN6 mutants. Using size exclusion chromatography and native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis we demonstrated that CCN6 is present as a component of the mitochondrial respiratory complex in human chondrocyte lines. By means of siRNA-mediated transfection and electron microscopy we showed that moderate reduction in CCN6 expression decreases the RER- mitochondria inter-membrane distance. Parallel native PAGE, immunoblotting and Complex I activity assays furthermore revealed increase in both mitochondrial distribution of CCN6 and mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly/activity in CCN6 depleted cells. CCN6 mutants resembling those linked with PPRD, which were generated by CRISPR-Cas9 technology displayed low level of expression of mutant CCN6 protein and inhibited respiratory complex assembly/activity. Electron microscopy and MTT assay of the mutants revealed abnormal mitochondria and poor cell viability. Taken together, our results indicate that CCN6 regulates mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly/activity as part of the mitochondrial respiratory complex by controlling the proximity of RER with the mitochondria, and CCN6 mutations disrupt mitochondrial respiratory complex assembly/activity resulting in mitochondrial defects and poor cell viability.

Paracrine effects of CCN3 from non-cancerous hepatic cells increase signaling and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The liver microenvironment plays a key role in the progression and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Gene expression profiling of non-cancerous hepatic tissues obtained from patients with metastatic HCC exhibit a unique immune response signature, including upregulation of CCN3. However, the role of CCN3 secreted from non-cancerous hepatic tissues in the progression of HCC remains unclear.

METHODS

Using tissue microarrays, we examined CCN3 in non-cancerous hepatic tissues of patients with HCC and correlated expression with clinical and pathological features. In addition, CCN3 localization and mechanisms of HCC progression were investigated in tissues and cell lines. Finally, correlations between CCN3 and cirrhosis were explored in patients.

RESULTS

CCN3 was primarily localized to hepatic cells of non-cancerous hepatic tissues and was associated with vascular invasion and poor prognosis in patients with HCC. CCN3 expression in non-cancerous hepatic tissues also correlated with the degree of liver fibrosis. Compared with conditioned media from wild-type LO2 cells, conditioned media from hepatic cell line LO2 activated by LX2 (aLO2-CM) induced CCN3 expression and HCC cell proliferation and metastasis. Further, aLO2-CM activated MAPK signaling and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in HCC cells. Finally, CCN3 was inversely related to cirrhosis in the prognosis of HCC and negatively regulated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in vitro with downregulation of α-SMA, TGF-β, and collagens.

CONCLUSIONS

CCN3 was secreted from hepatic cells activated by HSCs and increased MAPK signaling, EMT, proliferation and metastasis of HCC cells. CCN3 was also inversely related to cirrhosis, regulating HSCs through a negative feedback loop.

CCN3 and DLL1 co-regulate osteogenic differentiation of mouse embryonic fibroblasts in a Hey1-dependent manner

Notch signaling pathway is one of the most important pathways to regulate intercellular signal transduction and is crucial in the regulation of bone regeneration. Nephroblastoma overexpressed (NOV or CCN3) serves as a non-canonical secreted ligand of Notch signaling pathway and its role in the process of osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) was undefined. Here we conducted a comprehensive study on this issue. In vivo and in vitro studies have shown that CCN3 significantly inhibited the early and late osteogenic differentiation of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), the expression of osteogenesis-related factors, and the subcutaneous ectopic osteogenesis of MEFs in nude mice. In mechanism studies, we found that CCN3 significantly inhibited the expression of BMP9 and the activation of BMP/Smad and BMP/MAPK signaling pathways. There was also a mutual inhibition between CCN3 and DLL1, one of the classic membrane protein ligands of Notch signaling pathway. Additionally, we further found that Hey1, the target gene shared by BMP and Notch signaling pathways, partially reversed the inhibitory effect of CCN3 on osteoblastic differentiation of MEFs. In summary, our findings suggested that CCN3 significantly inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of MEFs. The inhibitory effect of CCN3 was mainly through the inhibition of BMP signaling and the mutual inhibition with DLL1, so as to inhibit the expression of Hey1, the target gene shared by BMP and Notch signaling pathways.

Regenerating CNS myelin: Emerging roles of regulatory T cells and CCN proteins

Efficient myelin regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) requires the migration, proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC) into myelinating oligodendrocytes. In demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), this regenerative process can fail, and therapies targeting myelin repair are currently completely lacking in the clinic. The immune system is emerging as a key regenerative player in many tissues, such as muscle and heart. We recently reported that regulatory T cells (Treg) are required for efficient CNS remyelination. Furthermore, Treg secrete CCN3, a matricellular protein from the CCN family, implicated in regeneration of other tissues. Treg-derived CCN3 promoted oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination. In contrast, previous studies showed that CCN2 inhibited myelination. These studies highlight the need for further scrutiny of the roles that CCN proteins play in myelin development and regeneration. Collectively, these findings open up exciting avenues of research to uncover the regenerative potential of the adaptive immune system.

The official unified nomenclature adopted by the HGNC calls for the use of the acronyms, CCN1-6, and discontinuation in the use of CYR61, CTGF, NOV and WISP 1-3 respectively

An examination of the confusion generated around the use of different acronyms for CCN proteins has been performed by the editors of the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee upon the request of the International CCN Society Scientific Committee. After careful consideration of the various arguments, and after polling the community of researchers who have published in the field over the past ten years, the HGNC have decided to adopt and approve the CCN nomenclature for all 6 genes. Effective October 2018, the genes referred to as CYR61, CTGF, NOV and WISP1-3 will be respectively designated by the gene symbols CCN1-6 with corresponding gene names « cellular communication Q2 network factor 1-6 ». We believe that this decision will be a step towards better communication between researchers working in the field, and will set the stage for fruitful collaborative projects. Accordingly, the Journal of Cell Communication and Signaling, the official journal of the International CCN Society, available both in print and online, constitutes a unique window into the CCN field. This official nomenclature will benefit the international scientific community that is supported by the established and renowned professionalism of the Springer-Nature publishing group.

Reduced NOV expression correlates with disease progression in colorectal cancer and is associated with survival, invasion and chemoresistance of cancer cells

Aberrant expression of nephroblastoma overexpressed (NOV) has been evident in certain malignancies. In the current study, we aim to investigate the role played by NOV in colorectal cancer (CRC). NOV expression was determined in a cohort of 359 CRC tissues and 174 normal colorectal tissues. Its impact on CRC cells was investigated using in vitro NOV knockdown and overexpression models. NOV transcripts were reduced in the CRC tumours compared with the paired adjacent normal colorectal tissues (p < 0.01) and was associated with distant metastases. NOV knockdown resulted in increased cell proliferation and invasion of RKO cells, whilst an opposite effect was seen in the HT115 NOV over expressing cells. A positive association between Caspase-3/-8 and NOV was seen in NOV knockdown and overexpression cell lines which contributed to the survival of serum deprived CRC cells. Further investigation showed that NOV regulated proliferation, survival and invasion through the JNK pathway. NOV knockdown in RKO cells reduced the responsiveness to 5-Fluorouracil treatment, whilst overexpression in HT115 cells exhibited a contrasting effect. Taken together, NOV is reduced in CRC tumours and this is associated with disease progression. NOV inhibits the proliferation and invasion of CRC cells in vitro. Inhibition of proliferation is mediated by a regulation of Caspase-3/-8, via the JNK pathway, which has potential for predicting and preventing chemoresistance.

The concept of the CCN protein family revisited: a centralized coordination network

The wide array of biological properties attributed to the CCN family of proteins (Perbal in Lancet 363(9402):62-64, 2004) led me to reconsider the possible relationship and roles that these proteins may play as a team, instead of acting on their own as individual regulators in various signaling pathways. The dynamic model which I present in this review stems from the contribution of the biological properties that we established for CCN3, one of the three founding members of the CCN family, which was identified by our group as the first CCN protein showing growth inhibitory properties (1992), expressed mainly in quiescent cells (1996), and showing anti-tumor activities in several cellular models both ex vivo and in vivo. At the present time CCN3 is the only member of the family that has been reported to negatively act on the progression of the cell cycle. The unique dual localisation of CCN3 in the nucleus and outside cells, either at the membrane or in the extracellular matrix, that I first established in 1999, and that now appears to be shared by several other CCN proteins, is a unique essential feature which can no longer be ignored. Based on the structural and functional properties of CCN3, shared by most of the CCN family members, I propose an « all in one » concept in which CCN proteins are team members with specific functions that are aimed at the same goal. This model accounts both for the functional specificity of the various CCN proteins, their sequential and opposite or complementary effects in various biological context, and for the biological consequences of their physical interaction and biological cross-regulation.

CCN5/WISP2 and metabolic diseases

Obesity and type 2 diabetes increase worldwide at an epidemic rate. It is expected that by the year 2030 around 500 million people will have diabetes; predominantly type 2 diabetes. The CCN family of proteins has become of interest in both metabolic and other common human diseases because of their effects on mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) proliferation and differentiation as well as being important regulators of fibrosis. We here review current knowledge of the WNT1 inducible signaling pathway protein 2 (CCN5/WISP2). It has been shown to be an important regulator of both these processes through effects on both the canonical WNT and the TGFβ pathways. It is also under normal regulation by the adipogenic commitment factor BMP4, in contrast to conventional canonical WNT ligands, and allows MSCs to undergo normal adipose cell differentiation. CCN5/WISP2 is highly expressed in, and secreted by, MSCs and is an important regulator of MSCs growth. In a transgenic mouse model overexpressing CCN5/WISP2 in the adipose tissue, we have shown that it is secreted and circulating in the blood, the mice develop hypercellular white and brown adipose tissue, have increased lean body mass and enlarged hypercellular hearts. Obese transgenic mice had improved insulin sensitivity. Interestingly, the anti-fibrotic effect of CCN5/WISP2 is protective against heart failure by inhibition of the TGFβ pathway. Understanding how CCN5/WISP2 is regulated and signals is important and may be useful for developing new treatment strategies in obesity and metabolic diseases and it can also be a target in regenerative medicine.

The concept of the CCN protein family revisited: a centralized coordination network

The wide array of biological properties attributed to the CCN family of proteins (Perbal in Lancet 363(9402):62-64, 2004) led me to reconsider the possible relationship and roles that these proteins may play as a team, instead of acting on their own as individual regulators in various signaling pathways. The dynamic model which I present in this review stems from the contribution of the biological properties that we established for CCN3, one of the three founding members of the CCN family, which was identified by our group as the first CCN protein showing growth inhibitory properties (1992), expressed mainly in quiescent cells (1996), and showing anti-tumor activities in several cellular models both ex vivo and in vivo. At the present time CCN3 is the only member of the family that has been reported to negatively act on the progression of the cell cycle. The unique dual localisation of CCN3 in the nucleus and outside cells, either at the membrane or in the extracellular matrix, that I first established in 1999, and that now appears to be shared by several other CCN proteins, is a unique essential feature which can no longer be ignored. Based on the structural and functional properties of CCN3, shared by most of the CCN family members, I propose an « all in one » concept in which CCN proteins are team members with specific functions that are aimed at the same goal. This model accounts both for the functional specificity of the various CCN proteins, their sequential and opposite or complementary effects in various biological context, and for the biological consequences of their physical interaction and biological cross-regulation.

Notch1-WISP-1 axis determines the regulatory role of mesenchymal stem cell-derived stromal fibroblasts in melanoma metastasis

Mesenchymal stem cells-derived fibroblasts (MSC-DF) constitute a significant portion of stromal fibroblasts in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and are key modulators of tumor progression. However, the molecular mechanisms that determine their tumor-regulatory function are poorly understood. Here, we uncover the Notch1 pathway as a molecular determinant that selectively controls the regulatory role of MSC-DF in melanoma metastasis. We demonstrate that the Notch1 pathway's activity is inversely correlated with the metastasis-regulating function of fibroblasts and can determine the metastasis-promoting or -suppressing phenotype of MSC-DF. When co-grafted with melanoma cells, MSC-DFNotch1-/- selectively promote, while MSC-DFN1IC+/+ preferentially suppress melanoma metastasis, but not growth, in mouse models. Consistently, conditioned media (CM) from MSC-DFNotch1-/- and MSC-DFN1IC+/+ oppositely, yet selectively regulates migration, but not growth of melanoma cells in vitro. Additionally, when co-cultured with metastatic melanoma cells in vitro, MSC-DFNotch1-/- support, while MSC-DFN1IC+/+ inhibit melanoma cells in the formation of spheroids. These findings expand the repertoire of Notch1 signaling as a molecular switch in determining the tumor metastasis-regulating function of MSC-DF. We also identified Wnt-induced secreted protein-1 (WISP-1) as a key downstream secretory mediator of Notch1 signaling to execute the influential role of MSC-DF on melanoma metastasis. These findings reveal the Notch1-WISP-1 axis as a crucial molecular determinant in governing stromal regulation of melanoma metastasis; thus, establishing this axis as a potential therapeutic target for melanoma metastasis.

A friend in knee: CCN3 may inhibit osteoarthritis progression

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major clinical problem among the ageing population, yet no disease-modifying treatments currently exist. This issue arises, in part, due to the complex processes occurring in the microenvironment of articular cartilage that lead to osteoarthritic changes. Gaining a better understanding of these processes is crucial in developing a viable therapy for OA. A recent report in Journal of Bone Mineral Metabolism by Janune et al. (J Bone Miner Metab 35:582–597, 2016) suggests a novel role for CCN3 in maintaining the differentiated phenotype of articular cartilage. This report suggests that CCN3, a member of the CCN family of matricellular proteins, is important for proteoglycan accumulation, as well as expression of type II collagen, tenascin C, and lubricin in vitro. Furthermore, exogenous CCN3 increased tidemark integrity and lubricin protein expression in a rat model of OA. These results implicate the regulation of CCN3 as a potential therapeutic target in patients with OA.

A Microarray Study of Carpet-Shell Clam (Ruditapes decussatus) Shows Common and Organ-Specific Growth-Related Gene Expression Differences in Gills and Digestive Gland

Growth rate is one of the most important traits from the point of view of individual fitness and commercial production in mollusks, but its molecular and physiological basis is poorly known. We have studied differential gene expression related to differences in growth rate in adult individuals of the commercial marine clam Ruditapes decussatus. Gene expression in the gills and the digestive gland was analyzed in 5 fast-growing and five slow-growing animals by means of an oligonucleotide microarray containing 14,003 probes. A total of 356 differentially expressed genes (DEG) were found. We tested the hypothesis that differential expression might be concentrated at the growth control gene core (GCGC), i.e., the set of genes that underlie the molecular mechanisms of genetic control of tissue and organ growth and body size, as demonstrated in model organisms. The GCGC includes the genes coding for enzymes of the insulin/insulin-like growth factor signaling pathway (IIS), enzymes of four additional signaling pathways (Raf/Ras/Mapk, Jnk, TOR, and Hippo), and transcription factors acting at the end of those pathways. Only two out of 97 GCGC genes present in the microarray showed differential expression, indicating a very little contribution of GCGC genes to growth-related differential gene expression. Forty eight DEGs were shared by both organs, with gene ontology (GO) annotations corresponding to transcription regulation, RNA splicing, sugar metabolism, protein catabolism, immunity, defense against pathogens, and fatty acid biosynthesis. GO term enrichment tests indicated that genes related to growth regulation, development and morphogenesis, extracellular matrix proteins, and proteolysis were overrepresented in the gills. In the digestive gland overrepresented GO terms referred to gene expression control through chromatin rearrangement, RAS-related small GTPases, glucolysis, and energy metabolism. These analyses suggest a relevant role of, among others, some genes related to the IIS, such as the ParaHox gene Xlox, CCAR and the CCN family of secreted proteins, in the regulation of growth in bivalves.

WISP1/CCN4 aggravates cartilage degeneration in experimental osteoarthritis

OBJECTIVE

Increased Wisp1 expression was previously reported in experimental and human osteoarthritis (OA). Moreover, adenoviral overexpression of Wisp1 in naïve mouse knee joints resulted in early OA-like cartilage lesions. Here, we determined how the matricellular protein WISP1 is involved in the pathology that occurs in the complex osteoarthritic environment with aging and experimental OA in wild type (WT) and Wisp1^-/- mice.

METHODS

WT and Wisp1^-/- mice were aged or experimental OA was induced with intraarticular collagenase injection, destabilization of the medial meniscus (DMM) or anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT). Joint pathology was assessed using histology and microCT. Protease expression was evaluated with qRT-PCR and activity was determined by immunohistochemical staining of the aggrecan neoepitope NITEGE. Protease expression in human end-stage OA synovial tissue was determined with qRT-PCR after stimulation with WISP1.

RESULTS

With aging, spontaneous cartilage degeneration in Wisp1^-/- was not decreased compared to their WT controls. However, we observed significantly decreased cartilage degeneration in Wisp1^-/- mice after induction of three independent experimental OA models. While the degree of osteophyte formation was comparable between WT and Wisp1^-/- mice, increased cortical thickness and reduced trabecular spacing was observed in Wisp1^-/- mice. In addition, we observed decreased MMP3/9 and ADAMTS4/5 expression in Wisp1^-/- mice, which was accompanied by decreased levels of NITEGE. In line with this, stimulation of human OA synovium with WISP1 increased the expression of various proteases.

CONCLUSIONS

WISP1 plays an aggravating role in the development of post-traumatic experimental OA.

The connexin 43 C-terminus: A tail of many tales

Connexins are chordate gap junction channel proteins that, by enabling direct communication between the cytosols of adjacent cells, create a unique cell signalling network. Gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) has important roles in controlling cell growth and differentiation and in tissue development and homeostasis. Moreover, several non-canonical connexin functions unrelated to GJIC have been discovered. Of the 21 members of the human connexin family, connexin 43 (Cx43) is the most widely expressed and studied. The long cytosolic C-terminus (CT) of Cx43 is subject to extensive post-translational modifications that modulate its intracellular trafficking and gap junction channel gating. Moreover, the Cx43 CT contains multiple domains involved in protein interactions that permit crosstalk between Cx43 and cytoskeletal and regulatory proteins. These domains endow Cx43 with the capacity to affect cell growth and differentiation independently of GJIC. Here, we review the current understanding of the regulation and unique functions of the Cx43 CT, both as an essential component of full-length Cx43 and as an independent signalling hub. We highlight the complex regulatory and signalling networks controlled by the Cx43 CT, including the extensive protein interactome that underlies both gap junction channel-dependent and -independent functions. We discuss these data in relation to the recent discovery of the direct translation of specific truncated forms of Cx43. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Gap Junction Proteins edited by Jean Claude Herve.

Role of CCN5 (WNT1 inducible signaling pathway protein 2) in pancreatic islets

In search of direct targets of insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 action, we discovered CCN5 (WNT1 inducible signaling pathway protein 2 [WISP2]) as a novel protein expressed in pancreatic β-cells. As a member of the "CCN" ( C ysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 [Cyr61], C onnective tissue growth factor [CTGF in humans], and N ephroblastoma overexpressed [Nov; in chickens]) family, the expression of CCN5/WISP2 is stimulated by IGF-1 together with Wnt signaling. When overexpressed in insulinoma cells, CCN5 promotes cell proliferation and cell survival against streptozotocin-induced cell death. The cell proliferation effect seems to be caused by AKT phosphorylation and increased cyclin D1 levels. These properties resemble those of CCN2/CTGF, another isoform of the CCN family, although CCN5 is the only one within the family of six proteins that lacks the C-terminal repeat. Treatment of primary mouse islets with recombinant CCN5 protein produced similar effects to those of gene transfection, indicating that either as a matricellular protein or a secreted growth factor, CCN5 stimulates β-cell proliferation and regeneration in a paracrine fashion. This review also discusses the regulation of CCN5/WISP2 by estrogen and its involvement in angiogenesis and tumorigenesis.

Regulatory T cells promote myelin regeneration in the central nervous system

Regeneration of CNS myelin involves differentiation of oligodendrocytes from oligodendrocyte progenitor cells. In multiple sclerosis, remyelination can fail despite abundant oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, suggesting impairment of oligodendrocyte differentiation. T cells infiltrate the CNS in multiple sclerosis, yet little is known about T cell functions in remyelination. We report that regulatory T cells (T_reg) promote oligodendrocyte differentiation and (re)myelination. T_reg-deficient mice exhibited substantially impaired remyelination and oligodendrocyte differentiation, which was rescued by adoptive transfer of T_reg. In brain slice cultures, T_reg accelerated developmental myelination and remyelination, even in the absence of overt inflammation. T_reg directly promoted oligodendrocyte progenitor cell differentiation and myelination in vitro. We identified CCN3 as a T_reg-derived mediator of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination in vitro. These findings reveal a new regenerative function of T_reg in the CNS, distinct from immunomodulation. Although the cells were originally named 'T_reg' to reflect immunoregulatory roles, this also captures emerging, regenerative T_reg functions.

CCN3-EZH2-AR feedback loop: new targets for enzalutamide and castration resistant prostate cancer

The development of castration resistant prostate cancer and anti-androgen resistance remains one of the largest hurdles in the successful treatment of prostate cancer. Therefore, the identification of dysregulated pathways contributing to this resistance and determining ways to target these mechanisms is of utmost importance. In the recent publication in Cancer Research, Fong et al. identify a novel role for cytoplasmic CCN3 in prostate cancer progression and enzalutamide resistance. The authors demonstrate that CCN3 expression inhibits androgen receptor signaling and thereby suppresses enzalutamide-resistant prostate cancer cell proliferation, colony formation, and xenograft tumor growth. The data from this manuscript highlight an intriguing potential therapeutic target for the treatment of CRPC and are a critical step forwards towards treating enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer.

Periostin is required for matricellular localization of CCN3 in periodontal ligament of mice

CCN3 is a matricellular protein that belongs to the CCN family. CCN3 consists of 4 domains: insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-like domain (IGFBP), von Willebrand type C-like domain (VWC), thrombospondin type 1-like domain (TSP1), and the C-terminal domain (CT) having a cysteine knot motif. Periostin is a secretory protein that binds to extracellular matrix proteins such as fibronectin and collagen. In this study, we found that CCN3 interacted with periostin. Immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that the TSP1-CT interacted with the 4 repeats of the Fas 1 domain of periostin. Immunofluorescence analysis showed co-localization of CCN3 and periostin in the periodontal ligament of mice. In addition, targeted disruption of the periostin gene in mice decreased the matricellular localization of CCN3 in the periodontal ligament. Thus, these results indicate that periostin was required for the matricellular localization of CCN3 in the periodontal ligament, suggesting that periostin mediated an interaction between CCN3 and the extracellular matrix.

Polycomb-Mediated Disruption of an Androgen Receptor Feedback Loop Drives Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer

The lethal phenotype of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) is generally caused by augmented signaling from the androgen receptor (AR). Here, we report that the AR-repressed gene CCN3/NOV inhibits AR signaling and acts in a negative feedback loop to block AR function. Mechanistically, a cytoplasmic form of CCN3 interacted with the AR N-terminal domain to sequester AR in the cytoplasm of prostate cancer cells, thereby reducing AR transcriptional activity and inhibiting cell growth. However, constitutive repression of CCN3 by the Polycomb group protein EZH2 disrupted this negative feedback loop in both CRPC and enzalutamide-resistant prostate cancer cells. Notably, restoring CCN3 was sufficient to effectively reduce CPRC cell proliferation in vitro and to abolish xenograft tumor growth in vivo Taken together, our findings establish CCN3 as a pivotal regulator of AR signaling and prostate cancer progression and suggest a functional intersection between Polycomb and AR signaling in CRPC. Cancer Res; 77(2); 412-22. ©2016 AACR.

Expression of CCN Genes and Proteins in Human Skin: Methods and Protocols

CCN proteins are vital to a variety of biological processes that contribute to the normal development and function of skin. Quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (qPCR) quantifies mRNA levels of these key genes. Immunostaining localizes CCN proteins within skin tissue, and provides semiquantitative information regarding relative levels of the proteins. Reliable determinations of the expression levels of CCN genes and proteins are essential to uncovering their roles in skin physiology and pathology.

Differential expression of CCN family members CYR611, CTGF and NOV in gastric cancer and their association with disease progression

CCN is an acronym for cysteine-rich protein 61 (CYR61), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and nephroblastoma overexpressed (NOV). Aberrations of certain CCN members including CYR61, CTGF, Wnt1-inducible signalling pathway protein (WISP)-1 and -3 have been reported in gastric cancer. The present study aimed to examine the clinical relevance of NOV along with CYR61 and CTGF in gastric cancer by analysing their transcript levels. CYR61, CTGF and NOV transcript expression in 324 gastric cancer samples with paired adjacent normal gastric tissues were determined using real-time quantitative PCR and the results were statistically analysed against patient clinicopathological data using SPSS software. NOV mRNA levels in gastric cancer tissues were significantly elevated when compared with levels in their paired adjacent non-cancerous tissues. Local advanced tumours with invasive expansion (T3 and T4) expressed higher levels of NOV (p=0.013) compared with the less invasive tumours (T1 and T2). CYR61 transcript levels were also significantly increased in gastric cancers compared with levels in the adjacent non-cancerous tissues. Kaplan-Meier survival curves revealed that patients with CYR61-low transcript levels had longer overall survival (OS) (p=0.018) and disease-free survival (DFS) (p=0.015). NOV overexpression promoted the in vitro proliferation of AGS cells while the knockdown resulted in a reduced proliferation of HGC27 cells. A similar effect was observed for the invasion of these two gastric cancer cell lines. NOV expression was increased in gastric cancer which was associated with local invasion and distant metastases. Taken together, the expression of NOV and CYR61 was increased in gastric cancer. The elevated expression of CYR61 was associated with poorer survival. NOV promoted proliferation and invasion of gastric cancer cells. Further investigations may highlight their predictive and therapeutic potential in gastric cancer.

The CCN family of proteins: a 25th anniversary picture

The CCN family of proteins is composed of six members, which are now well recognized as major players in fundamental biological processes. The first three CCN proteins discovered were designated CYR61, CTGF, and NOV because of the context in which they were identified. Both CYR61 and CTGF were discovered in normal cells, whereas NOV was identified in tumors. Soon after their discovery, it was established that they shared important and unique structural features and distinct biological properties. Based on these structural considerations, the three proteins were proposed to belong to a family that was designated CCN by P. Bork. Hence the CCN1, CCN2 and CCN3 acronyms. The family grew to six members a few years later with the description of three proteins WISP-1, WISP-2 and WISP-3 (CCN4, CCN5 and CCN6), that shared the same tetramodular and conserved structural features. With the functions of the CCN proteins being uncovered, this raised a nomenclature problem. A scientific committee convened in Saint Malo (France) proposed to apply the CCN nomenclature to the six members of the family. Although the unified nomenclature was proposed in order to avoid serious misconceptions and lack of precision associated with the use of the old acronyms, the acceptance of the new acronyms has taken time. In order to evaluate how the use of disparate nomenclatures have had an impact on the CCN protein field, we conducted a survey of the articles that have been published in this area since the discovery of the first CCN proteins and inception of the field. We report in this manuscript the confusion and serious deleterious scientific consequences that have stemmed from a disorganized usage of several unrelated acronyms. The conclusions that we have reached call for a unification that needs to overcome personal habits and feelings. Instead of allowing the CCN field to fully crystalize and gain the recognition that it deserves the usage of many different acronyms represents a danger that everyone must fight against in order to avoid its deliquescence. We hope that the considerations discussed in the present article will encourage all authors working in the CCN field to work jointly and succeed in building a strong and coherent CCN scientific community that will benefit all of us.

CCN family of proteins: critical modulators of the tumor cell microenvironment

The CCN family of proteins consisting of CCN1 (Cyr61), CCN2 (CTGF), CCN3 (NOV), CCN4 (WISP-1), CCN5 (WISP-2) and CCN6 (WISP-3) are considered matricellular proteins operating essentially in the extracellular microenvironment between cells. Evidence has also been gradually building since their first discovery of additional intracellular roles although the major activity is triggered at the cell membrane. The proteins consist of 4 motifs, a signal peptide (for secretion} followed consecutively by the IGFBP, VWC, TSP1 and CT (C-terminal cysteine knot domain) motifs, which signify their potential binding partners and functional connections to a variety of key regulators of physiological processes. With respect to cancer it is now clear that, whereas certain members can facilitate tumor behavior and progression, others can competitively counter the process. It is therefore clear that the net outcome of biological interactions in the matrix and what gets signaled or inhibited can be a function of the interplay of these CCN 1-6 proteins. Because the CCN proteins further interact with other key proteins, like growth factors in the matrix, the balance is not only important but can vary dynamically with the physiological states of tumor cells and the surrounding normal cells. The tumor niche with its many cell players has surfaced as a critical determinant of tumor behavior, invasiveness, and metastasis. It is in this context that CCN proteins should be investigated with the potential of being recognized and validated for future therapeutic approaches.

Agonists and Antagonists of TGF-β Family Ligands

The discovery of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family ligands and the realization that their bioactivities need to be tightly controlled temporally and spatially led to intensive research that has identified a multitude of extracellular modulators of TGF-β family ligands, uncovered their functions in developmental and pathophysiological processes, defined the mechanisms of their activities, and explored potential modulator-based therapeutic applications in treating human diseases. These studies revealed a diverse repertoire of extracellular and membrane-associated molecules that are capable of modulating TGF-β family signals via control of ligand availability, processing, ligand-receptor interaction, and receptor activation. These molecules include not only soluble ligand-binding proteins that were conventionally considered as agonists and antagonists of TGF-β family of growth factors, but also extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins and proteoglycans that can serve as "sink" and control storage and release of both the TGF-β family ligands and their regulators. This extensive network of soluble and ECM modulators helps to ensure dynamic and cell-specific control of TGF-β family signals. This article reviews our knowledge of extracellular modulation of TGF-β growth factors by diverse proteins and their molecular mechanisms to regulate TGF-β family signaling.

Therapeutic potential of cysteine-rich protein 61 in rheumatoid arthritis

Cysteine-rich protein 61 (Cyr61)/CCN1, a product of an immediate early gene, can directly accommodate cell adhesion and migratory processes whilst simultaneously regulating the production of other cytokines and chemokines through paracrine and autocrine feedback loops. This intricate functionality of Cyr61 indicate its important role in targeting components of the infectious or chronic inflammatory disease processes including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Recent work has focused on the role of Cyr61 in RA. For example, Cyr61 induced proIL-1β production in FLS via the AKT-dependent NF-κB signaling pathway. Moreover, Cyr61-siRNA decreased the levels of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-3 and MMP-13, and induced apoptosis in RA-FLS cells. These results indicated that Cyr61 may represent a novel target for the treatment of RA. In this article we will introduce the molecular properties of Cyr61, discuss the function of Cyr61, and the therapeutic potential of modulating the Cyr61 in RA.

CCN6 regulates mitochondrial function

Despite established links of CCN6, or Wnt induced signaling protein-3 (WISP3), with progressive pseudo rheumatoid dysplasia, functional characterization of CCN6 remains incomplete. In light of the documented negative correlation between accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and CCN6 expression, we investigated whether CCN6 regulates ROS accumulation through its influence on mitochondrial function. We found that CCN6 localizes to mitochondria, and depletion of CCN6 in the chondrocyte cell line C-28/I2 by using siRNA results in altered mitochondrial electron transport and respiration. Enhanced electron transport chain (ETC) activity of CCN6-depleted cells was reflected by increased mitochondrial ROS levels in association with augmented mitochondrial ATP synthesis, mitochondrial membrane potential and Ca(2+) Additionally, CCN6-depleted cells display ROS-dependent PGC1α (also known as PPARGC1A) induction, which correlates with increased mitochondrial mass and volume density, together with altered mitochondrial morphology. Interestingly, transcription factor Nrf2 (also known as NFE2L2) repressed CCN6 expression. Taken together, our results suggest that CCN6 acts as a molecular brake, which is appropriately balanced by Nrf2, in regulating mitochondrial function.

Role of sphingosine kinase/S1P axis in ECM remodeling of cardiac cells elicited by relaxin

The initiation and progression of heart failure is linked to adverse cardiac remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) during disease mainly through the deregulation of myocardial metalloproteinases (MMPs). Relaxin (RLX), a peptide hormone acting as a physiological cardiac effector, is a key regulator of ECM remodeling in reproductive and nonreproductive tissues. Studying primary cultures of mouse cardiac muscle cells and rat H9c2 cardiomyoblasts, we have obtained evidence for a new signaling pathway activated by RLX to induce ECM remodeling that involves the bioactive sphingolipids sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) and ceramide. In both cell populations, recombinant human RLX increased sphingosine kinase activity and S1P formation, whereas sphingomyelin and ceramide content were decreased in [(3)H]serine-labeled cells. According to the literature, RLX promoted MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression/release. Pharmacological inhibition of sphingolipid metabolism and silencing of sphingosine kinase 1, the enzyme responsible for S1P formation, were able to prevent MMP expression/release elicited by the hormone and induce the expression of tissue inhibitor of MMPs. In addition, we found that sphingolipid signaling is required for the regulation of connective tissue growth factor, a member of the CCN 1-3 family of genes that are involved in cell proliferation and differentiation. Finally, the induction of cardiomyoblast maturation induced by RLX was also found to be counteracted by inhibition of S1P formation. In conclusion, these findings provide a novel mechanism by which RLX acts on cardiac ECM remodeling and cardiac cell differentiation and offer interesting therapeutic options to prevent heart fibrosis and to favor myocardial regeneration.