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Fakhri Y, Mahdavi V, Ranaei V, Pilevar Z, Sarafraz M, Mahmudiono T, Khaneghah AM. Ochratoxin A in coffee and coffee-based products: a global systematic review, meta-analysis, and probabilistic risk assessment. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2024; 39:211-220. [PMID: 36372738 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Contamination of food with mycotoxins can pose harmful effects on the health of consumers in the long term. Coffee contamination with mycotoxins has become a global concern. This study attempted to meta-analyze the concentration and prevalence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee products and estimate consumers' health risks. The search was conducted among international databases, including Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science, for 1 January 2010 to 1 May 2022. The concentration and prevalence of OTA in coffee products were meta-analyzed according to country subgroups. Health risk assessment was conducted based on Margin of Exposures (MOEs) using the Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) technique. The three countries that had the highest Pooled concentration of OTA in coffee were observed in Chile (100.00%), Kuwait (100.00%), and France (100.00%). The overall prevalence of OTA in coffee products was 58.01%, 95% CI (48.37-67.39). The three countries that had the highest concentration of OTA were Philippines (39.55 μg/kg) > Turkey (39.32 μg/kg) > and Panama (21.33 μg/kg). The mean of MOEs in the adult consumers in Panama (9,526) and the Philippines (8,873) was lower than 10,000, while the mean of MOEs in other countries was higher than 10,000. Therefore, monitoring and control plans should be carried out in different countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadolah Fakhri
- Food Health Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Vahideh Mahdavi
- Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran
| | - Vahid Ranaei
- School of Health, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - Zahra Pilevar
- School of Health, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran
| | - Mansour Sarafraz
- School of Public Health, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Trias Mahmudiono
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology - State Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
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Ben Miri Y, Benabdallah A, Chentir I, Djenane D, Luvisi A, De Bellis L. Comprehensive Insights into Ochratoxin A: Occurrence, Analysis, and Control Strategies. Foods 2024; 13:1184. [PMID: 38672856 PMCID: PMC11049263 DOI: 10.3390/foods13081184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic mycotoxin produced by some mold species from genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been detected in cereals, cereal-derived products, dried fruits, wine, grape juice, beer, tea, coffee, cocoa, nuts, spices, licorice, processed meat, cheese, and other foods. OTA can induce a wide range of health effects attributable to its toxicological properties, including teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. OTA is not only toxic to humans but also harmful to livestock like cows, goats, and poultry. This is why the European Union and various countries regulate the maximum permitted levels of OTA in foods. This review intends to summarize all the main aspects concerning OTA, starting from the chemical structure and fungi that produce it, its presence in food, its toxicity, and methods of analysis, as well as control strategies, including both fungal development and methods of inactivation of the molecule. Finally, the review provides some ideas for future approaches aimed at reducing the OTA levels in foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yamina Ben Miri
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, Mohamed Boudiaf University, BP 166, M’sila 28000, Algeria;
| | - Amina Benabdallah
- Laboratory on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Pollution, Faculty of Life and Nature Sciences, University Chadli Bendjedid, El-Tarf 36000, Algeria;
| | - Imene Chentir
- Laboratory of Food, Processing, Control and Agri-Resources Valorization, Higher School of Food Science and Agri-Food Industry, Algiers 16200, Algeria;
| | - Djamel Djenane
- Food Quality and Safety Research Laboratory, Department of Food Sciences, Mouloud Mammeri University, BP 17, Tizi-Ouzou 15000, Algeria;
| | - Andrea Luvisi
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento Palazzina A—Centro Ecotekne via Prov, le Lecce Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
| | - Luigi De Bellis
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento Palazzina A—Centro Ecotekne via Prov, le Lecce Monteroni, 73100 Lecce, Italy;
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Yang Y, Zhong W, Wang Y, Yue Z, Zhang C, Sun M, Wang Z, Xue X, Gao Q, Wang D, Zhang Y, Zhang J. Isolation, identification, degradation mechanism and exploration of active enzymes in the ochratoxin A degrading strain Acinetobacter pittii AP19. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 465:133351. [PMID: 38150759 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a polyketide mycotoxin that commonly contaminates agricultural products and causes significant economic losses. In this study, the efficient OTA-degrading strain AP19 was isolated from vineyard soil and was identified as Acinetobacter pittii. Compared with growth in nutrient broth supplemented with OTA (OTA-NB), strain AP19 grew faster in nutrient broth (NB), but the ability of the resulting cell lysates to remove OTA was weaker. After cultivation in NB, the cell lysate of strain AP19 was able to remove 100% of 1 mg/L OTA within 18 h. The cell lysate fraction > 30 kDa degraded 100% of OTA within 12 h, while the fractions < 30 kDa were practically unable to degrade OTA. Further anion exchange chromatography of the > 30 kDa fraction yielded two peaks exhibiting significant OTA degradation activity. The degradation product was identified as OTα. Amino acid metabolism exhibited major transcriptional trends in the response of AP19 to OTA. The dacC gene encoding carboxypeptidase was identified as one of the contributors to OTA degradation. Soil samples inoculated with strain AP19 showed significant OTA degradation. These results provide significant insights into the discovery of novel functions in A. pittii, as well as its potential as an OTA decomposer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Weitong Zhong
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Yanning Wang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Zhiwen Yue
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Mi Sun
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Zhao Wang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Xianli Xue
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Qiang Gao
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Depei Wang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China.
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Lee HJ, Kim HD, Ryu D. Practical Strategies to Reduce Ochratoxin A in Foods. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:58. [PMID: 38276534 PMCID: PMC10819544 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a potent nephrotoxin, is one of the most deleterious mycotoxins, with its prevalence in agricultural crops and their processed foods around the world. OTA is a major concern to food safety, as OTA exposure through dietary intake may lead to a significant level of accumulation in the body as a result of its long half-life (about 35 days). Its potent renal toxicity and high risk of exposure as well as the difficulty in controlling environmental factors OTA production has prompted the need for timely information on practical strategies for the food industry to effectively manage OTA contamination during food processing. The effects of various food processes, including both nonthermal and thermal methods, on the reduction in OTA were summarized in this review, with emphasis on the toxicity of residual OTA as well as its known and unknown degradation products. Since complete removal of OTA from foodstuffs is not feasible, additional strategies that may facilitate the reduction in OTA in food, such as adding baking soda and sugars, was also discussed, so that the industry may understand and apply practical measures to ensure the safety of its products destined for human consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jung Lee
- Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA;
| | - Hae Dun Kim
- Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844, USA;
| | - Dojin Ryu
- Division of Food, Nutrition and Exercise Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA;
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Schrenk D, Bignami M, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L(R, Leblanc J, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Gropp J, Antonissen G, Rychen G, Gómez Ruiz JÁ, Innocenti ML, Rovesti E, Petersen A. Risks for animal health related to the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in feed. EFSA J 2023; 21:e08375. [PMID: 37942224 PMCID: PMC10628734 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2004, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) adopted a Scientific Opinion on the risks to animal health and transfer from feed to food of animal origin related to the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in feed. The European Commission requested EFSA to assess newly available scientific information and to update the 2004 Scientific Opinion. OTA is produced by several fungi of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. In most animal species it is rapidly and extensively absorbed in the gastro-intestinal tract, binds strongly to plasma albumins and is mainly detoxified to ochratoxin alpha (OTalpha) by ruminal microbiota. In pigs, OTA has been found mainly in liver and kidney. Transfer of OTA from feed to milk in ruminants and donkeys as well as to eggs from poultry is confirmed but low. Overall, OTA impairs function and structure of kidneys and liver, causes immunosuppression and affects the zootechnical performance (e.g. body weight gain, feed/gain ratio, etc.), with monogastric species being more susceptible than ruminants because of limited detoxification to OTalpha. The CONTAM Panel considered as reference point (RP) for adverse animal health effects: for pigs and rabbits 0.01 mg OTA/kg feed, for chickens for fattening and hens 0.03 mg OTA/kg feed. A total of 9,184 analytical results on OTA in feed, expressed in dry matter, were available. Dietary exposure was assessed using different scenarios based on either model diets or compound feed (complete feed or complementary feed plus forage). Risk characterisation was made for the animals for which an RP could be identified. The CONTAM Panel considers that the risk related to OTA in feed for adverse health effects for pigs, chickens for fattening, hens and rabbits is low.
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A Bacillus-based biofungicide agent prevents ochratoxins occurrence in grapes and impacts the volatile profile throughout the Chardonnay winemaking stages. Int J Food Microbiol 2023; 389:110107. [PMID: 36731201 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2023.110107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus-based biocontrol agents have emerged as a strategy to eliminate or reduce the use of synthetic fungicides that are detrimental to health and the environment. In vineyards, a special concern arises from the control of Aspergillus carbonarius, a fungus known for its potential to produce ochratoxins. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is the most toxic form among ochratoxins and its maximum limit in wine has been established in Europe and Brazil as 2 μg/kg. Wine quality, especially the volatile profile, may be influenced by the antifungal strategies, since fungicide residues are transferred from grapes to must during winemaking. The objective of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the impact of a biocontrol strategy containing Bacillus velezensis P1 on the volatile profile and occurrence of ochratoxins when grapes infected with A. carbonarius were used in winemaking. The evaluation of ochratoxins was carried out by liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS), and volatile compounds were analyzed using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC × GC/qMS). Six ochratoxins were identified in must prepared with Chardonnay grapes inoculated with A. carbonarius (ochratoxin α, ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide and OTA). Although winemaking causes a decrease in the levels of all forms of ochratoxins, the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins was verified in wine made with grapes containing A. carbonarius. B. velezensis P1 prevented the occurrence of ochratoxins in must, ensuring the safety of wines. Regarding the volatile profile, a predominant presence of terpenic compounds was verified in samples treated with B. velezensis when compared with those not treated with the biocontrol strategy, whereas the presence of A. carbonarius resulted in a higher concentration of volatile compounds with an odor described as fatty/waxy, possibly compromising wine quality. Therefore, B. velezensis P1 is a new biofungicide possibility to produce ochratoxin-free grapes and high-quality wines.
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Ismaiel AA, Mohamed HH, El-Sayed MT. Biodegradation of ochratoxin A by endophytic Trichoderma koningii strains. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:53. [PMID: 36564607 PMCID: PMC9789014 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-022-03491-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium spp. that causes a threat to food safety and human health. Fungal biodegradation might be a promising strategy for reducing the OTA contamination in the future. In this study, the ability of Trichoderma koningii strains to degrade OTA produced by Aspergillus niger T2 (MW513392.1) isolated from tomato seeds was investigated. Among T. koningii strains tested, three strains; AUMC11519, AUMC11520 and AUMC11521 completely eliminated OTA from the culture medium, while AUMC11522 strain eliminated only 41.82% of OTA. OTα-amide, 3-phenylpropionic acid, OTα and phenylalanine were assayed as degradation products by FTIR analysis and LC-MS/MS spectra. Carboxypeptidase A (CPA) was found responsible for OTA degradation when a metal ion chelator, EDTA, was added to cell free supernatants of the three effective strains. OTA detoxification by T. koningii could present new prospective strategies for a possible application in food commodities intoxicated with ochratoxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A. Ismaiel
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44519 Egypt
| | - Hala H. Mohamed
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44519 Egypt
| | - Manal T. El-Sayed
- grid.31451.320000 0001 2158 2757Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44519 Egypt
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Bryła M, Damaziak K, Twarużek M, Waśkiewicz A, Stępień Ł, Roszko M, Pierzgalski A, Soszczyńska E, Łukasiewicz-Mierzejewska M, Chmiel M, Wójcik W. Toxico-pathological effects of ochratoxin A and its diastereoisomer under in ovo conditions and in vitro evaluation of the toxicity of these toxins against the embryo Gallus gallus fibroblast cell line. Poult Sci 2022; 102:102413. [PMID: 36566659 PMCID: PMC9801203 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2022.102413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein, we conducted a comparative study on the embryotoxicity of ochratoxin A (OTA) and its diastereomer 2'R-ochratoxin A (2'R-OTA) under in ovo conditions, as well as assess the in vitro embryotoxicity of these substances together with ochratoxin B and α-ochratoxin, using chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) embryo cell lines. In ovo tests involved egg incubation of 8 different groups (i.e., control "0"-no puncture or injection (standard incubation); "00"-punctured eggs without injection; "OTA 0.25," "OTA 0.50," "OTA 0.75," "2'R-OTA 0.25," "2'R-OTA 0.50," "2'R-OTA 0.75"-eggs containing OTA or 2'R-OTA at 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 µg/egg concentration, respectively). The results confirmed OTA's impact on early and late embryo mortality, where chick hatchability decreased with increasing toxin dosage. Both OTA and 2'R-OTA demonstrated embryotoxicity, however, in the case of the highest OTA diastereomer dose, nearly 11% higher chick hatchability was observed compared with the group that received OTA. 2'R-OTA dosage did not reduce parameters chick quality compared to chicks hatched from control group eggs. OTA concentrations were higher than 2'R-OTA detected in chicken organs such as liver and kidney, whereas 2'R-OTA concentrations were higher in blood serum and heart. The presented studies highlighted the differences in the ability to accumulate toxins in certain organs, which, to a certain extent, may affect the potential toxicity on individual organs. Additionally, during in vitro tests, when assessing the cytotoxic effects of OTA and its analogues toward the chicken embryonic cell line in an MTT assay, the cell metabolic activity was inhibited to a comparable extent at 27-times higher concentration of 2'R-OTA than OTA (0.24 µM). Also, comparably lower toxicity was attributed to the remaining OTA derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology-State Research Institute, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland,Corresponding author:
| | - Krzysztof Damaziak
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences, 60-625 Poznan, Poland
| | - Łukasz Stępień
- Department of Plant-Pathogen Interaction, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 60-479 Poznan, Poland
| | - Marek Roszko
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology-State Research Institute, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adam Pierzgalski
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology-State Research Institute, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewelina Soszczyńska
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, 85-064 Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Monika Łukasiewicz-Mierzejewska
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marta Chmiel
- Division of Meat Technology, Department of Food Technology and Assessment, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Wojciech Wójcik
- Department of Animal Breeding, Institute of Animal Science, Warsaw University of Life Sciences - SGGW, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
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Recent advances on formation, transformation, occurrence, and analytical strategy of modified mycotoxins in cereals and their products. Food Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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10
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Mycotoxins Contamination in Rice: Analytical Methods, Occurrence and Detoxification Strategies. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090647. [PMID: 36136585 PMCID: PMC9504649 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of mycotoxins in the environment is associated with potential crop contamination, which results in an unavoidable increase in human exposure. Rice, being the second most consumed cereal worldwide, constitutes an important source of potential contamination by mycotoxins. Due to the increasing number of notifications reported, and the occurrence of mycotoxins at levels above the legislated limits, this work intends to compile the most relevant studies and review the main methods used in the detection and quantification of these compounds in rice. The aflatoxins and ochratoxin A are the predominant mycotoxins detected in rice grain and these data reveal the importance of adopting safety storage practices that prevent the growth of producing fungi from the Aspergillus genus along all the rice chain. Immunoaffinity columns (IAC) and QuECHERS are the preferred methods for extraction and purification and HPLC-MS/MS is preferred for quantification purposes. Further investigation is still required to establish the real exposition of these contaminants, as well as the consequences and possible synergistic effects due to the co-occurrence of mycotoxins and also for emergent and masked mycotoxins.
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Zou D, Ji J, Ye Y, Yang Y, Yu J, Wang M, Zheng Y, Sun X. Degradation of Ochratoxin A by a UV-Mutated Aspergillus niger Strain. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050343. [PMID: 35622590 PMCID: PMC9146908 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that can contaminate a wide range of crops such as grains and grapes. In this study, a novel fungal mutant strain (FS-UV-21) with a high OTA degradation rate (74.5%) was obtained from Aspergillus niger irradiated with ultraviolet light (15 W for 20 min). The effect of pH, temperature, and inoculation concentration on the degradation of OTA by FS-UV-21 was investigated, and the results revealed that the detoxification effect was optimal (89.4%) at a pH of 8 and a temperature of 30 °C. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was used to characterize the degraded products of OTA, and the main degraded product was ochratoxin α. Triple quadrupole-linear ion trap-mass spectrometry combined with LightSight software was used to analyze the biotransformation pathway of OTA in FS-UV-21, to trace the degraded products, and to identify the main metabolite, P1 (C19H18ClNO6, m/z 404). After the FS-UV-21 strain was treated with OTA, the HepG2 cellular toxicity of the degradation products was significantly reduced. For the real sample, FS-UV-21 was used to remove OTA from wheat bran contaminated by mycotoxins through fermentation, resulting in the degradation of 59.8% of OTA in wheat bran. Therefore, FS-UV-21 can be applied to the degradation of OTA in agricultural products and food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Zou
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
| | - Jian Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
- College of Food Science and Pharmacy, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
| | - Yang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
| | - Jian Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
| | - Meng Wang
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China;
| | - Yi Zheng
- Key Laboratory for High-Tech Research and Development of Veterinary Biopharmaceuticals, Jiangsu Agri-Animal Husbandry Vocational College, Taizhou 214122, China;
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; (D.Z.); (J.J.); (Y.Y.); (Y.Y.); (J.Y.)
- Correspondence:
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Wang L, Hua X, Shi J, Jing N, Ji T, Lv B, Liu L, Chen Y. Ochratoxin A: Occurrence and recent advances in detoxification. Toxicon 2022; 210:11-18. [PMID: 35181402 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), one of the most important mycotoxins, is mainly produced by fungi in the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, and commonly found in food and agricultural products. In addition to causing significant economic losses, the occurrence of OTA in foods poses a serious threat to human health. Therefore, it is very important to develop approaches to control or detoxify OTA contamination and thus ensure food safety. In this paper, we review the source and occurrence of OTA in food and agricultural products and the latest achievements in the removal and detoxification of OTA using physical, chemical, and biological methods, with specific attention to influencing factors and mechanisms related to the biodetoxification of OTA. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of these methods and their potential application prospect were also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China; College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Xia Hua
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China; College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Jie Shi
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Ninghao Jing
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Ting Ji
- College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Bing Lv
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China; College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Lijun Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Yun Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Physiology/Jiangsu Co-Innovation Centre for Modern Production Technology of Grain Crops, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China; College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
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13
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Zapaśnik A, Bryła M, Waśkiewicz A, Ksieniewicz-Woźniak E, Podolska G. Ochratoxin A and 2' R-Ochratoxin A in Selected Foodstuffs and Dietary Risk Assessment. Molecules 2021; 27:188. [PMID: 35011417 PMCID: PMC8746423 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to estimate the contamination of grain coffee, roasted coffee, instant coffee, and cocoa purchased in local markets with ochratoxin A (OTA) and its isomerization product 2'R-ochratoxin A (2'R-OTA), and to assess risk of dietary exposure to the mycotoxins. OTA and 2'R-OTA content was determined using the HPLC chromatography with immunoaffinity columns dedicated to OTA. OTA levels found in all the tested samples were below the maximum limits specified in the European Commission Regulation EC 1881/2006. Average OTA concentrations calculated for positive samples of grain coffee/roasted coffee/instant coffee/cocoa were 0.94/0.79/3.00/0.95 µg/kg, with the concentration ranges: 0.57-1.97/0.44-2.29/0.40-5.15/0.48-1.97 µg/kg, respectively. Average 2'R-OTA concentrations calculated for positive samples of roasted coffee/instant coffee were 0.90/1.48 µg/kg, with concentration ranges: 0.40-1.26/1.00-2.12 µg/kg, respectively. In turn, diastereomer was not found in any of the tested cocoa samples. Daily intake of both mycotoxins with coffee/cocoa would be below the TDI value even if the consumed coffee/cocoa were contaminated with OTA/2'R-OTA at the highest levels found in this study. Up to now only a few papers on both OTA and 2'R-OTA in roasted food products are available in the literature, and this is the first study in Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Zapaśnik
- Department of Microbiology, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Marcin Bryła
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznan, Poland;
| | - Edyta Ksieniewicz-Woźniak
- Department of Food Safety and Chemical Analysis, Prof. Waclaw Dabrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology—State Research Institute, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Grażyna Podolska
- Department of Cereal Crop Production, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation—State Research Institute, Czartoryskich 8, 24-100 Puławy, Poland;
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14
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Silveira RD, Veras FF, Bach E, Manfroi V, Brandelli A, Welke JE. Aspergillus carbonarius-derived ochratoxins are inhibited by Amazonian Bacillus spp. used as a biocontrol agent in grapes. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 39:158-169. [PMID: 34702135 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1982151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus spp. have been used as a biocontrol strategy to eliminate/reduce toxic fungicides in viticulture. Furthermore, the presence of fungi that are resistant to commonly used products is frequent, highlighting the need for new biocontrol strains. Aspergillus carbonarius can produce ochratoxins, including ochratoxin A (OTA), which has a regulatory maximum allowable limit for grape products. The purpose of this study was to assess the ability of four Amazonian strains of Bacillus (P1, P7, P11, and P45) to biocontrol A. carbonarius and various forms of ochratoxins in grapes. Berries treated with strain P1 presented no fungal colonies (100% reduction), while P7, P11 and P45 strains caused a reduction of 95, 95 and 61% on fungal counts, respectively. Six forms of ochratoxin were found in the grapes inoculated with A. carbonarius, including ochratoxin α, ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide, and OTA. Four of these ochratoxin forms (ochratoxin β, ochratoxin α methyl-ester, ochratoxin α amide, N-formyl-ochratoxin α amide) are reported for the first time in grapes. These ochratoxins were identified using liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QToF-MS). All Bacillus strains inhibited the synthesis of OTA, which is the most toxic form of ochratoxin. No ochratoxin form was found when P1 and P7 were used. Although some forms of ochratoxin were detected in grapes treated with Bacillus spp. P11 and P45, the levels decreased by 97%. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the inhibition of Aspergillus carbonarius-derived ochratoxin by Bacillus species. P1 strain, identified as Bacillus velezensis, was found to be the most promising for completely inhibiting fungal growth and production of all ochratoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela Diogo Silveira
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Flávio Fonseca Veras
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Evelise Bach
- Instituto de Biociências, UFRGS, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Vitor Manfroi
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Adriano Brandelli
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Juliane Elisa Welke
- Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia de Alimentos (ICTA), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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15
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Bryła M, Ksieniewicz-Woźniak E, Stępniewska S, Modrzewska M, Waśkiewicz A, Szymczyk K, Szafrańska A. Transformation of ochratoxin A during bread-making processes. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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16
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Payros D, Garofalo M, Pierron A, Soler-Vasco L, Al-Ayoubi C, Maruo VM, Alassane-Kpembi I, Pinton P, Oswald IP. Les mycotoxines en alimentation humaine : un défi pour la recherche. CAHIERS DE NUTRITION ET DE DIÉTÉTIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cnd.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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17
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Khataee A, Sohrabi H, Arbabzadeh O, Khaaki P, Majidi MR. Frontiers in conventional and nanomaterials based electrochemical sensing and biosensing approaches for Ochratoxin A analysis in foodstuffs: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 149:112030. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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18
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Kunz BM, Voß A, Dalichow J, Weigel S, Rohn S, Maul R. Impact of experimental thermal processing of artificially contaminated pea products on ochratoxin A and phomopsin A. Mycotoxin Res 2021; 37:63-78. [PMID: 33068264 PMCID: PMC7819913 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-020-00413-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Fungi of Aspergillus and Penicillium genus can infect peas (Pisum sativum), leading to a contamination with the nephrotoxic and carcinogenic ochratoxin A (OTA). Under unfavourable conditions, a fungus primarily found on lupines, Diapothe toxica, may also grow on peas and produce the hepatotoxic phomopsin A (PHOA). To study the effect of processing on OTA and PHOA content, two model products-wheat/rye-mixed bread with pea flour addition and pea pasta-were manufactured at small-business scale from artificially contaminated pea flour. The decrease of OTA and PHOA contents were monitored along the production process as indicators for toxin transformation. Pea bread dough was subjected to proofing for 30-40 min at 32 °C and baked at 250 °C to 230 °C for 40 min. OTA content (LODs < 0.1 μg/kg) showed a reduction in the bread crust (initially 17.0 μg/kg) to 88% and no reduction in the crumb (110%). For PHOA (LODs < 3.6 μg/kg), a decrease to approximately 21% occurred in the bread crust (initially 12.5 μg/kg), whilst for crumb, a less intense decrease to 91% was found. Pea pasta prepared with two toxin levels was extruded at room temperature, dried and cooked for 8 min in boiling water. In pea pasta, OTA was reduced from 29.8 to 13.9 μg/kg by 22% each after cooking, whilst 15% and 10% of the initial toxin amounts were found in the cooking water, respectively. For PHOA, 60% and 78% of initially 14.3 μg/kg and 7.21 μg/kg remained in the cooked pasta. As only the decrease of the initial content was measured and no specific degradation products could be detected, further research is needed to characterise potential transformation products. Heat treatment reduces the initial PHOA content stronger than the OTA content during pasta cooking and bread making. However, significant amounts of both toxins would remain in the final products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birgitta Maria Kunz
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
- Hamburg School of Food Science, Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 , Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Voß
- Institute for Food and Environmental Research (ILU) e. V., Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 40-41, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Julia Dalichow
- Institute for Food and Environmental Research (ILU) e. V., Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 40-41, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Stefan Weigel
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sascha Rohn
- Hamburg School of Food Science, Institute of Food Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, 20146 , Hamburg, Germany.
- Institute for Food and Environmental Research (ILU) e. V., Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 40-41, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany.
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institute of Food Chemistry and Analysis, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Ronald Maul
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany
- Max Rubner Institute, Hermann-Weigmann-Straße 1, 24103, Kiel, Germany
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19
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Gu K, Ryu D, Lee HJ. Ochratoxin A and its reaction products affected by sugars during heat processing. Food Chem 2021; 348:129038. [PMID: 33508597 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxin produced by many species in two fungal genera of Aspergillus and Penicillium under virtually all agricultural environments. Hence, OTA occurs frequently in agricultural commodities and their downstream products worldwide. In this study, thermal stability of OTA in the presence of sugars commonly added to food products including glucose, fructose, and sucrose was investigated by analyzing their reaction products with HPLC-FLD and LC-MS/MS. Samples were heated at three different temperatures (100, 125, and 150 °C) in 10-min intervals for up to 60 min in the absence of food matrix. Analysis showed increased OTα and OTα-amide and decreased OTA isomer (14-R-OTA) formation when OTA was heated with sugars. Among the sugars tested, adding fructose resulted in significantly lower OTA levels than glucose, sucrose, or no sugar added control. Addition of fructose also shifted OTA degradation product profile to less toxic OTα-amide, instead of OTA isomer which has similar toxicity to OTA. These results suggest that added sugars influenced the levels of OTA and its degradation products formed during thermal processing, and may provide a means to reduce the toxicity of OTA in food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kejia Gu
- School of Food Science, Washington State University, PO Box 646376, Pullman, WA 99164-6376, USA
| | - Dojin Ryu
- Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 2330, Moscow, ID 83844-2330, USA
| | - Hyun Jung Lee
- Department of Animal, Veterinary and Food Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 2330, Moscow, ID 83844-2330, USA.
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20
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21
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Schaarschmidt S, Fauhl-Hassek C. The fate of mycotoxins during secondary food processing of maize for human consumption. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 20:91-148. [PMID: 33443798 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring fungal metabolites that are associated with health hazards and are widespread in cereals including maize. The most common mycotoxins in maize that occur at relatively high levels are fumonisins (FBs), zearalenone, and aflatoxins; furthermore, other mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A are frequently present in maize. For these toxins, maximum levels are laid down in the European Union (EU) for maize raw materials and maize-based foods. The current review article gives a comprehensive overview on the different mycotoxins (including mycotoxins not regulated by EU law) and their fate during secondary processing of maize, based on the data published in the scientific literature. Furthermore, potential compliance with the EU maximum levels is discussed where appropriate. In general, secondary processing can impact mycotoxins in various ways. Besides changes in mycotoxin levels due to fractionation, dilution, and/or concentration, mycotoxins can be affected in their chemical structure (causing degradation or modification) or be released from or bound to matrix components. In the current review, a special focus is set on the effect on mycotoxins caused by different heat treatments, namely, baking, roasting, frying, (pressure) cooking, and extrusion cooking. Production processes involving multiple heat treatments are exemplified with the cornflakes production. For that, potential compliance with FB maximum levels was assessed. Moreover, effects of fermentation of maize matrices and production of maize germ oil are covered by this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Schaarschmidt
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Fauhl-Hassek
- Department Safety in the Food Chain, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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22
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Jalili M, Selamat J, Rashidi L. Effect of thermal processing and traditional flavouring mixture on mycotoxin reduction in pistachio. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effect of heating (roasting and microwave radiation heating) along with a traditional pistachio flavouring mixture (containing verjuice, thyme extract, and sodium chloride) was investigated on reducing aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA) in pistachios. The naturally and artificially contaminated samples were soaked in the flavouring mixture (for 5, 10 and 24 h) and then subjected to roasting (at 120 and 150 °C for 50 min) and heating by microwave radiation (6 and 10 min). The residual mycotoxins were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. The results showed that all treatments were able to reduce mycotoxin content (aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2 and OTA) significantly (P<0.05), up to 85.7±2.5% (during roasting) and up to 72.5±2.6% (during heating by microwave radiation). The highest reduction of AFs and OTA (ranging from 51.7±2.3 to 85.7±2.5%) was found when the contaminated (naturally and artificially) samples were soaked in the traditional mixture for 24 h and roasted at 150 °C. It could be concluded that the traditional flavouring method in combination with the roasting process or heating by microwave radiation could be applied as a useful and safe method for mycotoxin degradation in pistachio. Although, complete elimination of mycotoxins was not achieved, the method reduced mycotoxins more than 60% without adverse effect on the taste and appearance of pistachios.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Jalili
- Department of Food Industries and Agricultural Research, Standard Research Institute (SRI), Karaj 78894318, Iran
| | - J. Selamat
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Malaysia
- Food Safety and Food Integrity, Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Food Security, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang Selangor, Malaysia
| | - L. Rashidi
- Department of Food Industries and Agricultural Research, Standard Research Institute (SRI), Karaj 78894318, Iran
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23
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Yu J, Smith IN, Mikiashvili N. Reducing Ochratoxin A Content in Grape Pomace by Different Methods. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E424. [PMID: 32605033 PMCID: PMC7404766 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12070424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Grape pomace (GP) is the residue of grapes after wine making and is a valuable source of dietary polyphenol and fiber for health promotion. However, studies found the presence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in GP at very high concentrations, which raises a safety issue in the value-added utilization of GP. This study evaluated the effects of thermal pressure, baking, acid and enzymatic treatments on OTA content in GP. Thermal pressure treatment was conducted with wet GP at 121 °C for 10-30 min in an autoclave; acid treatments were conducted with hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, citric acid, and lactic acid, respectively, at 50 °C for 24 h. Baking was conducted using a cookie model. For enzymatic treatment, purified OTA solution was treated with carboxypeptidase A, alcalase, flavourzyme, pepsin, and lipase, respectively, and the effective enzymes were selected to treat GP. Results show that autoclaving for 10-30 min reduced 19-80% of OTA, varying with treatment time and GP variety. The effectiveness of acid treatment was similar to that of autoclaving and varied with acid type and GP variety. Baking increased the detectable OTA. Among all tested enzymes, carboxypeptidase A was the most effective in reducing OTA, followed by lipase and flavourzyme, but their effects were significantly lower in GP samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmei Yu
- Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC 27411, USA; (I.N.S.); (N.M.)
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24
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Schrenk D, Bodin L, Chipman JK, del Mazo J, Grasl‐Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom L(R, Leblanc J, Nebbia CS, Nielsen E, Ntzani E, Petersen A, Sand S, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Wallace H, Alexander J, Dall'Asta C, Mally A, Metzler M, Binaglia M, Horváth Z, Steinkellner H, Bignami M. Risk assessment of ochratoxin A in food. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06113. [PMID: 37649524 PMCID: PMC10464718 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The European Commission asked EFSA to update their 2006 opinion on ochratoxin A (OTA) in food. OTA is produced by fungi of the genus Aspergillus and Penicillium and found as a contaminant in various foods. OTA causes kidney toxicity in different animal species and kidney tumours in rodents. OTA is genotoxic both in vitro and in vivo; however, the mechanisms of genotoxicity are unclear. Direct and indirect genotoxic and non-genotoxic modes of action might each contribute to tumour formation. Since recent studies have raised uncertainty regarding the mode of action for kidney carcinogenicity, it is inappropriate to establish a health-based guidance value (HBGV) and a margin of exposure (MOE) approach was applied. For the characterisation of non-neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 4.73 μg/kg body weight (bw) per day was calculated from kidney lesions observed in pigs. For characterisation of neoplastic effects, a BMDL 10 of 14.5 μg/kg bw per day was calculated from kidney tumours seen in rats. The estimation of chronic dietary exposure resulted in mean and 95th percentile levels ranging from 0.6 to 17.8 and from 2.4 to 51.7 ng/kg bw per day, respectively. Median OTA exposures in breastfed infants ranged from 1.7 to 2.6 ng/kg bw per day, 95th percentile exposures from 5.6 to 8.5 ng/kg bw per day in average/high breast milk consuming infants, respectively. Comparison of exposures with the BMDL 10 based on the non-neoplastic endpoint resulted in MOEs of more than 200 in most consumer groups, indicating a low health concern with the exception of MOEs for high consumers in the younger age groups, indicating a possible health concern. When compared with the BMDL 10 based on the neoplastic endpoint, MOEs were lower than 10,000 for almost all exposure scenarios, including breastfed infants. This would indicate a possible health concern if genotoxicity is direct. Uncertainty in this assessment is high and risk may be overestimated.
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25
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Ryu D, Kowalski RJ, Ganjyal G, Lee HJ. Reduction of ochratoxin A in oats and rice by twin-screw extrusion processing with baking soda. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Sueck F, Hemp V, Specht J, Torres O, Cramer B, Humpf HU. Occurrence of the Ochratoxin A Degradation Product 2'R-Ochratoxin A in Coffee and Other Food: An Update. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11060329. [PMID: 31181754 PMCID: PMC6628416 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11060329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Food raw materials can contain the mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA). Thermal processing of these materials may result in decreased OTA levels but also in the formation of the thermal isomerization product 2′R-ochratoxin A (2′R-OTA). So far, only 2′R-OTA levels reported from 15 coffee samples in 2008 are known, which is little when compared to the importance of coffee as a food and trading good. Herein, we present results from a set of model experiments studying the effect of temperatures between 120 °C and 270 °C on the isomerization of OTA to 2′R-OTA. It is shown that isomerization of OTA starts at temperatures as low as 120 °C. At 210 °C and above, the formation of 25% 2′R-OTA is observed in less than one minute. Furthermore, 51 coffee samples from France, Germany, and Guatemala were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS for the presence of OTA and 2′R-OTA. OTA was quantified in 96% of the samples, while 2′R-OTA was quantifiable in 35% of the samples. The highest OTA and 2′R-OTA levels of 28.4 µg/kg and 3.9 µg/kg, respectively, were detected in coffee from Guatemala. The OTA:2′R-OTA ratio in the samples ranged between 2.5:1 and 10:1 and was on average 5.5:1. Besides coffee, 2′R-OTA was also for the first time detected in a bread sample and malt coffee powder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Sueck
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Vanessa Hemp
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Jonas Specht
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Olga Torres
- Laboratorio Diagnostico Molecular S.A, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
- Centro de Investigaciones en Nutrición y Salud, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
| | - Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Hans-Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 45, 48149 Münster, Germany.
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Azam MS, Yu D, Liu N, Wu A. Degrading Ochratoxin A and Zearalenone Mycotoxins Using a Multifunctional Recombinant Enzyme. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050301. [PMID: 31137857 PMCID: PMC6563298 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is an estrogenic and ochratoxin A (OTA) is a hepatotoxic Fusarium mycotoxin commonly seen in cereals and fruits products. No previous investigation has studied on a single platform for the multi degradation mycotoxin. The current study aimed to investigate the bifunctional activity of a novel fusion recombinant. We have generated a recombinant fusion enzyme (ZHDCP) by combining two single genes named zearalenone hydrolase (ZHD) and carboxypeptidase (CP) in frame deletion by crossover polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We identified enzymatic properties and cell cytotoxicity assay of ZHDCP enzyme. Our findings have demonstrated that ZEA was completely degraded to the non-toxic product in 2 h by ZHDCP enzyme at an optimum pH of 7 and a temperature of 35 °C. For the first time, it was found out that ZEA 60% was degraded by CP degrades in 48 h. Fusion ZHDCP and CP enzyme were able to degrade 100% OTA in 30 min at pH 7 and temperature 30 °C. ZEA- and OTA-induced cell death and increased cell apoptosis rate and regulated mRNA expression of Sirt1, Bax, Bcl2, Caspase3, TNFα, and IL6 genes. Our novel findings demonstrated that the fusion enzyme ZHDCP possess bifunctional activity (degrade OTA and ZEA), and it could be used to degrade more mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Shofiul Azam
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Dianzhen Yu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Na Liu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, CAS Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China.
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Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread bioactive extrolite from secondary metabolism of fungi which presence in foods like coffee is of public health concern, particularly for heavy drinkers. Coffee is one of the most consumed and appreciated non-alcoholic beverage in the world. Its production from the plantation to the coffee cup involves several steps that would determine the final concentration of OTA in the beverage. This review gives an overview of OTA contamination in roasted coffee beans in different countries and mitigation strategies for OTA reduction.
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Shanakhat H, Sorrentino A, Raiola A, Reverberi M, Salustri M, Masi P, Cavella S. Technological properties of durum wheat semolina treated by heating and UV irradiation for reduction of mycotoxin content. J FOOD PROCESS ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hina Shanakhat
- Department of Agricultural SciencesUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
| | - Angela Sorrentino
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food IndustryUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
| | - Assunta Raiola
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food IndustryUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
| | | | - Manuel Salustri
- Department of Environmental BiologyUniversity “Sapienza” Rome Italy
| | - Paolo Masi
- Department of Agricultural SciencesUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food IndustryUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
| | - Silvana Cavella
- Department of Agricultural SciencesUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
- Centre for Food Innovation and Development in the Food IndustryUniversity of Naples Federico II Naples Italy
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Abstract
Mycotoxins are chemical compounds produced mainly by mounds of genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium on various grains and agricultural commodities at different stages in the field, before harvest, post-harvest, during processing, packaging, distribution, and storage. The production of mycotoxins depends on several environmental factors such as temperature and moisture. This chapter gives an overview about the major mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and Fusarium toxins), masked mycotoxins, and emerging mycotoxins. The toxicity of these mycotoxins and their negative economic impact was also discussed together with the effect of climate change on their production. A section on mycotoxins regulations by international agencies and organisms (WHO, FAO, EU, etc.) was discussed. Finally, the different strategies to reduce or eliminate the toxic effects of mycotoxins in contaminated foods and feeds by using chemical, physical, and biological/biotechnological methods or innovative approaches were explained.
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Lee HJ, Kim S, Suh HJ, Ryu D. Effects of explosive puffing process on the reduction of ochratoxin A in rice and oats. Food Control 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2018.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Chen BY, Huang HW, Cheng MC, Wang CY. Influence of high-pressure processing on the generation of γ-aminobutyric acid and microbiological safety in coffee beans. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2018; 98:5625-5631. [PMID: 29700833 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.9106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of high-pressure processing (HPP) on γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content, glutamic acid (Glu) content, glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) activity, growth of Aspergillus fresenii, and accumulated ochratoxin A (OTA) content in coffee beans. RESULTS The results indicated that coffee beans subjected to HPP at pressures ≥50 MPa for 5 min increased GAD activity and promoted the conversion of Glu to GABA, and showed a significantly doubling of GABA content compared with unprocessed coffee beans. Additionally, investigation of the influence of HPP on A. fresenii growth on coffee beans showed that application ≥400 MPa reduced A. fresenii concentrations to <1 log. Furthermore, during a 50-day storage period, we observed that a processing pressure of 600 MPa completely inhibited A. fresenii growth, and on day 50 the OTA content of coffee beans subjected to processing pressures of 600 MPa was 0.0066 μg g-1 , which was significantly lower than the OTA content of 0.1143 μg g-1 in the control group. CONCLUSION This study shows that HPP treatment can simultaneously increase GABA content and inhibit the growth of A. fresenii, thereby effectively reducing the production and accumulation of OTA and maintaining the microbiological safety of coffee beans. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang-Yuan Chen
- Department of Food Science, Fu Jen Catholic University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsiao-Wen Huang
- Department of Animal Science and Technology, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Ching Cheng
- Department of Health Food, Chung Chou University of Science and Technology, Yuanlin, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Yi Wang
- Experimental Forest, National Taiwan University, Nantou, Taiwan
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33
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The efficiency of lactic acid bacteria against pathogenic fungi and mycotoxins. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2018; 69:32-45. [PMID: 29604200 DOI: 10.2478/aiht-2018-69-3051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by some fungal species of the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium and are common contaminants of a wide range of food commodities. Numerous strategies are used to minimise fungal growth and mycotoxin contamination throughout the food chain. This review addresses the use of lactic acid bacteria, which can inhibit fungal growth and participate in mycotoxin degradation and/or removal from contaminated food. Being beneficial for human and animal health, lactic acid bacteria have established themselves as an excellent solution to the problem of mycotoxin contamination, yet in practice their application in removing mycotoxins remains a challenge to be addressed by future research.
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Freire L, Guerreiro TM, Caramês ETS, Lopes LS, Orlando EA, Pereira GE, Lima Pallone JA, Catharino RR, Sant'Ana AS. Influence of Maturation Stages in Different Varieties of Wine Grapes ( Vitis vinifera) on the Production of Ochratoxin A and Its Modified Forms by Aspergillus carbonarius and Aspergillus niger. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:8824-8831. [PMID: 30048130 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A is the main contaminant mycotoxin of grapes produced mainly by Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus carbonarius. Besides, it is possible that the formation of modified mycotoxin occurs through the plant defense mechanism or also by fungus actions itself. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of grape variety and maturation stage on the formation of OTA and modified mycotoxin. The determination of OTA was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography, and a high-resolution mass spectrometry was used for the detection of modified ochratoxin. A positive correlation was observed between the following grapes physicochemical parameters: pH, total soluble solids, total glycosides in glucose, total anthocyanin, and OTA levels produced by A. niger and A. carbonarius. Therefore, the higher the concentrations of these parameters, the greater the production of mycotoxin in grapes. Among the elected targets, we identified the 14-decarboxy-ochratoxin A in Muscat Italia variety at veraison and 15 days after the beginning of veraison stages; and ethylamide-ochratoxin A as a biomarker in the Syrah variety at the ripeness stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luísa Freire
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Tatiane M Guerreiro
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Elem T S Caramês
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Letícia S Lopes
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Eduardo A Orlando
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Giuliano E Pereira
- § Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Semiárido) , Petrolina , PE , Brazil
| | - Juliana A Lima Pallone
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Rodrigo R Catharino
- Innovare Biomarkers Laboratory, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
| | - Anderson S Sant'Ana
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering , University of Campinas , Campinas , SP , Brazil
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35
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Modified mycotoxins: An updated review on their formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 111:189-205. [PMID: 29158197 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Revised: 11/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Modified mycotoxins are metabolites that normally remain undetected during the testing for parent mycotoxin. These modified forms of mycotoxins can be produced by fungi or generated as part of the defense mechanism of the infected plant. In some cases, they are formed during food processing. The various processing steps greatly affect mycotoxin levels present in the final product (free and modified), although the results are still controversial regarding the increase or reduction of these levels, being strongly related to the type of process and the composition of the food in question. Evidence exists that some modified mycotoxins can be converted into the parent mycotoxin during digestion in humans and animals, potentially leading to adverse health effects. Some of these formed compounds can be even more toxic, in case they have higher bioaccessibility and bioavailability than the parent mycotoxin. The modified mycotoxins can occur simultaneously with the free mycotoxin, and, in some cases, the concentration of modified mycotoxins may exceed the level of free mycotoxin in processed foods. Even though toxicological data are scarce, the possibility of modified mycotoxin conversion to its free form may result in a potential risk to human and animal health. This review aims to update information on the formation, detection, occurrence, and toxic effects caused by modified mycotoxin.
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37
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Karlovsky P, Suman M, Berthiller F, De Meester J, Eisenbrand G, Perrin I, Oswald IP, Speijers G, Chiodini A, Recker T, Dussort P. Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxin Res 2016; 32:179-205. [PMID: 27554261 PMCID: PMC5063913 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-016-0257-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 321] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungal metabolites commonly occurring in food, which pose a health risk to the consumer. Maximum levels for major mycotoxins allowed in food have been established worldwide. Good agricultural practices, plant disease management, and adequate storage conditions limit mycotoxin levels in the food chain yet do not eliminate mycotoxins completely. Food processing can further reduce mycotoxin levels by physical removal and decontamination by chemical or enzymatic transformation of mycotoxins into less toxic products. Physical removal of mycotoxins is very efficient: manual sorting of grains, nuts, and fruits by farmers as well as automatic sorting by the industry significantly lowers the mean mycotoxin content. Further processing such as milling, steeping, and extrusion can also reduce mycotoxin content. Mycotoxins can be detoxified chemically by reacting with food components and technical aids; these reactions are facilitated by high temperature and alkaline or acidic conditions. Detoxification of mycotoxins can also be achieved enzymatically. Some enzymes able to transform mycotoxins naturally occur in food commodities or are produced during fermentation but more efficient detoxification can be achieved by deliberate introduction of purified enzymes. We recommend integrating evaluation of processing technologies for their impact on mycotoxins into risk management. Processing steps proven to mitigate mycotoxin contamination should be used whenever necessary. Development of detoxification technologies for high-risk commodities should be a priority for research. While physical techniques currently offer the most efficient post-harvest reduction of mycotoxin content in food, biotechnology possesses the largest potential for future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Karlovsky
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Grisebachstrasse6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michele Suman
- Barilla G. R. F.lli SpA, Advanced Laboratory Research, via Mantova 166, 43122, Parma, Italy
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430, Tulln, Austria
| | - Johan De Meester
- Cargill R&D Center Europe, Havenstraat 84, B-1800, Vilvoorde, Belgium
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Germany (retired), University of Kaiserslautern, P.O.Box 3049, 67653, Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Irène Perrin
- Nestlé Research Center, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, PO Box 44, 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- INRA, UMR 1331 ToxAlim, Research Center in Food Toxicology, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, BP93173, 31027, Toulouse, France
- Université de Toulouse, INP, UMR1331, Toxalim, Toulouse, France
| | - Gerrit Speijers
- General Health Effects Toxicology Safety Food (GETS), Winterkoning 7, 34353 RN, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
| | - Alessandro Chiodini
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Tobias Recker
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pierre Dussort
- International Life Sciences Institute-ILSI Europe, Avenue E. Mounier 83, Box 6, 1200, Brussels, Belgium.
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Structure-activity relationship of ochratoxin A and synthesized derivatives: importance of amino acid and halogen moiety for cytotoxicity. Arch Toxicol 2016; 91:1461-1471. [PMID: 27422291 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-016-1799-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The enigma why the mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) impairs cell and organ function is still not solved. However, an interaction with target molecules is a prerequisite for any observed adverse effect. This interaction depends on characteristics of the target molecule as well as on the OTA molecule itself. OTA has different structural moieties which may be relevant for these interrelations including a halogen (chlorine) and an amino acid group (phenylalanine). To test their importance for the impact of OTA, detailed structure-activity studies with various OTA derivatives were performed. For this, 23 OTA derivatives were available, which were modified by either an exchange of the halogen moiety against another halogen (fluorine, iodine or bromine) or by the amino acid moiety against another one (tyrosine or alanine) or a combination of both. Additionally, the configuration of the 3R carbon atom was changed to 3S. These derivatives were tested in human renal cells for their ability to induce cell death (cytotoxicity, apoptosis, necrosis), their impact on collagen protein secretion and for their influence on gene expression. It turned out that the substitution of the amino acid moiety against tyrosine or alanine almost completely prevented the adverse effects of OTA. The exchange of the halogen moiety had minor effects and the inversion of the stereochemistry at C3 did not prevent the effects of OTA. Therefore, we conclude that the amino acid moiety of OTA is indispensable for the interaction of OTA with its target molecules.
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Malir F, Ostry V, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A, Malir J, Toman J. Ochratoxin A: 50 Years of Research. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E191. [PMID: 27384585 PMCID: PMC4963825 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Since ochratoxin A (OTA) was discovered, it has been ubiquitous as a natural contaminant of moldy food and feed. The multiple toxic effects of OTA are a real threat for human beings and animal health. For example, OTA can cause porcine nephropathy but can also damage poultries. Humans exposed to OTA can develop (notably by inhalation in the development of acute renal failure within 24 h) a range of chronic disorders such as upper urothelial carcinoma. OTA plays the main role in the pathogenesis of some renal diseases including Balkan endemic nephropathy, kidney tumors occurring in certain endemic regions of the Balkan Peninsula, and chronic interstitial nephropathy occurring in Northern African countries and likely in other parts of the world. OTA leads to DNA adduct formation, which is known for its genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The present article discusses how renal carcinogenicity and nephrotoxicity cause both oxidative stress and direct genotoxicity. Careful analyses of the data show that OTA carcinogenic effects are due to combined direct and indirect mechanisms (e.g., genotoxicity, oxidative stress, epigenetic factors). Altogether this provides strong evidence that OTA carcinogenicity can also occur in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove 50003, Czech Republic.
| | - Vladimir Ostry
- National Reference Center for Microfungi and Mycotoxins in Food Chains, Center of Health, Nutrition and Food in Brno, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Brno 61242, Czech Republic.
| | - Annie Pfohl-Leszkowicz
- Department Bioprocess & Microbial Systems, Laboratory Chemical Engineering, INP/ENSA Toulouse, University of Toulouse, UMR 5503 CNRS/INPT/UPS, Auzeville-Tolosane 31320, France.
| | - Jan Malir
- Institute of State and Law, Czech Academy of Sciences, Narodni 18, Prague 11600, Czech Republic.
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove 50003, Czech Republic.
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40
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Heussner A, Paget T. Evaluation of renal in vitro models used in ochratoxin research. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2016. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2015.1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) induces renal carcinomas in rodents with a specific localisation in the S3 segment of proximal tubules and distinct early severe tissue alterations, which have been observed also in other species. Pronounced species- and sex-specific differences in toxicity occur and similar effects cannot be excluded in humans, however precise mechanism(s) remain elusive until today. In such cases, the use of in vitro models for mechanistic investigations can be very useful; in particular if a non-genotoxic mechanism of cancer formation is assumed which include cytotoxic effects. However, potential genotoxic mechanisms can also be investigated in vitro. A crucial issue of in vitro research is the choice of the appropriate cell model. Apparently, the cellular target of OTA is the renal proximal tubular cell; therefore cells from this tissue area are the most reasonable model. Furthermore, cells from affected species should be used and can be compared to cells of human origin. Another important parameter is whether to use primary cultures or to choose a cell line from the huge variety of cell lines available. In any case, important characteristics and quality controls need to be verified beforehand. Therefore, this review discusses the renal in vitro models that have been used for the investigation of renal ochratoxin toxicity. In particular, we discuss the choice of the models and the essential parameters making them suitable models for ochratoxin research together with exemplary results from this research. Furthermore, new promising models such as hTERT-immortalised cells and 3D-cultures are briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.H. Heussner
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Pharmacy Health and Well-being, University of Sunderland, Sciences Complex, Wharncliffe Street, Sunderland SR1 3SD, United Kingdom
| | - T. Paget
- Pharmacy Health and Well-being, University of Sunderland, Sciences Complex, Wharncliffe Street, Sunderland SR1 3SD, United Kingdom
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41
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Haq M, Gonzalez N, Mintz K, Jaja-Chimedza A, De Jesus CL, Lydon C, Welch A, Berry JP. Teratogenicity of Ochratoxin A and the Degradation Product, Ochratoxin α, in the Zebrafish (Danio rerio) Embryo Model of Vertebrate Development. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:40. [PMID: 26861395 PMCID: PMC4773793 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8020040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2015] [Revised: 01/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxins, and particularly ochratoxin A (OTA), are toxic fungal-derived contaminants of food and other agricultural products. Growing evidence supports the degradation of OTA by chemical, enzymatic and/or microbial means as a potential approach to remove this mycotoxin from food products. In particular, hydrolysis of OTA to ochratoxin α (OTα) and phenylalanine is the presumptive product of degradation in most cases. In the current study, we employed the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo, as a model of vertebrate development to evaluate, the teratogenicity of OTA and OTα. These studies show that OTA is potently active in the zebrafish embryo toxicity assay (ZETA), and that toxicity is both concentration- and time-dependent with discernible and quantifiable developmental toxicity observed at nanomolar concentrations. On the other hand, OTα had no significant effect on embryo development at all concentrations tested supporting a decreased toxicity of this degradation product. Taken together, these results suggest that ZETA is a useful, and highly sensitive, tool for evaluating OTA toxicity, as well as its degradation products, toward development of effective detoxification strategies. Specifically, the results obtained with ZETA, in the present study, further demonstrate the toxicity of OTA, and support its degradation via hydrolysis to OTα as an effective means of detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehreen Haq
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Nelson Gonzalez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Keenan Mintz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Asha Jaja-Chimedza
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Christopher Lawrence De Jesus
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Christina Lydon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
| | - Aaron Welch
- Chaplin School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181; USA.
| | - John P Berry
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151 Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
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42
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De Bellis P, Tristezza M, Haidukowski M, Fanelli F, Sisto A, Mulè G, Grieco F. Biodegradation of Ochratoxin A by Bacterial Strains Isolated from Vineyard Soils. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:5079-93. [PMID: 26633497 PMCID: PMC4690114 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7124864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Revised: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin with a main nephrotoxic activity contaminating several foodstuffs. In the present report, five soil samples collected from OTA-contaminated vineyards were screened to isolate microorganisms able to biodegrade OTA. When cultivated in OTA-supplemented medium, OTA was converted in OTα by 225 bacterial isolates. To reveal clonal relationships between isolates, molecular typing by using an automated rep-PCR system was carried out, thus showing the presence of 27 different strains (rep-PCR profiles). The 16S-rRNA gene sequence analysis of an isolate representative of each rep-PCR profiles indicated that they belonged to five bacterial genera, namely Pseudomonas, Leclercia, Pantoea, Enterobacter, and Acinetobacter. However, further evaluation of OTA-degrading activity by the 27 strains revealed that only Acinetobacter calcoaceticus strain 396.1 and Acinetobacter sp. strain neg1, consistently conserved the above property; their further characterization showed that they were able to convert 82% and 91% OTA into OTα in six days at 24 °C, respectively. The presence of OTα, as the unique OTA-degradation product was confirmed by LC-HRMS. This is the first report on OTA biodegradation by bacterial strains isolated from agricultural soils and carried out under aerobic conditions and moderate temperatures. These microorganisms might be used to detoxify OTA-contaminated feed and could be a new source of gene(s) for the development of a novel enzymatic detoxification system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palmira De Bellis
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Bari, via Amendola 122/O, Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Mariana Tristezza
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Lecce, via Provinciale Lecce-Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Miriam Haidukowski
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Bari, via Amendola 122/O, Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Francesca Fanelli
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Bari, via Amendola 122/O, Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Angelo Sisto
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Bari, via Amendola 122/O, Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Giuseppina Mulè
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Bari, via Amendola 122/O, Bari 70126, Italy.
| | - Francesco Grieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Unit of Lecce, via Provinciale Lecce-Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
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Heussner AH, Bingle LEH. Comparative Ochratoxin Toxicity: A Review of the Available Data. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:4253-82. [PMID: 26506387 PMCID: PMC4626733 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7104253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Revised: 09/27/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxins are a group of mycotoxins produced by a variety of moulds. Ochratoxin A (OTA), the most prominent member of this toxin family, was first described by van der Merwe et al. in Nature in 1965. Dietary exposure to OTA represents a serious health issue and has been associated with several human and animal diseases including poultry ochratoxicosis, porcine nephropathy, human endemic nephropathies and urinary tract tumours in humans. More than 30 years ago, OTA was shown to be carcinogenic in rodents and since then extensive research has been performed in order to investigate its mode of action, however, this is still under debate. OTA is regarded as the most toxic family member, however, other ochratoxins or their metabolites and, in particular, ochratoxin mixtures or combinations with other mycotoxins may represent serious threats to human and animal health. This review summarises and evaluates current knowledge about the differential and comparative toxicity of the ochratoxin group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra H Heussner
- Human and Environmental Toxicology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany.
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Well-Being, University of Sunderland, City Campus, Sunderland SR1 3SD, UK.
| | - Lewis E H Bingle
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Well-Being, University of Sunderland, City Campus, Sunderland SR1 3SD, UK.
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Cramer B, Osteresch B, Muñoz KA, Hillmann H, Sibrowski W, Humpf H. Biomonitoring using dried blood spots: detection of ochratoxin A and its degradation product 2'R-ochratoxin A in blood from coffee drinkers. Mol Nutr Food Res 2015; 59:1837-43. [PMID: 26012425 PMCID: PMC4744763 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201500220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE In this study, human exposure to the mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) and its thermal degradation product 2'R-ochratoxin A (2'R-OTA, previously named as 14R-Ochratoxin A [22]) through coffee consumption was assessed. LC-MS/MS and the dried blood spot (DBS) technique were used for the analysis of blood samples from coffee and noncoffee drinkers (n = 50), and food frequency questionnaires were used to document coffee consumption. METHODS AND RESULTS For the detection of OTA and 2'R-OTA in blood, a new sensitive and efficient sample preparation method based on DBS was established and validated. Using this technique 2'R-OTA was for the first time detected in biological samples. Comparison between coffee drinkers and noncoffee drinkers showed for the first time that 2'R-OTA was only present in blood from the first group while OTA could be found in both groups in a mean concentration of 0.21 μg/L. 2'R-OTA mean concentration was 0.11 μg/L with a maximum concentration of 0.414 μg/L. Thus, in average 2'R-OTA was approx. half the concentration of OTA but in some cases even exceeded OTA levels. No correlation between the amounts of coffee consumption and OTA or 2'R-OTA levels was observed. CONCLUSION The results of this study revealed for the first time a high exposure of coffee consumers to 2'R-OTA, a compound formed from OTA during coffee roasting. Since little information is available regarding toxicity and possible carcinogenicity of this compound, further OTA monitoring in blood including 2'R-OTA is advisable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Cramer
- Institute of Food ChemistryWestfälische Wilhelms‐Universität MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Bernd Osteresch
- Institute of Food ChemistryWestfälische Wilhelms‐Universität MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Katherine A. Muñoz
- Universität Koblenz‐LandauInstitute for Environmental Sciences, Research Group of Environmental and Soil ChemistryLandau in der PfalzGermany
| | - Hartmut Hillmann
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin und TransplantationsimmunologieUniversitätsklinikum MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Walter Sibrowski
- Institut für Transfusionsmedizin und TransplantationsimmunologieUniversitätsklinikum MünsterMünsterGermany
| | - Hans‐Ulrich Humpf
- Institute of Food ChemistryWestfälische Wilhelms‐Universität MünsterMünsterGermany
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