Small farms and development in sub-Saharan Africa: Farming for food, for income or for lack of better options?

The Adoption of Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: the Public's Current Perception, the Regulatory Obstacles, and Ethical Challenges

Genetically modified (GM) crops are the most important agricultural commodities that can improve the yield of African smallholder farmers. The intricate circumstances surrounding the introduction of GM agriculture in Africa, however, underscore the importance of comprehending the moral conundrums, regulatory environments, and public sentiment that exist today. This review examines the current situation surrounding the use of GM crops in Africa, focusing on moral conundrums, regulatory frameworks, and public opinion. Only eleven of the fifty-four African countries currently cultivate GM crops due to the wide range of opinions resulting from the disparities in cultural, socioeconomic, and environmental factors. This review proposed that addressing public concerns, harmonizing regulations, and upholding ethical standards will improve the adoption of GM crops in Africa. This study offers ways to enhance the acceptability of GM crops for boosting nutrition and food security globally.

Impact of investments in agricultural innovation on food security in sub-Saharan Africa

Empirical evidence proves that agricultural research and development expenditure, and researchers attract high returns though the investments have long gestation periods. Nonetheless, Sub-Saharan Africa invests meagerly in agricultural research and development, and researchers. This study explores the impacts of agricultural research and development expenditures, and researchers on food security in the region and across the sub-regions. The study applies Bootstrapped linear squared dummy variable due to its capacity to handle heterogeneity and missing observations and two-step system generalized method of moments techniques to analyze the data on 24 sub-Saharan African countries over the period 2000-2016. Data on measures of food security, food production per capita, and food price index are obtained from Food and Agriculture Organization stat, data on population growth is sourced from World Development Indicators, and data on investments in agricultural innovations are extracted from International Food Policy Research Institute. Our findings show that investments in agricultural innovation substantially increase food security through food productivity growth. The full-time equivalent of agricultural researchers' hours is more impactful on food security than agricultural research and development spending. The findings also reveal that the investments are more effective in enhancing food security in Eastern, Southern, and Western African sub-regions while they instead exacerbate the problem of food insecurity in Central Africa. The policy implications are that adequate resources should be channeled into proper agricultural research and development to introduce new crop varieties or significantly improved crops, etc. Moreover, there should be coordination between large and small countries in investments in order for the countries to benefit from the economies of scale.

Evaluating constraints associated with farmers' adaptation strategies to climate change impact on farming in the tropical environment

The persistent threat of climate change poses challenges to food security, despite numerous adaptation strategies, necessitating attention to achieve sustainable livelihoods. This study conducted a survey among 220 farmers in fifteen selected rural communities from five political wards in Ondo West Local Government Area, Ondo State, Nigeria, using a multistage sampling technique. Both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used to analyse data obtained. The results indicated that 90 % of the farmers had knowledge of consequences of climate change, while 75 % have adopted various strategies to cope with the menace. The data were factorable at p ≤ 0.05 using KMO and Bartlett's tests. Four variables were extracted out of nine analysed as significant to the explanation of constraints to CC adaptation strategies, namely: engagement in other jobs (16.499 %); farmers' experience with the varying nature of weather patterns (14.526 %); farm size variation (13.485 %); and the difficulty posed by coping with recurring erratic rainfall (11.925 %). All four variables identified and extracted explained 56.446 % of the constraints hindering farmers from coping with climate change. The study recommended further studies to identify other variables that could be accountable for the constraints in coping with the climate change scenario in the study area. The contributions of farmers' experiences to the failure of various strategies in coping with climate change form the nexus to other extracted variables and, therefore, need further investigation for sustainable agriculture globally.

Disability and labour market participation among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya

BACKGROUND

Despite the importance of labour market participation and the high number of people with disabilities in rural Africa who rely on subsistence agriculture to survive, very few studies have documented labour market outcomes among farmers with and without disabilities in Africa.

OBJECTIVE

We examined how labour market participation differed by disability and other factors among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya.

METHODS

We use cross-sectional data collected between January and April 2022 from sorghum farmers enrolled in a trial evaluating the impact of a programme designed to improve labour market participation among sorghum farmers in rural Western Kenya. Disability and Labour market outcomes were assessed using questions from the Washington Group /ILO Labor Force Survey Disability Module the ILO Labour Force Survey module respectively. Univariate and multiple regression analyses were conducted to identify socio-demographic characteristics and other related factors associated with labour market participation.

RESULTS

Among 4459 participants, disability was reported by 20.3% of women and 12.3% of men. Labour market participation was reported by 77.1% and 81.3% of women and men, respectively. Adjusting for demographic confounders, having a disability was associated with a lower likelihood of labour market participation (odds ratio 0.59, 95% confidence interval, 0.42-0.83, P = 0.001). These findings were similar in a modified model that looked at functional difficulties separately from anxiety and depression. Women, older participants, and those who were dependent on others were also more likely not to report participation in the labour market.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased recognition and understanding of functional limitations among smallholder farmers is vital for the success of economic empowerment programmes aimed at increasing labour market participation among the most vulnerable populations.

Does government food demonstration intervention influence household dietary diversity in the Upper West Region of Ghana?

Dietary diversity is crucial in ensuring food and nutrition security. In low-middle-income countries, people frequently prioritize the quantity of food they consume over its quality due to a lack of availability and financial limitations. As a result, achieving dietary diversity is often overlooked in favor of ensuring adequate caloric intake. Through a social cognitive theory perspective, our study examines the relationship between food demonstrations and household dietary diversity in Ghana's Upper West Region utilizing cross-sectional survey data from 517 smallholder farmer households. The results from ordered logistic regression presented in odds ratio (OR) show that participating in food demonstrations (OR: 2.585, p<0.01), engaging in home gardening (OR: 1.932, p<0.001), having access to credit (OR: 1.609, p<0.01), self-rated good nutritional status (OR: 1.747, p<0.01), and Waala ethnicity (OR: 3.686, p<0.001) were all positively associated with high household dietary diversity. Conversely, living in the Wa West district was associated with lower dietary diversity (OR: 0.326, p<0.001). Our research findings suggest that policymakers may want to consider implementing community-based educational programs, such as home and school visits for food demonstrations and sensitizations, promoting mother-to-mother support groups for dietary diversity education, nutrition counseling services, and using role-play and local media. In addition, strengthening local agricultural policies through food banks, indigenous seed development, and mobile food markets and enhancing public-private partnerships like the Ghana Schools Feeding Programme and National Food Buffer Stock company could improve the supply chain and distribution networks for diverse food items. Implementing these interventions in the Upper West Region of Ghana could improve health, well-being, food security, and nutritional outcomes.

Optimizing crop planning in the winter fallow season using residual soil nutrients and irrigation water allocation in India

Effective management of water resources is essential for crop diversification and food security. This study proposes an Irrigation-Food-Environment-Chance-constrained Programming (IFEC) model for simultaneously optimizing crop planting area, irrigation water, and residual fertilizer considering inflow uncertainty along with farmer preference crop. Eight irrigation water allocation optimal models were constructed, fixing the preference crop cultivation area, while deviations in downstream release, and vegetable crop area cultivation were executed for sensitivity analysis. Model is then applied in a command area fed by a sub-tributary of Brahmaputra, India. On averaging, plant available N and P for the area were 62.14 kg ha-1 and 1.13 kg ha-1 respectively. With variation in available water, changes would occur in vegetable and cereal crops having higher yield and relatively less crop water requirement as compared to maize. Results showed that complying with preference crop area up to 60% would decrease the profit by 49% as compared to 20% at even 10% risk probability for 70% release. At existing conditions, water would be insufficient at 60% preference crop. Further, R2 value between benefit and water availability for vegetable cultivation varies from 0.99 to 0.78 for all scenarios. The tool featured that, setting specific preference crop areas provides equitable situation rather than mono-cropping. From the study findings, we suggest two salient recommendations: (1) promoting policies with appropriate financial subsidies for vegetable cultivation that focus on intensification with less water-requiring crops and (2) optimization results could be achieved by expanding the water utilization in the present condition while increasing efficiency.

Nexus between summer climate variability and household food security in rural Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

Ongoing climate changes are likely to impact household food security in rural households that depend on rainfed subsistence agriculture. This paper investigates the relationship between summer climate variability and household food security in rural Mpumalanga, South Africa. We used a household panel data set nested in the Agincourt Health and Socio-Demographic Surveillance System, together with rainfall and temperature data for the summer periods 2006-07 to 2018-19 from three weather stations that surround the study area. We quantified the variability of rainfall using coefficient of variation and the standardized rainfall anomaly index, while temperature variability was reflected by the standardised temperature anomaly. In addition, the Mann-Kendall analysis was applied to detect temporal trends in rainfall and temperature. Longitudinal models accounting for socioeconomic and climate factors were used to estimate the relationship between weather and climate. The results reveal significant impact on food security from high inter-annual rainfall variability through fluctuations in food consumption, dietary diversity, and the experience of hunger. This study offers significant insights on how dietary diversity, food availability and overall food security are positively associated with greater average rainfall through subsistence agriculture as a livelihood strategy. These insights have important implications by suggesting seasonal forecasts to predict periods of potential food insecurity in local communities and can guide government policy and interventions to lessen food insecurity in rural areas.

Plastics and Micro/Nano-Plastics (MNPs) in the Environment: Occurrence, Impact, and Toxicity

Plastics, due to their varied properties, find use in different sectors such as agriculture, packaging, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and construction, to mention a few. Excessive use of plastics results in a lot of plastic waste buildup. Poorly managed plastic waste (as shown by heaps of plastic waste on dumpsites, in free spaces, along roads, and in marine systems) and the plastic in landfills, are just a fraction of the plastic waste in the environment. A complete picture should include the micro and nano-plastics (MNPs) in the hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere, as the current extreme weather conditions (which are effects of climate change), wear and tear, and other factors promote MNP formation. MNPs pose a threat to the environment more than their pristine counterparts. This review highlights the entry and occurrence of primary and secondary MNPs in the soil, water and air, together with their aging. Furthermore, the uptake and internalization, by plants, animals, and humans are discussed, together with their toxicity effects. Finally, the future perspective and conclusion are given. The material utilized in this work was acquired from published articles and the internet using keywords such as plastic waste, degradation, microplastic, aging, internalization, and toxicity.

Food System Transformation and Gut Microbiota Transition: Evidence on Advancing Obesity, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Cancers-A Narrative Review

Food, a vital component of our daily life, is fundamental to our health and well-being, and the knowledge and practices relating to food have been passed down from countless generations of ancestors. Systems may be used to describe this extremely extensive and varied body of agricultural and gastronomic knowledge that has been gathered via evolutionary processes. The gut microbiota also underwent changes as the food system did, and these alterations had a variety of effects on human health. In recent decades, the gut microbiome has gained attention due to its health benefits as well as its pathological effects on human health. Many studies have shown that a person's gut microbiota partially determines the nutritional value of food and that diet, in turn, shapes both the microbiota and the microbiome. The current narrative review aims to explain how changes in the food system over time affect the makeup and evolution of the gut microbiota, advancing obesity, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer. After a brief discussion of the food system's variety and the gut microbiota's functions, we concentrate on the relationship between the evolution of food system transformation and gut microbiota system transition linked to the increase of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Finally, we also describe sustainable food system transformation strategies to ensure healthy microbiota composition recovery and maintain the host gut barrier and immune functions to reverse advancing NCDs.

Does climate-smart agriculture improve household income and food security? Evidence from Southern Ethiopia

Climate change threatens African countries' economic development and affects agriculture and food security. Ethiopia is especially vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because its economy is dependent on climate-sensitive livelihoods that have limited potential for adaptation. Emerging evidence indicates that climate-smart agriculture (CSA) can help smallholder farmers adapt to climate change and increase agricultural productivity, thereby enhancing household income and food security. In the study area, different CSA practices have been adopted to mitigate the negative effects of climate change and improve agricultural productivity, income, and food security. Therefore, this study examines the impact of CSA practices on household income and food security in southern Ethiopia. A total of 385 households were selected using multistage sampling. Primary and secondary data were used, and propensity score matching with different types of matching algorithms, such as nearest neighbor, kernel, and radius matching, was employed to quantify the conditional impacts of CSA intervention on farm income and food security. In comparison with non adopters farmers that have adopted CSA practices had a higher food consumption score between 6.27 and 8.15, which was statistically significant at the 1% level. Overall, 34.55% of interviewed households had acceptable food consumption scores, 44.68% had borderline, and 20.77% had poor food consumption scores. Furthermore, households that adopted CSA practices had a 20.30% higher average annual farm income per hectare than non-adopters. The study suggests that effective extension services, accurate climate information, and sound policy support are required to promote and scale up CSA measures in the study area to improve farmers' adaptive capacity, farm income, and food security.

Fertilizer use gaps of women-headed households under diverse rice-based cropping patterns: Survey-based evidence from the Eastern Gangetic Plain, South Asia

Women-headed households (WHHs) have limited access to agricultural inputs and extension services relative to male-headed households (MHHs) which may lead to yield gaps, poorer livelihoods and greater food insecurity. Since lower fertilizer use by WHHs will restrict crop yield, we examined how limited access to fertilizer inputs and extension services was reflected in nutrient use gaps relative to Government recommendations. A total of 80 WHHs were randomly selected for interview from four Agro-ecological Zones (AEZs) covering five representative districts of Bangladesh to assess, for the first time, nutrient use gaps of WHHs under five rice-based cropping patterns. Data collected from 576 MHHs (reported elsewhere) was also utilized to examine nutrient use gaps, crop yields and farm income between MHHs and WHHs. The nutrient use rates were compared with the government Fertilizer Recommendation Guides (FRG): FRG-2012 and FRG-2018. The WHHs underuse N, P, K, S and Zn under fully rice-based cropping patterns, while MHHs overuse those nutrients, but WHH tend to overuse N, P, and K for patterns with potato and watermelon crops. WHHs seem to prioritize high-value crops for fertilizer use, but even yield was 14%, 11%, 17% and 15% lower for irrigated rice, maize, potato and watermelon, respectively compared to smallholder MHHs under diverse rice-based cropping patterns. Overall, WHHs had 10% and 14% lower farm incomes than MHHs under fully rice-based and high-value cropping patterns, respectively. Financial losses for both WHHs and the government due to overuse of NPK on high-value potato crops were estimated at around 63 and 115 USD ha^-1, respectively. However, the socio-demographic information suggested that effective extension services targeted to WHH, easing of social restrictions on their mobility, access of WHHs to fertilizers at Govt. fixed price and improved financial capability through better credit access could bring WHHs towards balanced fertilizer use practices in the EGP.

Feed gap analysis of dual-purpose chicken production in Tanzania: feed quantity and quality limited production

The demand for chicken meat and eggs exceeds what can be produced in Tanzania, largely due to low productivity of the sector. Feed quantity and quality are the major factors determining the potential production and productivity of chickens. The present study explored the yield gap in chicken production in Tanzania and analyses the potential of increased chicken production as a result of closing the feed gaps. The study focused on feed aspects limiting dual-purpose chicken production in semi-intensive and intensive systems. A total of 101 farmers were interviewed using a semistructured questionnaire and the amount of feed provided to chickens per day was quantified. Feed was sampled for laboratory analysis and physical assessments were made of weights of chicken bodies and eggs. The results were compared with the recommendations for improved dual-purpose crossbred chickens, exotic layers, and broilers. The results show that the feeds were offered in insufficient quantity compared with the recommendations for laying hens (125 g/chicken unit/d). Indigenous chickens were fed 111 and 67 while the improved crossbred chickens were fed 118 and 119 g/chicken unit/d under semi-intensive and intensive systems, respectively. Most feeds fed to dual-purpose chickens were of low nutritional quality, particularly lacking in crude protein and essential amino acids in both rearing systems and breeds. Maize bran, sunflower seedcake, and fishmeal were the main sources of energy and protein in the study area. The study findings show that the important feed ingredients: protein sources, essential amino acids, and premixes were expensive, and were not included in formulating compound feeds by most chicken farmers. Of all 101 respondents interviewed, only one was aware of aflatoxin contamination and its effects on animal and human health. All feed samples contained a detectable concentration of aflatoxins and 16% of them exceeded the allowed toxicity thresholds (>20 µg/kg). We highlight the need for a stronger focus on feeding strategies and ensuring the availability of suitable and safe feed formulations.

Gender differences in climate-smart adaptation practices amongst bean-producing farmers in Malawi: The case of Linthipe Extension Planning Area

Agriculture is amongst the vulnerable sectors to climate change and its associated impacts. Most women are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change than men. Climate Smart Agriculture ensures increased productivity thereby enabling food security, income security and wealth creation amongst the farming households. A study was carried out to understand the gender differences in access and use of climate-smart agriculture, challenges and solutions that men and women farmers use to adapt to climate change. Data was collected from 246 randomly sampled households from 14 villages at Linthipe Extension Planning in Dedza district in Malawi. The multivariate probit model was employed to understand the influence of sociodemographic, farm-level, and institutional factors in the application of climate-smart agriculture in the study area. Findings from this study indicate that there are differences in the adoption and use of climate-smart agriculture technologies in bean production amongst different gender categories. More women compared to men and youths tend to use fertilizer, use improved seeds and plant early in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change. Most men adopt and use irrigation, whilst the youth mostly adopted and used pesticides and conservation agriculture practices. The study recommends policies that would ensure the promotion of gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture technologies, improved access to inputs, and capacity building through training.

Unbalanced fertilizer use in the Eastern Gangetic Plain: The influence of Government recommendations, fertilizer type, farm size and cropping patterns

Intensive cropping systems with diverse cropping patterns present a challenge for nutrient management on smallholder farms. Government-endorsed recommendations for crop fertilizer use are designed to assist farmers achieve profitable and balanced nutrient inputs, but it is unclear how closely farmers follow these recommendations. We identified farmers’ current nutrient use gaps (overuse or underuse) relative to the Government-endorsed recommended nutrient doses in two cropping patterns in three representative Agro-ecological Zones of Bangladesh. A total of 330 farms were surveyed in 2019 from three farm size categories (referred to as large-, medium and small-scale) and their gaps in nutrient use were assessed relative to Government-endorsed Fertilizer Recommendation Guides (FRG) published in 2012 and in 2018: FRG-2012 and FRG-2018. The large- and medium-scale farms used 11–16%, 80–90% and 21–30%, respectively, over-doses of NPK in the cropping season under fully rice-based cropping pattern relative to FRG-2012 recommendations, while the over-dose levels were much lower for small-scale farms. Small-scale farms used much less than recommended S, Mg, Zn, B and organic manure (OM) rates relative to FRG-2012. The FRG-2018, which increased N and K recommendations but decreased the P recommendation for rice crops relative to FRG-2012, shows that all farms can decrease the dose of P (by 50%) while small-scale farms need to increase the dose of N (7%), K (16%), S (20%) and to apply Zn in the fully rice-based cropping pattern. On the other hand, the farms could greatly reduce NPK (19%, 86% and 44%, respectively) use while increasing S (14%), Mg, Zn, B and OM use relative to FRG-2018 in the pattern with the high-value potato crop. To increase crop profitability, enhance food security and save Government treasury in the Eastern Gangetic Plain enabling approaches are needed to effectively communicate the benefits of balanced nutrient use practices to farmers.

Farming Systems, Food Security and Farmers' Awareness of Ecosystem Services in Inland Valleys: A Study From Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana

Inland valleys (IVs) in West African countries have increasingly been used for crop production, including rice cultivation. Though it is widely assumed that IVs have a high potential to contribute to food security of West African countries, a comprehensive assessment of farming systems addressing agricultural, institutional, food security, poverty, and ecosystem indicators is still lacking. This study characterizes IVs' smallholder farm households at the regional and farm type level using Rural Household Multiple Indicator Survey (RHoMIS) data collected from 733 randomly selected farm households in four agro-ecological regions, i.e., Bouaké and Gagnoa in Cote d'Ivoire, and Ahafo Ano North and Ahafo Ano South in Ghana. A farm typology is developed, and farm households are characterized with regard to demographic, agricultural, economic, and institutional indicators. Furthermore, farm households' food security and poverty status, and the importance of rice in the portfolio of crops, is assessed. Finally, farmers' awareness of different ecosystem services (ES) for their food security is examined. Four farm types are identified, i.e., farmers who rent all the land cultivated, farmers who own some land and rent extra land, farmers who own and cultivate all their land, and farmers cultivating only a part of the land they own. We find that the variation in farm households' demographic, economic, and institutional characteristics is greater between regions than within regions. Crop production, either for direct consumption or marketing, especially rice production, is the main contributor to daily energy intake, followed by wild food consumed. Still, a substantial percentage of the farm households (16–38%) in all regions cannot meet minimum daily energy requirements. Farmers of all farm types, and in all regions, attach high relevance to IVs' provisioning ES, particularly the ability to provide food. A majority of farmers in all regions highlighted the relevance of regulating ES, including climate regulation, water storage, and groundwater values for their wellbeing. In contrast, farmers attached relatively lower relevance to cultural ES. Interventions to improve national rice production need to acknowledge and preserve the diversity ES that IVs provide to smallholder farm households.

Farmers' fertilizer use gaps relative to government recommendations in the saline coastal zone of the Ganges Delta

Overuse or underuse of nutrients relative to recommendations is a likely cause of crop yield gaps and an impediment to the achievement of food security. Government-endorsed recommendations are developed to deliver the best evidence-based advice on balanced fertilizer; however, deviations of farmers' nutrient use from the recommendations are rarely examined. This study chose the salt-affected coastal zone of the Ganges Delta, where low crop productivity and cropping intensity by smallholders limit their income, to determine current nutrient use gaps for the first time of three cropping patterns in two representative districts of Bangladesh. A total of 246 farms were surveyed from three farm sizes. Farmers' nutrient use gaps were compared with Fertilizer Recommendation Guides published in 2012 (FRG-2012) and 2018 (FRG-2018). Relative to FRG-2012 recommendations, farmers used 12%, 70%, and 11% overdoses of N, P, and K, respectively, under two fully rice-based cropping patterns, but the level of overdoses increased with farm size. Rates of K (14%), S (28%), and Zn use were below the FRG-2012 recommendations, especially for the smallest category of farms. However, the FRG-2018, increased recommended N (5%), K (62%), S (12%), and Zn rates but reduced P (25%) rates for fully rice-based cropping patterns. In contrast with rice, regardless of farm size, farmers applied overdose nutrients to watermelon but compensated with underdoses in the subsequent monsoon rice implying that farmers prioritized fertilizer expenditure on the most profitable crop. For the cropping pattern with watermelon, farmers could reduce the use of N (69%) and P (46%) and increase the use of K (48%), S (5%), and B. Reducing NPK use gaps can save treasury for both the farmers and the governments by 39.1 and 73.8 USD ha^-1, respectively, under fully rice-based cropping patterns. Finally, our findings suggest there is scope to promote crop yields and sustainable intensification through balanced fertilizer use in a vulnerable saline region.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13593-022-00797-1.

Revisiting food security in 2021: an overview of the past year

Articles published in Food Security in 2021 are reviewed, showing a wide range of topics covered. Many articles are directly linked with "food" and associated terms such as "nutritive", "nutrition", "dietary", and "health". Another important group is linked with (food) "production" and a range of connected terms including: "irrigation", "cultivated", "organic", "varieties", "crop", "vegetable", and "land". A third group of terms refers to the scales at which food security is considered: "household", "farmer", "farm", "smallholder", "community", "nation" and "region". A few themes of Food Security are considered: (1) food supply and demand, food prices, and global trade; (2) food security in households; (3) food production; (4) value chains and food systems; (5) the evolution of the concept of food security; and (6) global nutrition. In a last section, perspectives for Food Security are discussed along four lines of thoughts: the level of inter-disciplinary research published in Food Security; the importance of the Social Sciences for food security as a collective good underpinned by other collective goods within food systems; the balance between the Global South and the Global North in Food Security; and a warning that urgent global challenges that vitally interact with food security may be left unattended as a result of the current public health emergency.

What Farm Size Sustains a Living? Exploring Future Options to Attain a Living Income From Smallholder Farming in the East African Highlands

Smallholder farming in sub-Saharan Africa keeps many rural households trapped in a cycle of poor productivity and low incomes. Two options to reach a decent income include intensification of production and expansion of farm areas per household. In this study, we explore what is a “viable farm size,” i.e., the farm area that is required to attain a “living income,” which sustains a nutritious diet, housing, education and health care. We used survey data from three contrasting sites in the East African highlands—Nyando (Kenya), Rakai (Uganda), and Lushoto (Tanzania) to explore viable farm sizes in six scenarios. Starting from the baseline cropping system, we built scenarios by incrementally including intensified and re-configured cropping systems, income from livestock and off-farm sources. In the most conservative scenario (baseline cropping patterns and yields, minus basic input costs), viable farm areas were 3.6, 2.4, and 2.1 ha, for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively—whereas current median farm areas were just 0.8, 1.8, and 0.8 ha. Given the skewed distribution of current farm areas, only few of the households in the study sites (0, 27, and 4% for Nyando, Rakai, and Lushoto, respectively) were able to attain a living income. Raising baseline yields to 50% of the water-limited yields strongly reduced the land area needed to achieve a viable farm size, and thereby enabled 92% of the households in Rakai and 70% of the households in Lushoto to attain a living income on their existing farm areas. By contrast, intensification of crop production alone was insufficient in Nyando, although including income from livestock enabled the majority of households (73%) to attain a living income with current farm areas. These scenarios show that increasing farm area and/or intensifying production is required for smallholder farmers to attain a living income from farming. Obviously such changes would require considerable capital and labor investment, as well as land reform and alternative off-farm employment options for those who exit farming.