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Tsai MM, Olarte DA, Hager ER, Cohen JFW, Turner L. Prevalence of Recess and Supportive Practices at a Nationwide Sample of Public Elementary Schools in the United States. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2024; 94:366-373. [PMID: 37395014 DOI: 10.1111/josh.13368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recess provides an important opportunity for children to be physically active during weekdays. Updated, nationally representative, prevalence estimates of elementary school recess practices in the United States are needed. METHODS Surveys were sent to a nationally representative sample of 1010 public elementary schools in the 2019-2020 school year. Results were compared by region (Northeast, Midwest, South, West), urbanicity, size, racial and ethnic composition, and socioeconomic status (percent eligible for free/reduced-priced meals). RESULTS A total of 559 responses were obtained. About 87.9% of schools provided at least 20 minutes of daily recess and 26.6% had trained recess supervisors. Most schools did not allow students to voluntarily stay inside during recess (71.6%) and around half prohibited withholding recess for poor behavior (45.6%) or to complete schoolwork (49.5%). Several practices varied by region, and withholding recess was more prevalent among schools with lower student socioeconomic makeup. IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY Regular national surveillance of recess practices can inform policy needs and efforts to advance equitable access to recess. Quality and access should be considered when developing recess policies. CONCLUSIONS Most United States elementary schools provide recess. However, regional and economic disparities exist. Promoting supportive practices for recess, particularly for schools serving lower-income communities, is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisa M Tsai
- University of California Berkeley, School of Public Health, Division of Epidemiology, Berkeley Way West, Berkeley, CA
| | - Deborah A Olarte
- Center for Health Inclusion, Research and Practice, Department of Public Health and Nutrition, School of Health Sciences, Merrimack College, North Andover, MA
| | - Erin R Hager
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Baltimore, MD
| | - Juliana F W Cohen
- Center for Health Inclusion, Research and Practice, Department of Public Health and Nutrition, School of Nursing and Health Sciences, Merrimack College, North Andover, MA; Adjunt Professor, Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA
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Poulos A, Wilson K, Schulke M, Nam K, Ohri-Vachaspati P, Bai Y, Kulinna PH. A natural experiment to assess recess frequency on children's physical activity in Arizona (U.S.) elementary schools. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:225. [PMID: 38238751 PMCID: PMC10797942 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-023-17605-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the United States, the number of state policies mandating recess in schools has rapidly increased over the past decade; however, few policies specify recess frequency. Informed by an ecological model of physical activity (PA) policy, this study examined and compared total amounts and intensity of PA expended during recess among children attending schools in compliance with Arizona recess policy ARS§ 15-118 mandating 2 + daily recess periods versus not. METHODS PA during recess was measured among grade three children (ages 8-10) in four randomly selected elementary schools (two complying averaging 30 daily recess minutes; two non-complying averaging 15 daily recess minutes) in Maricopa County, Arizona. Group-level PA was assessed by direct observation using the System for Observing Play and Leisure (137 observations). A subset of students (N = 134) from all schools wore ActiGraph GT3X + devices during recess to measure individual PA. General linear mixed effects models were used to analyze the impact of recess frequency on group and individual PA during recess. RESULTS Students attending complying schools spent significantly greater proportions of time in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) based on direct observation (5%) and accelerometry (15%) and less time being sedentary based on accelerometry (14%) during recess. Across the school day, this would equate to 5.1 more MVPA minutes based on systematic direct observation and 9.5 more MVPA minutes based on accelerometry, and 4.1 less minutes being sedentary based on accelerometry if students received two daily 15-minute recess periods compared to one. CONCLUSIONS Students attending elementary schools implementing 2 + recesses, in accordance with state policy, demonstrated greater MVPA and less sedentary time, providing preliminary evidence that recess frequency is associated with greater PA intensity among children during recess. Schools that adhere to state-level PA policies may provide a more supportive environment for PA, resulting in increased movement among students. Specifying recess frequency should be considered in statewide recess policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Poulos
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, ABC 222 425 North 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA.
| | - Kylie Wilson
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, ABC 222 425 North 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA
| | - Marissa Schulke
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, ABC 222 425 North 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA
| | - Kahyun Nam
- Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Punam Ohri-Vachaspati
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, ABC 222 425 North 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ, 85004, USA
| | - Yang Bai
- Department of Health and Kinesiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
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Messing S, Tcymbal A, Abu-Omar K, Gelius P. Research- vs. government-driven physical activity policy monitoring: a systematic review across different levels of government. Health Res Policy Syst 2023; 21:124. [PMID: 38012659 PMCID: PMC10680174 DOI: 10.1186/s12961-023-01068-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Even though the importance of physical activity policy monitoring has increased in the last decade, there is a lack of understanding what different approaches exist and which methodology they employ. In order to address this research gap, this review attempts to map existing approaches of physical activity policy monitoring and to analyse methodological aspects, especially with regards to the roles of governments and researchers. METHODS A systematic search was conducted in five scientific databases (PubMed, Scopus, SportDiscus, Psycinfo, Web of Knowledge) in July 2021, and the identified records were screened independently by two reviewers. Records were included if they (a) focused on the monitoring of public policies to promote PA, (b) allowed to compare policies across time, across nations/regions or across policy sectors, and (c) were written in English, German or Russian. During full text analysis, information on methodological aspects was extracted and studies were categorized based on the level of government involvement. RESULTS The search yielded in a total of 112 studies. 86 of these studies (76.8%) followed a research-driven approach (little or no government involvement) while only two studies (1.8%) were based on a government-driven approach (led by governments). The remaining 24 studies (21.4%) were based on a co-production approach (strong collaboration between researchers and governments). All in all, 18 different tools for physical activity policy monitoring were identified; key examples are the Report Cards on Physical Activity for Children and Youth (research-driven approach), the HEPA Monitoring Framework (government-driven approach) and the HEPA Policy Audit Tool (co-production approach). CONCLUSIONS The level of government involvement in policy monitoring differs significantly, and research-driven, government-driven and co-production approaches can be distinguished. These approaches have different strengths and weaknesses, and can be linked to distinct theories of change and models on research-policy relations. Increasing awareness on the implications of these approaches is key to improve the understanding and further development of physical activity policy monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Messing
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany.
| | - Antonina Tcymbal
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Karim Abu-Omar
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Peter Gelius
- Department of Sport Science and Sport, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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He J, Yu H, Jiang M, Bialas M. A research synthesis on successful educational practices and student outcomes for physical education in schools. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1280871. [PMID: 37849483 PMCID: PMC10577211 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1280871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Although successful educational practices (SEPs) in higher education institutions have well-established student outcomes, the vast majority do not meet physical education standards in schools. Despite the promising nature of policy initiatives supporting schools, there is scant evidence of how these SEPs affect student outcomes. This review aimed to determine the status of the literature and the type of evidence regarding school SEPs. Several studies have demonstrated that these SEPs contribute directly or indirectly to improving student outcomes. Three objectives were examined and synthesized in our review of SEP research findings. The first goal is to identify different types of impacts on students in schools. The second goal is to provide educators, principals, and policymakers with a unified and comprehensive framework. Lastly, we provide suggestions for future SEP research. The review identified 45 studies that met our inclusion criteria. Our reviewed studies documented impacts on the individual level. It encompasses both students' instrumental abilities and their sense of self-esteem and motivation. Secondly, improving interpersonal relationships, reducing conflict, and increasing group cohesion are important components at the group level. Finally, there are factors at the community level, including absenteeism reduction, parental involvement, and changes in attitudes toward school. Current research supports the effectiveness of successful school practices. It stresses the importance of implementing policies to maximize student outcomes. Finally, the review concludes by discussing findings implications and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan He
- Department of Sport, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Hongli Yu
- Department of Sport, Gdansk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdansk, Poland
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Kahan D, Poulos A. Models of school recess for combatting overweight in the United States. Prev Med Rep 2022; 31:102081. [PMID: 36820369 PMCID: PMC9938318 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.102081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The aim of the study was to quantify and compare potential energy expenditure associated with school recess in the U.S. based on four scenarios: professional recommendations and state policies for the conduct of recess, previous studies that measured physical activity intensity during recess (i.e., reality), and no daily recess. Methods Estimated energy expenditure (kcal) was modeled using secondary data over six years of elementary school for boys and girls using a standard formula: Intensity × duration × frequency × mass . Results Boys and girls would expend similar energy under the professional recommendation (boys, 69,146 kcal; girls, 63,993 kcal) and state policy (boys, 69,532 kcal; girls, 64,351 kcal) scenarios. These values are significantly greater than a no recess scenario (boys, 26,974 kcal; girls, 24,821 kcal). The greatest energy expenditure was found for the reality scenario, based on actual studies that measured physical activity intensity (boys, 82,208 kcal; girls, 75,628 kcal). Conclusions Professional recommendations and state policies for recess duration may be overly conservative and recommendations for percentage of MVPA may be overly liberal compared to the reality of energy expended during recess. Both potential and real estimates dwarf a scenario of withholding recess (i.e., no recess), which is discouraged in only six state policies. Mandated reporting with "groundtruthing" is needed to determine true recess frequency/duration and state policy compliance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kahan
- Spadoni College of Education and Social Sciences, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, SC, USA,Corresponding author at: Spadoni College of Education and Social Sciences, Coastal Carolina University, P.O. Box 261954, Conway, SC, USA.
| | - Allison Poulos
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
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Clevenger KA, Perna FM, Moser RP, Berrigan D. Associations Between State Laws Governing Recess Policy with Children's Physical Activity and Health. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2022; 92:976-986. [PMID: 35266151 PMCID: PMC9458774 DOI: 10.1111/josh.13157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND State-level laws governing recess policies vary widely across the United States. We characterize the presence of such laws and assess their associations with child-level outcomes. METHODS The presence of a state recess law was determined using the Classification of Laws Associated with School Students (CLASS) database. Parents of 6- to 11-year-old children reported physical activity, overall health, school absences, school-related problems, and ability to make/keep friends as part of the National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH). Logistic regression was used to compare outcomes in states with and without recess laws cross-sectionally in 2018 and between 2003 and 2011/2012 using a difference-in-differences analysis. RESULTS In 2018, 20 states had a law recommending or requiring recess. Cross-sectionally, the odds of being physically active every day (odds ratio, 95% confidence interval: 2.8, 1.2-6.5) and having no difficulty making or keeping friends (2.9, 1.2-7.2) were significantly higher for children residing in states with versus without a recess law. There were no significant associations in the difference-in-differences model. CONCLUSIONS Significant cross-sectional associations in 2018 were not confirmed by a difference-in-differences analysis of two waves of the NSCH. Short follow-up time and the apparent weakness of existing state laws warrant further assessment of state-level recess law.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A Clevenger
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - Frank M Perna
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - Richard P Moser
- Office of the Associate Director, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - David Berrigan
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
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Clevenger KA, Lowry M, Perna FM, Berrigan D. Cross-Sectional Association of State Recess Laws With District-Level Policy and School Recess Provision in the United States. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2022; 92:996-1004. [PMID: 35416309 DOI: 10.1111/josh.13189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND State recess laws are recommended to encourage adequate and equitable access to recess and its benefits, but the downstream effects of state recess laws are unknown. We examined the association of state recess laws with district-level policy and school recess provision. METHODS This is cross-sectional analysis of the School Health Policies and Practices Survey, a US nationally representative sample of school districts (2016) and schools (2014). State-level recess laws were coded as none, recommend, or require recess. Logistic and linear regression were used to examine the association between state law with district policies and school recess provision, respectively. Data from 2000 are presented to highlight changes in recess policy and provision over time. RESULTS The odds of a district policy requiring recess were 2.22 and 2.34 times greater when state recess law recommended or required recess, respectively, compared to states with no recess policy. There were no significant differences in school-level recess provision by state recess law but point estimates from 2000 indicated states without a law had the largest declines in recess provision over time. CONCLUSIONS State recess laws are positively associated with district-level policy. Effects at the school level are unclear and continued surveillance is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly A Clevenger
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - Mark Lowry
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - Frank M Perna
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
| | - David Berrigan
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, 9609 Medical Centre Dr, Rockville, MD, 20850
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Poulos A, Kulinna PH. A cluster randomized controlled trial of an after-school playground curriculum intervention to improve children's physical, social, and emotional health: study protocol for the PLAYground project. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:1658. [PMID: 36050657 PMCID: PMC9434531 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-13991-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The public health benefits of physical activity for children are well known including contributions to metabolic and cardiorespiratory health. Along with physical benefits, engaging in physical activity can support the social and emotional health of youth and promote health and well-being into adulthood. This cluster-randomized controlled trial assesses the impact of an after-school curriculum aimed at improving physically active and inclusive play to promote physical, social, and emotional health. A secondary focus is on the implementation (appropriateness, feasibility, fidelity, sustainability) of the curriculum. METHODS The PLAYground (Play and Learning Activities for Youth) project utilizes a social-ecological approach, targeting personal, behavioral, and environmental conditions, and Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to study how a playground curriculum impacts children's health. All elementary schools with an existing after-school program in a large, public school district in Mesa, Arizona will be eligible to participate. Seven schools will be allocated to the intervention arm in year one using random sampling stratified by school-income. In year two, the seven control schools will receive the intervention. Intervention schools will implement the research-based PlayOn!® playground curriculum to promote active and inclusive play. After-school staff will be trained to teach activities that address social and emotional skills (e.g., conflict resolution) through physical activity. Participating students will be trained as peer leaders to extend the playground activities to the recess setting. This trial will assess between-group differences in physical activity, social and emotional health indicators, and number of health and behavior incidents among students attending intervention schools and control schools. Implementation outcomes will also be assessed among program facilitators at each school site. DISCUSSION Enhancement of physical activity opportunities at schools has the potential for high impact and reach due to practicality. Enhancements can also improve quality pedagogy and curricula in after-school settings. Results of this project can inform practical strategies to improve existing after-school programs to prepare leaders (adults and children) to facilitate physical activity, positive social interactions, and emotional well-being. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT ID NCT05470621 , Registered July 22, 2022.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Poulos
- College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
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Prochnow T, Patterson MS, Bridges Hamilton CN, Umstattd Meyer MR. Summer Friends and Physical Activity: Social Network Effects on Child Self-Reported Physical Activity at Summer Care Programs. HEALTH EDUCATION & BEHAVIOR 2022; 49:10901981221076399. [PMID: 35227130 DOI: 10.1177/10901981221076399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Summer is a time of reduced physical activity (PA) for children; however, summer care programs (SCPs) can provide opportunities for children to be active and foster friendships. This study investigated associations between PA and friendship formation at SCPs. Children (ages 8-12 years) from two SCPs reported demographics, PA, and up to five friends at the program. Exponential random graph modeling determined significant factors associated with connections at each time point and between time points. PA was a significant factor in sending and maintaining friendship connections. A further understanding of the social dynamics which assist in the maintenance of PA behaviors during summer may improve the odds children engage in the recommended amounts of PA during this crucial time.
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How to Make Physical Activity Promotion Work in Thai Schools: Perspectives of Multiple Stakeholders. J Phys Act Health 2021; 19:63-70. [PMID: 34902839 DOI: 10.1123/jpah.2021-0504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study aimed to determine current practice in physical activity (PA) promotion in Thai schools, explore barriers and facilitators to PA promotion within the school setting, and identify strategies to support schools' future practice. METHODS A qualitative study design was applied comprising document analysis, focus groups, in-depth interviews, and onsite observations. The focus groups and in-depth interviews were conducted with 144 informants, purposively recruited through 24 schools in 4 regions across Thailand. Inductive content analysis was used. RESULTS Most schools were promoting PA in the absence of written policies, and without an accurate understanding of PA. Nonalignment of school performance indicators and policies, concerns about children's academic performance, and lack of budget were raised as barriers to PA promotion, whereas strong partnerships with multiple local stakeholders facilitated school-based PA promotion. Mandated government PA policies and more information support were suggested as strategies to enhance schools' future practices. CONCLUSIONS For PA promotion to be successful in the school setting, significant challenges will need to be addressed. Results from this study help the government and concerned stakeholders to better understand the situation at the school level, and further strive for achieving the target PA levels specified in the National PA Plan.
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Stylianou M, Woodforde J, Duncombe S, Kolbe-Alexander T, Gomersall S. School physical activity policies and associations with physical activity practices and behaviours: A systematic review of the literature. Health Place 2021; 73:102705. [PMID: 34844131 DOI: 10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The development and implementation of school policies is considered a key strategy for the promotion of physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents. This study aimed to systematically review and synthesise existing literature focusing on the associations between formal written school-based PA policies and (a) school PA practices and (b) PA behaviours of school-aged children and adolescents. Fifty-one papers reporting on 52 studies met the eligibility criteria. All but two studies were from high income countries, most used cross-sectional designs and demonstrated fair methodological quality, and just over a third examined language aspects of policies. Findings predominantly indicated a lack of or inconclusive associations between the various characteristics examined and PA outcomes. Inconclusive associations were identified between both PA practice and behaviour outcomes and state level policies, policies focusing on PE and school-day PA, and in studies examining language aspects of policies. Inconclusive associations with both types of outcomes were more likely to be identified compared to a lack of associations in studies using self-report measures and in studies not providing information about the quality of exposure and outcome measures used. Overall, findings highlight the need for further research that acknowledges the complex relationship between school policies and PA outcomes and employs robust methodological approaches to enhance our understanding of this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michalis Stylianou
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia.
| | - James Woodforde
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Stephanie Duncombe
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Tracy Kolbe-Alexander
- School of Health & Wellbeing, University of Southern Queensland, lpswich, Queensland, 4305, Australia
| | - Sjaan Gomersall
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia; School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
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Thalken J, Massey WV, Szarabajko A, Ozenbaugh I, Neilson L. From policy to practice: Examining the role of recess in elementary school. PUBLIC HEALTH IN PRACTICE 2021; 2:100091. [PMID: 36101634 PMCID: PMC9461350 DOI: 10.1016/j.puhip.2021.100091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Study design Methods Results Conclusions School’s investment in recess significantly predicts the quality of the recess environment. Presence of school policies relating to access to recess significantly predicted one measure of children’s physical health. Two thirds of participating elementary schools provide less than 30 minutes of recess per school day.
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Burson SL, Mulhearn SC, Castelli DM, van der Mars H. Essential Components of Physical Education: Policy and Environment. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2021; 92:209-221. [PMID: 34009092 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2021.1884178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: Physical education policies provide guidance and accountability to develop quality programs that increase physical literacy. The purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of physical education policy research to explore its effects on the school environment and programming as an essential component of physical education. Methods: Using the PRISMA guidelines of identify, screen, determine eligibility, and include, studies were extracted from four different databases, using search terms related to the essential physical education component of policy and environment. Of the 225 publications identified, 42 studies met the inclusion criteria for this investigation. Each paper was coded, and emergent themes were identified. Results: The policy research was predominantly descriptive and focused on: (a) minutes in physical education (83%), (b) moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA; 31%), (c) certified/qualified teachers (24%), (d) exemptions (17%), and (e) student-teacher ratio (12%). Emergent themes of adherence, policy strength, and implementation accountability were identified as influential physical education policy aspects. Conclusions: Policy research over the last 20 years was focused on the regulatory mandate of time. Policy research did not directly address disciplinary process variables of learning activities or outcomes of physical education. The effects of policy exemptions and class size were underrepresented. Themes may explain the lack of reporting student performance as the primary outcome. Further research is needed to examine the downstream effects of physical education policy and determine whether well-written policies increase the number of physically literate individuals.
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Woods CB, Volf K, Kelly L, Casey B, Gelius P, Messing S, Forberger S, Lakerveld J, Zukowska J, Bengoechea EG. The evidence for the impact of policy on physical activity outcomes within the school setting: A systematic review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2021; 10:263-276. [PMID: 33482424 PMCID: PMC8167338 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite the well-established health benefits of physical activity (PA) for young people (aged 4-19 years), most do not meet PA guidelines. Policies that support PA in schools may be promising, but their impact on PA behavior is poorly understood. The aim of this systematic review was to ascertain the level and type of evidence reported in the international scientific literature for policies within the school setting that contribute directly or indirectly to increasing PA. METHODS This systematic review is compliant with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis guidelines. Six databases were searched using key concepts of policy, school, evaluation, and PA. Following title and abstract screening of 2323 studies, 25 progressed to data synthesis. Methodological quality was assessed using standardized tools, and the strength of the evidence of policy impact was described based on pre-determined codes: positive, negative, inconclusive, or untested statistically. RESULTS Evidence emerged for 9 policy areas that had a direct or indirect effect on PA within the school setting. These were whole school PA policy, physical education, sport/extracurricular PA, classroom-based PA, active breaks/recess, physical environment, shared use agreements, active school transport, and surveillance. The bulk of the evidence was significantly positive (54%), 27% was inconclusive, 9% was significantly negative, and 11% was untested (due to rounding, some numbers add to 99% or 101%). Frequency of evidence was highest in the primary setting (41%), 34% in the secondary setting, and 24% in primary/secondary combined school settings. By policy area, frequency of evidence was highest for sport/extracurricular PA (35%), 17% for physical education, and 12% for whole school PA policy, with evidence for shared use agreements between schools and local communities rarely reported (2%). Comparing relative strength of evidence, the evidence for shared use agreements, though sparse, was 100% positive, while 60% of the evidence for whole school PA policy, 59% of the evidence for sport/extracurricular PA, 57% of the evidence for physical education, 50% of the evidence for PA in classroom, and 50% of the evidence for active breaks/recess were positive. CONCLUSION The current evidence base supports the effectiveness of PA policy actions within the school setting but cautions against a "one-size-fits-all" approach and emphasizes the need to examine policy implementation to maximize translation into practice. Greater clarity regarding terminology, measurement, and methods for evaluation of policy interventions is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine B Woods
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland.
| | - Kevin Volf
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Liam Kelly
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Bláthín Casey
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
| | - Peter Gelius
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen 91058, Germany
| | - Sven Messing
- Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen 91058, Germany
| | - Sarah Forberger
- Leibniz Institute for Prevention Research and Epidemiology - BIPS, Bremen 28359, Germany
| | - Jeroen Lakerveld
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Science, Amsterdam Public Health Research institute, Amsterdam UMC, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, the Netherlands; Upstream Team, Amsterdam UMC, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam 1081 HV, the Netherlands
| | - Joanna Zukowska
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk 80-213, Poland
| | - Enrique García Bengoechea
- Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick V94 T9PX, Ireland
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Tribby CP, Oh A, Perna F, Berrigan D. Adolescent Physical Activity at Public Schools, Private Schools, and Homeschools, United States, 2014. Prev Chronic Dis 2020; 17:E85. [PMID: 32816666 PMCID: PMC7458113 DOI: 10.5888/pcd17.190450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Physical activity overall and during school-related opportunities among homeschool adolescents are poorly documented. METHODS We used data from the National Cancer Institute's Family Life, Activity, Sun, Health, and Eating (FLASHE) study, a national sample of parent-child dyads. We examined reported frequency of physical activity in middle-school and high-school respondents (N = 1,333). We compared the overall physical activity by school type (ie, public school, private school, and homeschool), compared school-related contexts (eg, recess, physical education [PE] class), and tested for level of physical activity by school for those reporting PE. RESULTS Middle-school homeschool adolescents reported less physical activity during school hours compared with public school, but not private school, adolescents. Physical activity was not different by school type for out of school or weekends. Physical activity of high-school homeschool adolescents was not different from that of high-school adolescents at traditional schools; homeschool adolescents in both middle and high school reported less physical activity in PE compared with public and private school adolescents. Other school-related contexts of physical activity were not different by school type. More homeschool students reported not having PE (middle school, 54.8%; high school, 57.5%) compared with public (middle school, 18.7%; high school, 38.0%) or private schools (middle school, 13.5%; high school, 41.5%). CONCLUSION Homeschool adolescents in middle school reported less physical activity compared with middle-school adolescents in traditional schools during school hours, likely because of having fewer PE classes and less physical activity during PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Calvin P Tribby
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland.,Cancer Prevention Fellowship Program, Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland.,Department of Geography, Room 1023, The Jockey Club Tower, Centennial Campus, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - April Oh
- Health Communication and Informatics Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Frank Perna
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - David Berrigan
- Health Behaviors Research Branch, Behavioral Research Program, Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
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Comprehensive Policies to Support Comprehensive Practices: Physical Activity in Elementary Schools. J Phys Act Health 2020; 17:313-322. [PMID: 32023534 DOI: 10.1123/jpah.2019-0402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schools are a setting in which students learn about the importance of lifelong physical activity (PA). Best practice guidelines indicate that schools should provide students with adequate physical education (PE) minutes and opportunities to engage in PA throughout the school day. METHODS Data from the nationally representative School Nutrition and Meal Cost Study in 2014-2015 were utilized to assess PA practices (including PE) at 412 public elementary schools. These data were linked to state- and district-level policy data from the National Wellness Policy Study to examine the relationships between state law and school district policies and school practices. RESULTS Just over half of the schools were in a state with a policy regarding PE minutes. The comprehensiveness and strength of PA policies were higher at the district level than the state level, but were still low overall. Comprehensiveness of PA policies at the state level, but not at the district level, was related to schools within those states that provide more PA practices. CONCLUSIONS Existence of PE and PA policies at the state level appears to be an important predictor of school PA practices. Having more comprehensive policies at the state level may be an important facilitator of school implementation of comprehensive PA practices.
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Rajbhandari-Thapa J, Ingels J, Thapa K, Davis M, Corso P. Longitudinal evaluation of the impact of school characteristics on changes in physical activity opportunities. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228716. [PMID: 32027725 PMCID: PMC7004365 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Even as many states adopt physical activity policies to promote physical activity and prevent childhood obesity, little is known about differences in policy implementation based on school characteristics. We studied association of school characteristics and changes in physical activity opportunities at the school level during the implementation of a statewide physical activity policy in the state of Georgia. METHODS A web-based school survey was administered to elementary schools at two time points (before and during policy execution). Matched respondents (289 classroom teachers, 234 administrators) reported the frequency and duration of recess and integrated physical activity time. We used paired t-test to assess changes in physical activity opportunities and chi-square tests to assess the association of change in physical activity opportunities with school characteristics. We then constructed a multiple linear regression model following a change score method to identify school-level factors that predict the magnitude of change in physical activity opportunities. RESULTS There was an overall significant increase in total physical activity opportunities across time; however, schools with higher poverty showed a decrease in physical activity time by 5.3 minutes per day (95% CI: -9.2, -1.3). Further, the changes in physical activity time for schools in suburban Georgia were smaller (-5.7, 95% CI: -9.5, -1.9) compared to schools located in towns. CONCLUSIONS The change in physical activity opportunities was not the same across schools and school characteristics predicted the magnitude of change. Additional efforts at the local level might be needed for equitable policy implementation based on schools' geographical location and poverty level of the student population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janani Rajbhandari-Thapa
- Department of Health Policy and Management, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Justin Ingels
- Department of Health Policy and Management, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
| | - Kiran Thapa
- Department of Health Policy and Management, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
| | - Marsha Davis
- Department of Health Promotion and Behavior, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States of America
| | - Phaedra Corso
- Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States of America
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Lounsbery MA, McKenzie TL, Thompson HR. Prioritizing Physical Activity in Schools. TRANSLATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SPORTS MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.1249/tjx.0000000000000108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Michael SL, Brener N, Lee SM, Clennin M, Pate RR. Physical Education Policies in US Schools: Differences by School Characteristics. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2019; 89:494-502. [PMID: 30919960 DOI: 10.1111/josh.12762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We assessed the extent to which schools in the United States implement physical education policies identified in SHAPE America's Essential Components of Physical Education document and how implementation of these policies varies by school characteristics. METHODS School policy data were collected as part of the 2014 School Health Policies and Practices Study via computer-assisted personal interviews in a nationally representative sample of K-12 schools and were linked to extant data on school characteristics. Bivariate analyses and Poisson regression model were used to examine how physical education policies differed by school characteristics. RESULTS Five physical education policies varied by region and 3 varied by school level. Requiring certified, licensed, or endorsed physical education teachers varied by all school characteristics except school level and percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price lunch. The average number of physical education policies implemented by schools was 3.0. The number of policies varied by metropolitan status and school level. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest many schools are only implementing a few of the physical education policies that can strengthen their physical education programs. These findings can be used to target professional development and technical assistance for physical education practitioners on policy and implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon L Michael
- Research Application and Evaluation Team, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway NE (Mailstop S107-6), Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Nancy Brener
- Survey Operations and Dissemination Team, Division of Adolescent and School Health, National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, NE (Mailstop E-75), Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Sarah M Lee
- Research Application and Evaluation Team, Division of Population Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 4770 Buford Highway NE (Mailstop S107-6), Atlanta, GA 30329
| | - Morgan Clennin
- Children's Physical Activity Research Group, Department of Exercise Science, Division of Health Aspects of Physical Activity, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208
| | - Russell R Pate
- Children's Physical Activity Research Group, Children's Physical Activity Research Group, Department of Exercise Science, Division of Health Aspects of Physical Activity, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208
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Kim MS, Cardinal BJ. Differences in university students' motivation between a required and an elective physical activity education policy. JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH : J OF ACH 2019; 67:207-214. [PMID: 29952738 DOI: 10.1080/07448481.2018.1469501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to examine differences in students' physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise metabolic equivalent units (METs) between universities with different physical activity education (PAE) policy arrangements (ie, a required PAE vs. an elective PAE). PARTICIPANTS Participants (N = 953) were purposefully recruited from two universities with different PAE policies 1 week before the start of fall term 2015. METHODS Participants completed questionnaires assessing their physical activity motivation, competence, and weekly exercise METs. RESULTS The results of this study suggest that having a required PAE policy allows for more students with lower self-determined forms of motivation (ie, amotivation) to be reached in comparison to the elective PAE policy. CONCLUSIONS This finding highlights that a primary value of having a required PAE policy is its ability to reach less motivated students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moo Song Kim
- a Department of Health and Kinesiology, College of Education , Northeastern State University , Tahlequah , Oklahoma , USA
| | - Bradley J Cardinal
- b Kinesiology Program, School of Biological and Population Health Sciences, College of Public Health and Human Sciences , Oregon State University , Corvallis , Oregon , USA
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Clennin MN, Demissie Z, Michael SL, Wright C, Silverman S, Chriqui J, Pate RR. Secular Changes in Physical Education Attendance Among U.S. High School Students, 1991-2015. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2018; 89:403-410. [PMID: 30152728 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2018.1502411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to examine changes in school-based physical education (PE) attendance over time among nationally representative samples of U.S. high school students and how changes in PE attendance have varied across demographic subgroups. METHOD Student demographic information and PE attendance data were obtained from 13 biennial cycles (1991-2015) of the national Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS). Physical education variables derived from YRBS data included PE attendance, daily PE, average PE days/week, and PE frequency. Logistic regression models examined trends in PE attendance, daily PE, and PE frequency for the overall sample and demographic subgroups. Linear regression models examined trends in average PE days/week in the overall sample only. RESULTS Overall, there was no significant change in the percentage of students reporting PE attendance during 1991 to 2015. However, daily PE and average PE days/week declined significantly from 1991 to 1995 (41.6% to 25.4% and 4.64 days to 3.64 days, respectively) and then remained stable through 2015 (29.8% and 4.11 days, respectively). The percentage of students reporting a PE frequency of 3 days per week increased significantly from 1991 to 1995 (1.5% to 19.0%) before stabilizing through 2015 (9.1%). Trends across demographic subgroups revealed notable differences in PE attendance. CONCLUSIONS Study findings showed that U.S. schools have not substantially reduced PE amounts in recent years. Still, the prevalence of PE attendance among U.S. high school students is well below recommendations. For PE to contribute to increased adolescent compliance with national physical activity guidelines, significant policy actions are needed to improve PE access for all students.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zewditu Demissie
- b Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- c U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
| | | | - Carly Wright
- d SHAPE America - Society of Health and Physical Educators
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Abstract
PURPOSE Traditional direct observation cannot provide continuous, individual-level physical activity (PA) data throughout recess. This study piloted video direct observation to characterize children's recess PA overall and by sex and weight status. METHODS Children (N = 23; 11 boys; 6 overweight; third to fifth grade) were recorded during 2 recess periods, coding for PA duration, intensity, location, and type. Duration of PA type and intensity across sex and weight status overall and between/within locations were assessed using 1- and 2-way analysis of variances. RESULTS The field elicited more sedentary behavior (39% of time) and light PA (17%) and less moderate to vigorous PA (41%) compared with the fixed equipment (13%, 7%, and 71%, respectively) or the court (21%, 7%, and 68%, respectively). Boys engaged in significantly more vigorous-intensity activity on the court (35%) than girls (14%), whereas girls engaged in more moderate to vigorous PA on the fixed equipment (77% vs 61%) and field (46% vs 35%) than boys (all Ps > .05). PA type also differed by sex and weight status. CONCLUSION Video direct observation was capable of detecting and characterizing children's entire recess PA while providing valuable context to the behavior. The authors confirmed previous findings that PA intensity was not uniform by schoolyard location and further differences exist by sex and weight status.
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Kahan D, McKenzie TL. Correlates of Private Secondary Schools Meeting Physical Education Guidelines. THE JOURNAL OF SCHOOL HEALTH 2018; 88:508-515. [PMID: 29864205 DOI: 10.1111/josh.12633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although there are over 26,000 private schools in the United States, little is known about the relationship of their characteristics to mandated and recommended time allocations for physical education (PE). METHODS Private secondary schools (N = 450; grades 6-12) in California completed a 15-item questionnaire related to school characteristics and PE policies and practices. Using correlational analysis and predictive modeling, we assessed the associations and influences of various factors relative to the schools meeting state (California) and national professional time targets for PE. RESULTS Whereas most schools fell short of meeting PE weekly time recommendations, 5 of 10 tested variables were significantly associated with schools meeting PE minutes/week targets: school enrollment, school level, having a fitness testing policy, PE class size, and not permitting exemptions for PE. Large schools and those serving high school students provided more PE and were more likely to meet PE time allocation standards. Having policies for PE minutes/week and no exemptions for PE were significantly associated with a school having all its PE classes taught by a specialist. CONCLUSIONS Private secondary schools should consider the adoption of professional guidelines related to PE time allocations, class size, conducting physical fitness testing, employing PE specialists, and not permitting exemptions for PE.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kahan
- School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-7251
| | - Thomas L McKenzie
- School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, 5127 Walsh Way, San Diego, CA 92115
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Kahan D, McKenzie TL. Extracurricular Physical Activity Programs in California Private Secondary Schools. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2017; 88:524-529. [PMID: 28929937 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2017.1370073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Interscholastic, intramural, and club physical activity (PA) programs can be important contributors to student PA accrual at schools. Few studies have assessed factors related to the provision of these extracurricular PA programs, especially in private schools. METHODS We used a 16-item questionnaire to assess the associations and influences of selected factors relative to extracurricular PA program policies and practices in 450 private California secondary schools. Associations were evaluated using contingency table analyses (i.e., chi-squared, effect size, and post-hoc analyses). RESULTS Six factors were associated with schools providing extracurricular PA programs: school location, level, enrollment, and religious classification and whether the physical education (PE) program met state PE time standards and was taught by PE specialists. CONCLUSIONS Both static factors (e.g., school location, level, enrollment, and religious affiliation) and modifiable factors (e.g., meeting PE standards and employing specialists) affect the provision of extracurricular PA programs. As education is state-mandated, additional study is recommended to assess the generalizability of these findings to other states and to public schools.
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Kahan D, McKenzie TL. Energy expenditure estimates during school physical education: Potential vs. reality? Prev Med 2017; 95:82-88. [PMID: 27979706 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Revised: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Schools are salient locations for addressing the high prevalence of overweight and obesity. Most US states require some physical education (PE) and the energy expended during PE has potential to positively affect energy balance. We previously used 2012 data to examine state policies for PE to calculate estimated student energy expenditure (EEE) under potential (i.e., recommendations followed) and existing conditions. Since then, data have been updated on both state policies and the conduct of PE. Based on updated data, we used PE frequency, duration, and intensity, student mass, and class size to calculate EEE for the delivery of PE under (a) national professional recommendations, (b) 2016 state policies, and (c) school-reported conditions. Although increased from four years ago, only 22 states currently have policies mandating specific PE minutes. EEE over 10years shows the enormous impact PE could have on energy balance. For the average recommended-size PE class, resultant annual EEE based on professional recommendations for min/week far exceeded those based on average state (n=22) policy for min/week by 44.5% for elementary, 62.7% for middle, and 59.5% for high schools. Since 2012 more states adopted policies for PE minutes than dropped them, however, EEE over 10years showed a net loss of 1200kcal/student. With no overall recent improvements in state PE policy and professional recommendations currently not being met, PE remains an underutilized public health resource for EEE. Strong policies, coupled with enhanced accountability of PE teachers and administrators, are needed to ensure PE exists in schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kahan
- San Diego State University, School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-7251, United States.
| | - Thomas L McKenzie
- San Diego State University, School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-7251, United States
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Monnat SM, Lounsbery MAF, McKenzie TL, Chandler RF. Associations between demographic characteristics and physical activity practices in Nevada schools. Prev Med 2017; 95S:S4-S9. [PMID: 27565054 PMCID: PMC5292061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.08.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Schools are important settings for not only providing and promoting children's physical activity (PA) but also for reducing PA disparities. We investigated associations between school-level demographic characteristics (racial/ethnic and socioeconomic composition, urban-rural status, and student-to-teacher ratio) and 16 PA-promoting practices in 347 Nevada public elementary, middle, and high schools in 2014. We found that low-cost and easy-to-implement practices are most prevalent. There is relative demographic equity in ten of 16 PA practices and significant differences in six PA practices in Nevada schools. Schools with comparatively larger percentages of Black students are the most disadvantaged, as they have the fewest PA-supportive practices in place. Higher percent black was associated with lower odds of providing classroom activity breaks (AOR=0.632, 95% CI=0.453-0.881) and bike racks (AOR=0.60, 95% CI=0.362-0.996), greater odds of withholding recess/PE for disciplinary reasons (AOR=1.377, 95% CI=1.006-1.885), and lower odds of having recess supervisors who are trained to promote PA (AOR=0.583, 95% CI=0.374-0.909). Schools with greater percentages of Hispanic students have lower odds of providing before-school PA programs (AOR=0.867, 95% CI=0.761-0.987), whereas schools with greater percentages of low-SES students have greater odds of providing after-school PA programs (AOR=1.135, 95% CI=1.016-1.268). Higher student-to-teacher ratio was also associated with greater odds of providing after-school PA programs (AOR=1.135, 95% CI=1.016-1.268). Urban-rural status was unrelated to all PA practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon M Monnat
- Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology, and Education, 103 Armsby Bldg, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
| | - Monica A F Lounsbery
- California State University, Long Beach, College of Health & Human Services, USA.
| | - Thomas L McKenzie
- San Diego State University, School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, USA.
| | - Raeven Faye Chandler
- Pennsylvania State University, Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology, and Education, 103 Armsby Bldg, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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Cooper KH, Greenberg JD, Castelli DM, Barton M, Martin SB, Morrow JR. Implementing Policies to Enhance Physical Education and Physical Activity in Schools. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2016; 87:133-140. [PMID: 27100264 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2016.1164009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this commentary is to provide an overview of national physical activity recommendations and policies (e.g., from the Institute of Medicine, National Physical Activity Plan, and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) and to discuss how these important initiatives can be implemented in local schools. Successful policies are illustrated. Specific strategies and ideas are shared regarding how physical educators can assert themselves and impart their knowledge in an effort to build support for policy implementations that enhance the delivery of physical education and physical activity in their schools and communities.
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Kahan D, McKenzie TL. The potential and reality of physical education in controlling overweight and obesity. Am J Public Health 2015; 105:653-9. [PMID: 25713972 PMCID: PMC4358179 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2014.302355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Although preventing youth overweight and obesity is a public health priority, quality physical education (PE) is marginalized in practice. In May 2014, we estimated energy expenditure (EE; derived from PE frequency, duration, and intensity; mean student mass; and class size) from national recommendations and data from the 19 US states with PE duration guidelines, under 3 scenarios: potential (quality PE, defined as 50% moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA]), reality (MVPA = 35%), and classroom instruction only. Students in schools following nationally recommended PE standards from grades 1 through 10 could expend from 35 000 to 90 000 more kilocalories than students who received classroom instruction instead. PE's potential for increasing student EE will only be realized with stronger school policies and increased accountability.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Kahan
- The authors are with the School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA
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Black IE, Menzel NN, Bungum TJ. The relationship among playground areas and physical activity levels in children. J Pediatr Health Care 2015; 29:156-68. [PMID: 25454386 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedhc.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2014] [Revised: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Almost 20% of American children aged 6 to 11 years are obese. A decrease in physical activity has been associated with an increase in obesity. The school environment is one place where many children can be reached. This cross-sectional study determined which types of playground areas attract children and promote moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) or sedentarism. METHOD Children on two urban elementary school playgrounds (one of which offered a jogging program called Jog and Walk Stars [JAWS]) were observed before school with use of the System for Observing Play and Leisure Activity in Youth and System for Observing Play and Recreation in Communities observational tools. Descriptive statistics, paired-samples t tests, and independent-samples t tests were used to analyze the data. RESULTS The highest populated areas for schools K and B on non-JAWS days were the general blacktop areas; however, approximately 50% of the children in these areas were sedentary. At school B on days when the JAWS program was offered, the highest populated area was the JAWS track, and 99% of those children participated in MVPA. There was a significant difference in counts for average total sedentary children per square foot between school K (M = 216.70) and school B on JAWS days: M = 80.38, t (22.02) = 2.24, p < .5, two-tailed. DISCUSSION A playground environment assessment to identify areas that promote MVPA, such as offering a JAWS program, may be one avenue to address the need for increasing MVPA levels in children in general, in addition to physical education class, and help them obtain the recommended 60 minutes of daily MVPA.
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McKenzie TL, van der Mars H. Top 10 research questions related to assessing physical activity and its contexts using systematic observation. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2015; 86:13-29. [PMID: 25664670 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2015.991264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Numerous methods are available to assess physical activity (PA) but systematic observation (SO) excels in being able to provide contextually rich data on the setting in which the activity occurs. As SO is particularly useful for determining how activity is influenced by the immediate physical and social environments, its use is becoming more popular. Observation tools have the advantages of flexibility, high internal validity, low inference, and low participant burden, while their disadvantages include the need for careful observer training and recalibration, inaccessibility to certain environments, and potential participant reactivity. There is a need for both scientists and practitioners to have additional information on observation techniques and systems relative to making environmental and policy decisions about PA, and in this article, we describe concepts and identify questions related to using SO in researching PA behavior. We present 10 general questions in 3 sections, including those related to: (a) ensuring data accuracy through the selection of the most appropriate methodological protocols; (b) investigating PA in school settings, including physical education, recess, and other programs; and (c) investigating PA in community settings (e.g., parks, recreation centers, youth and adult sport programs) and homes.
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Solmon MA. Optimizing the Role of Physical Education in Promoting Physical Activity: A Social-Ecological Approach. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2015; 86:329-37. [PMID: 26558638 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2015.1091712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The benefits associated with being physically active are well documented, but a significant proportion of the population is insufficiently active. Physical inactivity is a major health risk factor in our society, and physical education programs are consistently identified as a means to address this concern. The purpose of this article is to use the social-ecological model as a framework to examine ways in which physical education programs can play an important role in promoting physical activity. Policies that require time allocations and resources for physical education and physical activity in schools and community designs that provide infrastructure that makes being physically active accessible and convenient are important factors in making schools and communities healthier spaces. It is clear, however, that policies alone are not sufficient to address concerns about physical inactivity. We must consider individual factors that influence decisions to be physically active in efforts to engage children in physical education programs that promote active lifestyles. The learning climate that teachers create determines what students do and learn in physical education classes. Ensuring that students see value in the content presented and structuring classes so that students believe they can experience success when they exert effort are key elements in an effective motivational climate. Efforts to address public health concerns about physical inactivity require a comprehensive approach including quality physical education. It is critical that kinesiology professionals emerge as leaders in these efforts to place physical education programs at the center of promoting children's physical activity.
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Turner L, Johnson TG, Slater SJ, Chaloupka FJ. Physical activity practices in elementary schools and associations with physical education staffing and training. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2014; 85:488-501. [PMID: 25412131 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2014.961053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Authorities recommend that schools provide a variety of opportunities for students to obtain physical activity (PA) before, during, and after school. This study assessed the prevalence of several school PA practices-including measures of quantity and quality of physical education (PE)-in elementary schools and examined the associations of PA practices with school resources (PE staffing, training, and facilities). METHOD Surveys were obtained from respondents in nationally representative samples of elementary schools from 2009-2010 to 2011-2012 (1,831 schools). RESULTS Few schools (20.8%) provided students with PE class every day, but most (76.3%) had an appropriate PE student-to-teacher ratio ( ≤ 25:1). Many schools (74.0%) offered 20 min of recess daily, but fewer than half offered organized opportunities for PA before or after school (e.g., sports). After controlling for demographics and school size, having a full-time PE teacher and requiring PE teachers to obtain PE-related continuing education (CE) were associated with PE practices such as offering ≥ 150 min of PE per week (for 3rd-grade students) and testing PE knowledge, skills, and fitness. Required CE was also associated with a higher likelihood of offering PA during the school day (i.e., activity breaks and PA outside of PE class) and before or after the school day (i.e., afterschool PA programs). CONCLUSION Few schools offer a broad array of PA programming. However, PE staffing and CE are positively associated with many PA practices including those outside of PE, possibly indicating that PE staff serve a crucial role in promoting a whole-school PA-supportive environment.
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Correlates of state enactment of elementary school physical education laws. Prev Med 2014; 69 Suppl 1:S5-11. [PMID: 25230368 PMCID: PMC4267892 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 08/30/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe variation in U.S. state elementary school physical education (PE) policies and to assess associations between state PE policy enactment and education funding, academic achievement, sociodemographic disadvantage, and political characteristics. METHODS U.S. state laws regarding school PE time, staffing, curriculum, fitness assessment, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in 2012 were classified as strong/specific, weak/nonspecific, or none based on codified law ratings within the Classification of Laws Associated with School Students (C.L.A.S.S.). Laws were merged with state-level data from multiple sources. Logistic regression was used to determine associations between state characteristics and PE laws (N=51). RESULTS Laws with specific PE and MVPA time requirements and evidence-based curriculum standards were more likely in states with low academic performance and in states with sociodemographically disadvantaged populations. School day length was positively associated with enacting a PE curriculum that referenced evidence-based standards. School funding and political characteristics were not associated with PE laws. CONCLUSIONS Limited time and high-stake testing requirements force schools to prioritize academic programs, posing barriers to state passage of specific PE laws. To facilitate PE policy enactment, it may be necessary to provide evidence on how PE policies can be implemented within existing time and staffing structures.
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Carson RL, Castelli DM, Beighle A, Erwin H. School-based physical activity promotion: a conceptual framework for research and practice. Child Obes 2014; 10:100-6. [PMID: 24655311 DOI: 10.1089/chi.2013.0134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Despite public health concerns and the many recognized benefits of physical activity (PA), levels of participation among youth remain below national recommendations. To this end, a variety of strategies for promoting physical activity for youth have been advocated, including multi-faceted, school-based approaches. One that continues to be identified as having great potential is a comprehensive school physical activity program (CSPAP). The aim of this article is to introduce a conceptual framework for school-based PA promotion that serves to stimulate, guide, and organize related research and practice. The CSPAP conceptual framework is a proposed framework, informed by existing science, recommendations, and a social ecological perspective with individual PA behavior as the epicenter. Discussed in turn are the four proposed interactive levels of influence (i.e., components, facilitators, leaders, and culture) and several integral elements proposed to operate at each level. The article concludes with a presentation of the utility of the framework for research and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell L Carson
- 1 School of Kinesiology, Louisiana State University , Baton Rouge, LA
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McKenzie TL, Lounsbery MAF. Physical education teacher effectiveness in a public health context. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2013; 84:419-430. [PMID: 24592772 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.844025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The health benefits of physical activity are well documented, and the important role that schools and physical education (PE) can play in reducing sedentary behavior and contributing to population health has been identified. Although effective teaching is ultimately judged by student achievement, a major component of teacher and school effectiveness studies has been student engagement. Thus, in PE, it is important to assess the teaching and learning processes related to expected outcomes, including what students and teachers do and how lessons are delivered. Within a public health context, it is then important to assess how teachers provide students with ample health-enhancing physical activity to help them become physically fit and to learn generalizable movement and behavioral skills designed to promote physical activity and fitness outside of class time. In this article, we emphasize that the future of PE in our nation's schools will depend on the ability of schools to provide programs that are perceived to be of importance to the public; moreover, we believe that the future of PE rests on the effectiveness of PE teachers to operate within a public health context. In addition, we also provide a summary of teacher effectiveness research within a public health context and offer visions for the future assessment and evaluation of PE teacher effectiveness that move beyond the PE lesson to include components of the comprehensive school physical activity model.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Monica A F Lounsbery
- School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, 5127 Walsh Way, San Diego, CA 92115, USA
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