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Milbocker KA, Smith IF, Klintsova AY. Maintaining a Dynamic Brain: A Review of Empirical Findings Describing the Roles of Exercise, Learning, and Environmental Enrichment in Neuroplasticity from 2017-2023. Brain Plast 2024; 9:75-95. [PMID: 38993580 PMCID: PMC11234674 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-230151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Brain plasticity, also termed neuroplasticity, refers to the brain's life-long ability to reorganize itself in response to various changes in the environment, experiences, and learning. The brain is a dynamic organ capable of responding to stimulating or depriving environments, activities, and circumstances from changes in gene expression, release of neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors, to cellular reorganization and reprogrammed functional connectivity. The rate of neuroplastic alteration varies across the lifespan, creating further challenges for understanding and manipulating these processes to benefit motor control, learning, memory, and neural remodeling after injury. Neuroplasticity-related research spans several decades, and hundreds of reviews have been written and published since its inception. Here we present an overview of the empirical papers published between 2017 and 2023 that address the unique effects of exercise, plasticity-stimulating activities, and the depriving effect of social isolation on brain plasticity and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian F. Smith
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, University of Delaware, Newark, USA
| | - Anna Y. Klintsova
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, University of Delaware, Newark, USA
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Bhasin BJ, Raymond JL, Goldman MS. Synaptic weight dynamics underlying systems consolidation of a memory. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.20.586036. [PMID: 38585936 PMCID: PMC10996481 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.20.586036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Systems consolidation is a common feature of learning and memory systems, in which a long-term memory initially stored in one brain region becomes persistently stored in another region. We studied the dynamics of systems consolidation in simple circuit architectures modeling core features of many memory systems: an early- and late-learning brain region and two sites of plasticity. We show that the synaptic dynamics of the circuit during consolidation of an analog memory can be understood as a temporal integration process, by which transient changes in activity driven by plasticity in the early-learning area are accumulated into persistent synaptic changes at the late-learning site. This simple principle leads to two constraints on the circuit operation for consolidation to be implemented successfully. First, the plasticity rule at the late-learning site must stably support a continuum of possible outputs for a given input. We show that this is readily achieved by heterosynaptic but not standard Hebbian rules, that it naturally leads to a speed-accuracy tradeoff in systems consolidation, and that it provides a concrete circuit instantiation for how systems consolidation solves the stability-plasticity dilemma. Second, to turn off the consolidation process and prevent erroneous changes at the late-learning site, neural activity in the early-learning area must be reset to its baseline activity. We propose two biologically plausible implementations for this reset that suggest novel roles for core elements of the cerebellar circuit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J Bhasin
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
| | - Jennifer L Raymond
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Mark S Goldman
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
- Departments of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, and Ophthalmology and Vision Science, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
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Schreurs BG, O'Dell DE, Wang D. The Role of Cerebellar Intrinsic Neuronal Excitability, Synaptic Plasticity, and Perineuronal Nets in Eyeblink Conditioning. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:200. [PMID: 38534469 DOI: 10.3390/biology13030200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
Evidence is strong that, in addition to fine motor control, there is an important role for the cerebellum in cognition and emotion. The deep nuclei of the mammalian cerebellum also contain the highest density of perineural nets-mesh-like structures that surround neurons-in the brain, and it appears there may be a connection between these nets and cognitive processes, particularly learning and memory. Here, we review how the cerebellum is involved in eyeblink conditioning-a particularly well-understood form of learning and memory-and focus on the role of perineuronal nets in intrinsic membrane excitability and synaptic plasticity that underlie eyeblink conditioning. We explore the development and role of perineuronal nets and the in vivo and in vitro evidence that manipulations of the perineuronal net in the deep cerebellar nuclei affect eyeblink conditioning. Together, these findings provide evidence of an important role for perineuronal net in learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard G Schreurs
- Department of Neuroscience, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Deidre E O'Dell
- Department of Biology, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Pennsylvania Western (PennWest) University, California, PA 15419, USA
| | - Desheng Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
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Tellios V, Maksoud MJE, Nagra R, Jassal G, Lu WY. Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase Critically Regulates the Endocannabinoid Pathway in the Murine Cerebellum During Development. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 22:1200-1215. [PMID: 36402869 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-022-01493-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is a major site of endocannabinoid (eCB) production and signaling. The predominant eCB within the cerebellum, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), is produced by a metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 (mGluR1)-initiated signaling cascade within Purkinje neurons (PNs). 2-AG retrogradely stimulates cannabinoid 1 receptors (CB1Rs) located on presynaptic terminals. The activated CB1R decreases neurotransmitter release and leads to the production of nitric oxide (NO), a gaseous molecule. Recently, our group discovered that during development in mice lacking neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS-/-), PNs display an excitotoxic phenotype associated with overactivated mGluR1. Considering the importance of mGluR1 in 2-AG synthesis, the present study explored the role of nNOS-derived NO in regulating the eCB pathway within the cerebella of wildtype (WT) and nNOS-/- mice at postnatal day 7 (PD7), 2 weeks (2 W), and 7 weeks (7 W). Our analysis showed that diacylglycerol lipase α, the enzyme that catalyzes 2-AG production, was elevated at early postnatal ages, and followed by elevated levels of 2-AG in nNOS-/- cerebella compared to WT. CB1R expression in nNOS-/- cerebella was upregulated at PD7 but decreased at 2 W and 7 W when compared to age-matched WT mice cerebella. Importantly, treating organotypic nNOS-/- cerebellar slice cultures with an NO-donor-attenuated CB1R levels after 7 days in vitro. In addition, expression of the eCB hydrolases fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase were significantly downregulated in nNOS-/- cerebella compared to WT cerebella at 7 W. Together, these results reveal a novel role for nNOS/NO in regulating eCB signaling in the cerebellum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Tellios
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Matthew J E Maksoud
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | | | - Gurneet Jassal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Wei-Yang Lu
- Graduate Program of Neuroscience, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
- Robarts Research Institute, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Western Ontario, London, N6A 5B7, Canada.
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Chen Y, Li W. Rapid eye movement sleep contributes to the formation of new axonal varicosities in mouse cerebellar parallel fibers after motor training. Neurosci Lett 2023; 810:137349. [PMID: 37327855 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2023.137349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Synaptic structural plasticity is essential for the development, learning and memory. It is well established that sleep plays important roles in synaptic plasticity after motor learning. In cerebellar cortex, parallel fibers of granule cells make excitatory synapses to the dendrites of Purkinje cells. However, the synaptic structural dynamics between parallel and Purkinje cells after motor training and the function of sleep in cerebellar synaptic plasticity remain unclear. Here, we used two-photon microscopy to examine presynaptic axonal structural dynamics at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses and investigated the effect of REM sleep in synaptic plasticity of mouse cerebellar cortex following motor training. We found that motor training induces higher formation of new axonal varicosities in cerebellar parallel fibers. Our results also indicate that calcium activities of granule cells significantly increase during REM sleep, and REM sleep deprivation prevents motor training-induced formation of axonal varicosities in parallel fibers, suggesting that higher calcium activity of granule cells was crucial for promoting newly formed axonal varicosities after motor training. Together, these findings reveal the effect of motor training on parallel fiber presynaptic structural modification and the important role of REM sleep in synaptic plasticity in cerebellar cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
| | - Wei Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Shenzhen), Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China.
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Martín R, Suárez-Pinilla AS, García-Font N, Laguna-Luque ML, López-Ramos JC, Oset-Gasque MJ, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM, Torres M, Sánchez-Prieto J. The activation of mGluR4 rescues parallel fiber synaptic transmission and LTP, motor learning and social behavior in a mouse model of Fragile X Syndrome. Mol Autism 2023; 14:14. [PMID: 37029391 PMCID: PMC10082511 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-023-00547-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common inherited intellectual disability, is caused by the loss of expression of the Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein (FMRP). FMRP is an RNA-binding protein that negatively regulates the expression of many postsynaptic as well as presynaptic proteins involved in action potential properties, calcium homeostasis and neurotransmitter release. FXS patients and mice lacking FMRP suffer from multiple behavioral alterations, including deficits in motor learning for which there is currently no specific treatment. METHODS We performed electron microscopy, whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology and behavioral experiments to characterise the synaptic mechanisms underlying the motor learning deficits observed in Fmr1KO mice and the therapeutic potential of positive allosteric modulator of mGluR4. RESULTS We found that enhanced synaptic vesicle docking of cerebellar parallel fiber to Purkinje cell Fmr1KO synapses was associated with enhanced asynchronous release, which not only prevents further potentiation, but it also compromises presynaptic parallel fiber long-term potentiation (PF-LTP) mediated by β adrenergic receptors. A reduction in extracellular Ca2+ concentration restored the readily releasable pool (RRP) size, basal synaptic transmission, β adrenergic receptor-mediated potentiation, and PF-LTP. Interestingly, VU 0155041, a selective positive allosteric modulator of mGluR4, also restored both the RRP size and PF-LTP in mice of either sex. Moreover, when injected into Fmr1KO male mice, VU 0155041 improved motor learning in skilled reaching, classical eyeblink conditioning and vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) tests, as well as the social behavior alterations of these mice. LIMITATIONS We cannot rule out that the activation of mGluR4s via systemic administration of VU0155041 can also affect other brain regions. Further studies are needed to stablish the effect of a specific activation of mGluR4 in cerebellar granule cells. CONCLUSIONS Our study shows that an increase in synaptic vesicles, SV, docking may cause the loss of PF-LTP and motor learning and social deficits of Fmr1KO mice and that the reversal of these changes by pharmacological activation of mGluR4 may offer therapeutic relief for motor learning and social deficits in FXS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Martín
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Alberto Samuel Suárez-Pinilla
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nuria García-Font
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences and Simon Initiative for Developing Brain, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH89JZ, UK
| | | | - Juan C López-Ramos
- Division de Neurociencias, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013, Sevilla, Spain
| | - María Jesús Oset-Gasque
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Agnes Gruart
- Division de Neurociencias, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013, Sevilla, Spain
| | | | - Magdalena Torres
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Sánchez-Prieto
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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Wu XL, Yan QJ, Zhu F. Abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in schizophrenia. World J Psychiatry 2022; 12:541-557. [PMID: 35582335 PMCID: PMC9048451 DOI: 10.5498/wjp.v12.i4.541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a severe mental illness that affects several brain domains with relation to cognition and behaviour. SCZ symptoms are typically classified into three categories, namely, positive, negative, and cognitive. The etiology of SCZ is thought to be multifactorial and poorly understood. Accumulating evidence has indicated abnormal synaptic plasticity and cognitive impairments in SCZ. Synaptic plasticity is thought to be induced at appropriate synapses during memory formation and has a critical role in the cognitive symptoms of SCZ. Many factors, including synaptic structure changes, aberrant expression of plasticity-related genes, and abnormal synaptic transmission, may influence synaptic plasticity and play vital roles in SCZ. In this article, we briefly summarize the morphology of the synapse, the neurobiology of synaptic plasticity, and the role of synaptic plasticity, and review potential mechanisms underlying abnormal synaptic plasticity in SCZ. These abnormalities involve dendritic spines, postsynaptic density, and long-term potentiation-like plasticity. We also focus on cognitive dysfunction, which reflects impaired connectivity in SCZ. Additionally, the potential targets for the treatment of SCZ are discussed in this article. Therefore, understanding abnormal synaptic plasticity and impaired cognition in SCZ has an essential role in drug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiu-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei Province, China
| | - Qiu-Jin Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei Province, China
| | - Fan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology and Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, Hubei Province, China
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Yin S, Liao Q, Wang Y, Shi Q, Xia P, Yi M, Huang J. Ccdc134 deficiency impairs cerebellar development and motor coordination. GENES, BRAIN, AND BEHAVIOR 2021; 20:e12763. [PMID: 34382738 DOI: 10.1111/gbb.12763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Coiled-coil domain containing 134 (CCDC134) has been shown to serve as an immune cytokine to exert antitumor effects and to act as a novel regulator of hADA2a to affect PCAF acetyltransferase activity. While Ccdc134 loss causes abnormal brain development in mice, the significance of CCDC134 in neuronal development in vivo is controversial. Here, we report that CCDC134 is highly expressed in Purkinje cells (PCs) at all developmental stages and regulates mammalian cerebellar development in a cell type-specific manner. Selective deletion of Ccdc134 in mouse neural stem cells (NSCs) caused defects in cerebellar morphogenesis, including a decrease in the number of PCs and impairment of PC dendritic growth, as well as abnormal granule cell development. Moreover, loss of Ccdc134 caused progressive motor dysfunction with deficits in motor coordination and motor learning. Finally, Ccdc134 deficiency inhibited Wnt signaling but increased Ataxin1 levels. Our findings provide evidence that CCDC134 plays an important role in cerebellar development, possibly through regulating Wnt signaling and Ataxin1 expression levels, and in controlling cerebellar function for motor coordination and motor learning, ultimately making it a potential contributor to cerebellar pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Yin
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Peking University), Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qinyuan Liao
- Department of Immunology, Guilin Medical University, Guilin, Guangxi province, China
| | - Yida Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Peking University), Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qianwen Shi
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Peking University), Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Xia
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Peking University), Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Yi
- Neuroscience Research Institute and Key Laboratory for Neuroscience, Ministry of Education/National Health Commission of China, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, and NHC Key Laboratory of Medical Immunology (Peking University), Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
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Regulation of GABA A Receptors Induced by the Activation of L-Type Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11070486. [PMID: 34209589 PMCID: PMC8304739 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11070486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
GABAA receptors are pentameric ion channels that mediate most synaptic and tonic extrasynaptic inhibitory transmissions in the central nervous system. There are multiple GABAA receptor subtypes constructed from 19 different subunits in mammals that exhibit different regional and subcellular distributions and distinct pharmacological properties. Dysfunctional alterations of GABAA receptors are associated with various neuropsychiatric disorders. Short- and long-term plastic changes in GABAA receptors can be induced by the activation of different intracellular signaling pathways that are triggered, under physiological and pathological conditions, by calcium entering through voltage-gated calcium channels. This review discusses several mechanisms of regulation of GABAA receptor function that result from the activation of L-type voltage gated calcium channels. Calcium influx via these channels activates different signaling cascades that lead to changes in GABAA receptor transcription, phosphorylation, trafficking, and synaptic clustering, thus regulating the inhibitory synaptic strength. These plastic mechanisms regulate the interplay of synaptic excitation and inhibition that is crucial for the normal function of neuronal circuits.
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González-Calvo I, Iyer K, Carquin M, Khayachi A, Giuliani FA, Sigoillot SM, Vincent J, Séveno M, Veleanu M, Tahraoui S, Albert M, Vigy O, Bosso-Lefèvre C, Nadjar Y, Dumoulin A, Triller A, Bessereau JL, Rondi-Reig L, Isope P, Selimi F. Sushi domain-containing protein 4 controls synaptic plasticity and motor learning. eLife 2021; 10:65712. [PMID: 33661101 PMCID: PMC7972451 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Fine control of protein stoichiometry at synapses underlies brain function and plasticity. How proteostasis is controlled independently for each type of synaptic protein in a synapse-specific and activity-dependent manner remains unclear. Here, we show that Susd4, a gene coding for a complement-related transmembrane protein, is expressed by many neuronal populations starting at the time of synapse formation. Constitutive loss-of-function of Susd4 in the mouse impairs motor coordination adaptation and learning, prevents long-term depression at cerebellar synapses, and leads to misregulation of activity-dependent AMPA receptor subunit GluA2 degradation. We identified several proteins with known roles in the regulation of AMPA receptor turnover, in particular ubiquitin ligases of the NEDD4 subfamily, as SUSD4 binding partners. Our findings shed light on the potential role of SUSD4 mutations in neurodevelopmental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inés González-Calvo
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France.,Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives (INCI), CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Keerthana Iyer
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Carquin
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Anouar Khayachi
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Fernando A Giuliani
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives (INCI), CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Séverine M Sigoillot
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Jean Vincent
- Institut Biology Paris Seine (IBPS), Neuroscience Paris Seine (NPS), CeZaMe, CNRS, Sorbonne University, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Martial Séveno
- BioCampus Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Maxime Veleanu
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Sylvana Tahraoui
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Albert
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Oana Vigy
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle, CNRS, INSERM, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Célia Bosso-Lefèvre
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Yann Nadjar
- École Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, INSERM, CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Andréa Dumoulin
- École Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, INSERM, CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Triller
- École Normale Supérieure, Institut de Biologie de l'ENS, INSERM, CNRS, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Bessereau
- Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5310, INSERM U 1217, Institut Neuromyogène, Lyon, France
| | - Laure Rondi-Reig
- Institut Biology Paris Seine (IBPS), Neuroscience Paris Seine (NPS), CeZaMe, CNRS, Sorbonne University, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Isope
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives (INCI), CNRS, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Fekrije Selimi
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology (CIRB), Collège de France, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
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11
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Electrical Properties and Biological Synaptic Simulation of Ag/MXene/SiO2/Pt RRAM Devices. ELECTRONICS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics9122098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Utilizing electronic devices to emulate biological synapses for the construction of artificial neural networks has provided a feasible research approach for the future development of artificial intelligence systems. Until now, different kinds of electronic devices have been proposed in the realization of biological synapse functions. However, the device stability and the power consumption are major challenges for future industrialization applications. Herein, an electronic synapse of MXene/SiO2 structure-based resistive random-access memory (RRAM) devices has been designed and fabricated by taking advantage of the desirable properties of SiO2 and 2D MXene material. The proposed RRAM devices, Ag/MXene/SiO2/Pt, exhibit the resistance switching characteristics where both the volatile and nonvolatile behaviors coexist in a single device. These intriguing features of the Ag/MXene/SiO2/Pt devices make them more applicable for emulating biological synaptic plasticity. Additionally, the conductive mechanisms of the Ag/MXene/SiO2/Pt RRAM devices have been discussed on the basis of our experimental results.
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12
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Dellatolas G, Câmara-Costa H. The role of cerebellum in the child neuropsychological functioning. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 173:265-304. [PMID: 32958180 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64150-2.00023-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This chapter proposes a review of neuropsychologic and behavior findings in pediatric pathologies of the cerebellum, including cerebellar malformations, pediatric ataxias, cerebellar tumors, and other acquired cerebellar injuries during childhood. The chapter also contains reviews of the cerebellar mutism/posterior fossa syndrome, reported cognitive associations with the development of the cerebellum in typically developing children and subjects born preterm, and the role of the cerebellum in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorders and developmental dyslexia. Cognitive findings in pediatric cerebellar disorders are considered in the context of known cerebellocerebral connections, internal cellular organization of the cerebellum, the idea of a universal cerebellar transform and computational internal models, and the role of the cerebellum in specific cognitive and motor functions, such as working memory, language, timing, or control of eye movements. The chapter closes with a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the cognitive affective syndrome as it has been described in children and some conclusions and perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georges Dellatolas
- GRC 24, Handicap Moteur et Cognitif et Réadaptation, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France.
| | - Hugo Câmara-Costa
- GRC 24, Handicap Moteur et Cognitif et Réadaptation, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France; Centre d'Etudes en Santé des Populations, INSERM U1018, Paris, France
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13
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Canepari M. Is Purkinje Neuron Hyperpolarisation Important for Cerebellar Synaptic Plasticity? A Retrospective and Prospective Analysis. THE CEREBELLUM 2020; 19:869-878. [PMID: 32654026 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-020-01164-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two recent studies have demonstrated that the dendritic Ca2+ signal associated with a climbing fibre (CF) input to the cerebellar Purkinje neuron (PN) depends on the membrane potential (Vm). Specifically, when the cell is hyperpolarised, this signal is mediated by T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels; in contrast, when the cell is firing, the CF-PN signal is mediated by P/Q-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. When the CF input is paired with parallel fibre (PF) activity, the signal is locally amplified at the sites of PF-activated synapses according to the Vm at the time of the CF input, suggesting that the standing Vm is a critical parameter for the induction of PF synaptic plasticity. In this review, I analyse how the Vm can potentially play a role in cerebellar learning focussing, in particular, on the hyperpolarised state that appears to occur episodically, since PNs are mostly firing under physiological conditions. By revisiting the recent literature reporting in vivo recordings and synaptic plasticity studies, I speculate on how a putative role of the PN Vm can provide an interpretation for the results of these studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Canepari
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000, Grenoble, France. .,Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Valbonne, France. .,Institut National de la Santé et Recherche Médicale, Paris, France.
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14
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Kim YG, Woo J, Park J, Kim S, Lee YS, Kim Y, Kim SJ. Quantitative Proteomics Reveals Distinct Molecular Signatures of Different Cerebellum-Dependent Learning Paradigms. J Proteome Res 2020; 19:2011-2025. [PMID: 32181667 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.9b00826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum improves motor performance by adjusting motor gain appropriately. As de novo protein synthesis is essential for the formation and retention of memories, we hypothesized that motor learning in the opposite direction would induce a distinct pattern of protein expression in the cerebellum. We conducted quantitative proteomic profiling to compare the level of protein expression in the cerebellum at 1 and 24 h after training from mice that underwent different paradigms of cerebellum-dependent oculomotor learning from specific directional changes in motor gain. We quantified a total of 43 proteins that were significantly regulated in each of the three learning paradigms in the cerebellum at 1 and 24 h after learning. In addition, functional enrichment analysis identified protein groups that were differentially enriched or depleted in the cerebellum at 24 h after the three oculomotor learnings, suggesting that distinct biological pathways may be engaged in the formation of three oculomotor memories. Weighted correlation network analysis discovered groups of proteins significantly correlated with oculomotor memory. Finally, four proteins (Snca, Sncb, Cttn, and Stmn1) from the protein group correlated with the learning amount after oculomotor training were validated by Western blot. This study provides a comprehensive and unbiased list of proteins related to three cerebellum-dependent motor learning paradigms, suggesting the distinct nature of protein expression in the cerebellum for each learning paradigm. The proteomics data have been deposited to the ProteomeXchange Consortium with identifiers <PXD008433>.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Gyu Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Jongmin Woo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States
| | - Joonho Park
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Seoul 151-742, Korea
| | - Sooyong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Yong-Seok Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Youngsoo Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Interdisciplinary Program in Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Seoul 151-742, Korea
| | - Sang Jeong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Department of Physiology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.,Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
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Environmental enrichment restores the reduced expression of cerebellar synaptophysin and the motor coordination impairment in rats prenatally treated with betamethasone. Physiol Behav 2019; 209:112590. [PMID: 31252027 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Preterm babies treated with synthetic glucocorticoids in utero exhibit behavioural alterations and disturbances in brain maturation during postnatal life. Accordingly, it has been shown in preclinical studies that SGC exposure at a clinical dose alters the presynaptic and postsynaptic structures and results in synaptic impairments. However, the precise mechanism by which SGC exposure impairs synaptic protein expression and its implications are not fully elucidated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of prenatal exposure to a clinical dose of betamethasone on the pre- and postsynaptic proteins expression in the developing rat cerebellum and prefrontal cortex, whose synchronized synaptic activity is crucial for motor control and learning. Consequently, the first objective of the present study was to determine whether prenatal betamethasone -equivalent to the clinically used dose- alters cerebellar vermal and cortical expression of synaptophysin, synaptotagmin I, post-synaptic density protein 95 and gephyrin - four important pre- and post-synaptic proteins, respectively- at a relevant adolescent stage. In addition, our second objective was to assess whether prenatal betamethasone administration induced coordination impairment using a rotarod test. On the other hand, it has been shown that the environmental enrichment is capable of improving synaptic transmission and recovering various behavioural impairments. Nevertheless, there is not enough information about the effect of this non-pharmacological preclinical approach on the regulation of this cerebellar and cortical synaptic proteins. Therefore, the third objective of this study was to examine whether environmental enrichment exposure could recover the possible molecular and behavioural impairments in the offspring at the same developmental stage. The principal data showed that adolescent rats prenatally treated with betamethasone exhibited underexpression of synaptophysin in the vermal cerebellum, but not change in levels of synaptotagmin I, post-synaptic density protein 95 and gephyrin. Analysis of the same pre- and post-synaptic proteins no showed differences in the frontal cortex of the same rats. These results were accompanied by an increase in the number of falls in the rotarod test, when the speed of rotation was fixed and when it was in acceleration, which means motor coordination impairments. Importantly, we found that environmental enrichment restores the betamethasone-induced reduction in the cerebellar synaptophysin together with a recover in the motor coordination impairments in prenatally betamethasone-exposed adolescent rats.
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Changes in cerebellar intrinsic neuronal excitability and synaptic plasticity result from eyeblink conditioning. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2019; 166:107094. [PMID: 31542329 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2019.107094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
There is a long history of research documenting plasticity in the cerebellum as well as the role of the cerebellum in learning and memory. Recordings in slices of cerebellum have provided evidence of long-term depression and long-term potentiation at several excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Lesions and recordings show the cerebellum is crucial for eyeblink conditioning and it appears changes in both synaptic and membrane plasticity are involved. In addition to its role in fine motor control, there is growing consensus that the cerebellum is crucial for perceptual, cognitive, and emotional functions. In the current review, we explore the evidence that eyeblink conditioning results in significant changes in intrinsic membrane excitability as well as synaptic plasticity in Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex in rabbits and changes in intrinsic membrane excitability in principal neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei in rats.
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Solouki S, Bahrami F, Janahmadi M. The Concept of Transmission Coefficient Among Different Cerebellar Layers: A Computational Tool for Analyzing Motor Learning. Front Neural Circuits 2019; 13:54. [PMID: 31507382 PMCID: PMC6718712 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2019.00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High-fidelity regulation of information transmission among cerebellar layers is mainly provided by synaptic plasticity. Therefore, determining the regulatory foundations of synaptic plasticity in the cerebellum and translating them to behavioral output are of great importance. To date, many experimental studies have been carried out in order to clarify the effect of synaptic defects, while targeting a specific signaling pathway in the cerebellar function. However, the contradictory results of these studies at the behavioral level further add to the ambiguity of the problem. Information transmission through firing rate changes in populations of interconnected neurons is one of the most widely accepted principles of neural coding. In this study, while considering the efficacy of synaptic interactions among the cerebellar layers, we propose a firing rate model to realize the concept of transmission coefficient. Thereafter, using a computational approach, we test the effect of different values of transmission coefficient on the gain adaptation of a cerebellar-dependent motor learning task. In conformity with the behavioral data, the proposed model can accurately predict that disruption in different forms of synaptic plasticity does not have the same effect on motor learning. Specifically, impairment in training mechanisms, like in the train-induced LTD in parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses, has a significant negative impact on all aspects of learning, including memory formation, transfer, and consolidation, although it does not disrupt basic motor performance. In this regard, the overinduction of parallel fiber-molecular layer interneuron LTP could not prevent motor learning impairment, despite its vital role in preserving the robustness of basic motor performance. In contrast, impairment in plasticity induced by interneurons and background activity of climbing fibers is partly compensable through overinduction of train-induced parallel fiber-Purkinje cell LTD. Additionally, blockade of climbing fiber signaling to the cerebellar cortex, referred to as olivary system lesion, shows the most destructive effect on both motor learning and basic motor performance. Overall, the obtained results from the proposed computational framework are used to provide a map from procedural motor memory formation in the cerebellum. Certainly, the generalization of this concept to other multi-layered networks of the brain requires more physiological and computational researches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeed Solouki
- Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence, Human Motor Control and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Bahrami
- Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence, Human Motor Control and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahyar Janahmadi
- Department of Physiology, Neuroscience Research Center, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Watanave M, Matsuzaki Y, Nakajima Y, Ozawa A, Yamada M, Hirai H. Contribution of Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone to Cerebellar Long-Term Depression and Motor Learning. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:490. [PMID: 30618637 PMCID: PMC6299015 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) regulates various physiological activities through activation of receptors expressed in a broad range of cells in the central nervous system. The cerebellum expresses TRH receptors in granule cells and molecular layer interneurons. However, the function of TRH in the cerebellum remains to be clarified. Here, using TRH knockout (KO) mice we studied the role of TRH in the cerebellum. Immunohistochemistry showed no gross morphological differences between KO mice and wild-type (WT) littermates in the cerebellum. In the rotarod test, the initial performance of KO mice was comparable to that of WT littermates, but the learning speed of KO mice was significantly lower than that of WT littermates, suggesting impaired motor learning. The motor learning deficit in KO mice was rescued by intraperitoneal injection of TRH. Electrophysiology revealed absence of long-term depression (LTD) at parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in KO mice, which was rescued by bath-application of TRH. TRH was shown to increase cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) content in the cerebellum. Since nitric oxide (NO) stimulates cGMP synthesis in the cerebellum, we examined whether NO-cGMP pathway was involved in TRH-mediated LTD rescue in KO mice. Pharmacological blockade of NO synthase and subsequent cGMP production prevented TRH-induced LTD expression in KO mice, whereas increase in cGMP signal in Purkinje cells by 8-bromoguanosine cyclic 3’,5’-monophosphate, a membrane-permeable cGMP analog, restored LTD without TRH application. These results suggest that TRH is involved in cerebellar LTD presumably by upregulating the basal cGMP level in Purkinje cells, and, consequently, in motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Watanave
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yasunori Matsuzaki
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yasuyo Nakajima
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Atsushi Ozawa
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Masanobu Yamada
- Department of Medicine and Molecular Science, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Hirokazu Hirai
- Department of Neurophysiology and Neural Repair, Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, Maebashi, Japan.,Research Program for Neural Signalling, Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Signal Research, Gunma University Initiative for Advanced Research, Maebashi, Japan
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Abstract
Cerebellar Purkinje neurons are arguably some of the most conspicuous neurons in the vertebrate central nervous system. They have characteristic planar fan-shaped dendrites which branch extensively and fill spaces almost completely with little overlap. This dendritic morphology is well suited to receiving a single or a few excitatory synaptic inputs from each of more than 100,000 parallel fibers which run orthogonally to Purkinje cell dendritic trees. In contrast, another type of excitatory input to a Purkinje neuron is provided by a single climbing fiber, which forms some hundreds to thousands of synapses with a Purkinje neuron. This striking contrast between the two types of synaptic inputs to a Purkinje neuron has attracted many neuroscientists. It is also to be noted that Purkinje neurons are the sole neurons sending outputs from the cerebellar cortex. In other words, all computational results within the cortex are transmitted by Purkinje cell axons, which inhibit neurons in the cerebellar or vestibular nucleus. Notably, Purkinje neurons show several forms of synaptic plasticity. Among them, long-term depression (LTD) at parallel fiber synapses has been regarded as a putatively essential mechanism for cerebellum-dependent learning. In this special issue on Purkinje neurons, you will find informative reviews and original papers on the development, characteristics and functions of Purkinje neurons, or related themes contributed by outstanding researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoo Hirano
- Department of Biophysics, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan.
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20
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Südhof TC. Towards an Understanding of Synapse Formation. Neuron 2018; 100:276-293. [PMID: 30359597 PMCID: PMC6226307 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2018.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 355] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Synapses are intercellular junctions specialized for fast, point-to-point information transfer from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic cell. At a synapse, a presynaptic terminal secretes neurotransmitters via a canonical release machinery, while a postsynaptic specialization senses neurotransmitters via diverse receptors. Synaptic junctions are likely organized by trans-synaptic cell-adhesion molecules (CAMs) that bidirectionally orchestrate synapse formation, restructuring, and elimination. Many candidate synaptic CAMs were described, but which CAMs are central actors and which are bystanders remains unclear. Moreover, multiple genes encoding synaptic CAMs were linked to neuropsychiatric disorders, but the mechanisms involved are unresolved. Here, I propose that engagement of multifarious synaptic CAMs produces parallel trans-synaptic signals that mediate the establishment, organization, and plasticity of synapses, thereby controlling information processing by neural circuits. Among others, this hypothesis implies that synapse formation can be understood in terms of inter- and intracellular signaling, and that neuropsychiatric disorders involve an impairment in such signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Südhof
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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