Equipotent inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase - dual targets of the endocannabinoid system to protect against seizure pathology

Potential Therapeutic Targets to Modulate the Endocannabinoid System in Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common neurodegenerative disease (NDD), is characterized by chronic neuronal cell death through progressive loss of cognitive function. Amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and hyperphosphorylated tau proteins are considered the hallmarks of AD pathology. Different therapeutic approaches approved by the Food and Drug Administration can only target a single altered pathway instead of various mechanisms that are involved in AD pathology, resulting in limited symptomatic relief and almost no effect in slowing down the disease progression. Growing evidence on modulating the components of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) proclaimed their neuroprotective effects by reducing neurochemical alterations and preventing cellular dysfunction. Recent studies on AD mouse models have reported that the inhibitors of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol (MAGL), hydrolytic enzymes for N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), respectively, might be promising candidates as therapeutical intervention. The FAAH and MAGL inhibitors alone or in combination seem to produce neuroprotection by reversing cognitive deficits along with Aβ-induced neuroinflammation, oxidative responses, and neuronal death, delaying AD progression. Their exact signaling mechanisms need to be elucidated for understanding the brain intrinsic repair mechanism. The aim of this review was to shed light on physiology and pathophysiology of AD and to summarize the experimental data on neuroprotective roles of FAAH and MAGL inhibitors. In this review, we have also included CB1R and CB2R modulators with their diverse roles to modulate ECS mediated responses such as anti-nociceptive, anxiolytic, and anti-inflammatory actions in AD. Future research would provide the directions in understanding the molecular mechanisms and development of new therapeutic interventions for the treatment of AD.

Anti-nociceptive potential of an isatin-derived dual fatty acid amide hydrolase-monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitor

BACKGROUND

Recently, we have reported an isatin-derived carbohydrazone, 5-chloro-N'-(6-chloro-2-oxoindolin-3-ylidene)-2-hydroxybenzohydrazide (SIH 3) as dual nanomolar FAAH (fatty acid amide hydrolase)-MAGL (monoacylglycerol lipase) inhibitor with good CNS penetration and neuroprotective activity profile. In this study, we further investigated the pharmacological profile of compound SIH 3 in the neuropathic pain model along with acute toxicity and ex vivo studies.

METHODS

Chronic constrictive injury (CCI) was used to induce neuropathic pain in male Sprague-Dawley rats and the anti-nociceptive activity of the compound SIH 3 was investigated at 25, 50, and 100 mg/kg ip. Subsequently, locomotor activity was measured by rotarod and actophotometer experiments. The acute oral toxicity of the compound was assessed as per the OECD guidelines 423.

RESULTS

Compound SIH 3 showed significant anti-nociceptive activity in the CCI-induced neuropathic pain model without altering the locomotor activity. Furthermore, compound SIH 3 showed an excellent safety profile (up to 2000 mg/kg, po) in the acute oral toxicity study and was also non-hepatotoxic. Further, ex vivo studies revealed that the compound SIH 3 produces a significant antioxidant effect in oxidative stress induced by CCI.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the investigated compound SIH 3 has the potential to be developed as an anti-nociceptive agent.

Inhibiting degradation of 2-arachidonoylglycerol as a therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases

Endocannabinoids are endogenous lipid signaling mediators that participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is the most abundant endocannabinoid and is a full agonist of G-protein-coupled cannabinoid receptors (CB1R and CB2R), which are targets of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), the main psychoactive ingredient in cannabis. While 2-AG has been well recognized as a retrograde messenger modulating synaptic transmission and plasticity at both inhibitory GABAergic and excitatory glutamatergic synapses in the brain, growing evidence suggests that 2-AG also functions as an endogenous terminator of neuroinflammation in response to harmful insults, thus maintaining brain homeostasis. Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the key enzyme that degrades 2-AG in the brain. The immediate metabolite of 2-AG is arachidonic acid (AA), a precursor of prostaglandins (PGs) and leukotrienes. Several lines of evidence indicate that pharmacological or genetic inactivation of MAGL, which boosts 2-AG levels and reduces its hydrolytic metabolites, resolves neuroinflammation, mitigates neuropathology, and improves synaptic and cognitive functions in animal models of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Parkinson's disease (PD), and traumatic brain injury (TBI)-induced neurodegenerative disease. Thus, it has been proposed that MAGL is a potential therapeutic target for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. As the main enzyme hydrolyzing 2-AG, several MAGL inhibitors have been identified and developed. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which inactivation of MAGL produces neuroprotective effects in neurodegenerative diseases remains limited. A recent finding that inhibition of 2-AG metabolism in astrocytes, but not in neurons, protects the brain from TBI-induced neuropathology might shed some light on this unsolved issue. This review provides an overview of MAGL as a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases and discusses possible mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective effects of restraining degradation of 2-AG in the brain.

Antitumor Potential of Antiepileptic Drugs in Human Glioblastoma: Pharmacological Targets and Clinical Benefits

Glioblastoma (GBM) is characterized by fast-growing cells, genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity, and radio-chemo-therapy resistance, contributing to its dismal prognosis. Various medical comorbidities are associated with the natural history of GBM. The most disabling and greatly affecting patients' quality of life are neurodegeneration, cognitive impairment, and GBM-related epilepsy (GRE). Hallmarks of GBM include molecular intrinsic mediators and pathways, but emerging evidence supports the key role of non-malignant cells within the tumor microenvironment in GBM aggressive behavior. In this context, hyper-excitability of neurons, mediated by glutamatergic and GABAergic imbalance, contributing to GBM growth strengthens the cancer-nervous system crosstalk. Pathogenic mechanisms, clinical features, and pharmacological management of GRE with antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and their interactions are poorly explored, yet it is a potentially promising field of research in cancer neuroscience. The present review summarizes emerging cooperative mechanisms in oncogenesis and epileptogenesis, focusing on the neuron-to-glioma interface. The main effects and efficacy of selected AEDs used in the management of GRE are discussed in this paper, as well as their potential beneficial activity as antitumor treatment. Overall, although still many unclear processes overlapping in GBM growth and seizure onset need to be elucidated, this review focuses on the intriguing targeting of GBM-neuron mutual interactions to improve the outcome of the so challenging to treat GBM.

The study of rs324420 (C385A) polymorphism of the FAAH gene of the endocannabinoid system in patients with epilepsy and ADHD

The endocannabinoid (eCB) system regulates many physiological functions in the central nervous system. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) is an essential enzyme in the eCB system, degrading anandamide. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs324420 is a common genetic polymorphism of the FAAH gene and has been associated with susceptibility to neurological conditions. This study examined whether the SNP rs324420 (C385A) is associated with epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This study consists of two case-control parts. The first part comprises 250 epilepsy subjects and 250 healthy individuals as controls. The second one comprises 157 cases with ADHD and 136 healthy individuals as controls. Genotyping was carried out using polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) technique. Interestingly, the FAAH C384A genotype (OR 1.755, 95 % CI 1.124-2.742, p = 0.013) and allele (OR 1.462, 95 % CI 1.006-2.124, p = 0.046) distribution showed an association with generalized epilepsy. On the other hand, this SNP was not associated with the risk of ADHD. To our knowledge, there was no study on the association between rs324420 (C385A) polymorphism and the risks of ADHD or epilepsy. This study provided the first evidence of an association between generalized epilepsy and rs324420 (C385A) of FAAH. Larger sample sizes and functional studies are warranted to explore the clinical utility of FAAH genotyping as a possible marker for increased generalized epilepsy risk.

Advances and Challenges of Cannabidiol as an Anti-Seizure Strategy: Preclinical Evidence

The use of Cannabis for medicinal purposes has been documented since ancient times, where one of its principal cannabinoids extracted from Cannabis sativa, cannabidiol (CBD), has emerged over the last few years as a promising molecule with anti-seizure potential. Here, we present an overview of recent literature pointing out CBD's pharmacological profile (solubility, metabolism, drug-drug interactions, etc.,), CBD's interactions with multiple molecular targets as well as advances in preclinical research concerning its anti-seizure effect on both acute seizure models and chronic models of epilepsy. We also highlight the recent attention that has been given to other natural cannabinoids and to synthetic derivatives of CBD as possible compounds with therapeutic anti-seizure potential. All the scientific research reviewed here encourages to continue to investigate the probable therapeutic efficacy of CBD and its related compounds not only in epilepsy but also and specially in drug-resistant epilepsy, since there is a dire need for new and effective drugs to treat this disease.

Synthesis and evaluation of carbamate derivatives as fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitors

Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) are the primary catabolic enzymes for endocannabinoids, anandamide (AEA), and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol. Numerous studies have shown that FAAH and MAGL play an important role in modulating various central nervous system activities; hence, the development of small molecule FAAH/MAGL inhibitors is an active area of research. Several small molecules possessing the carbamate scaffold are documented as potential FAAH/MAGL inhibitors. Here, we designed and synthesized a series of open chain and cyclic carbamates and evaluated their dual FAAH-MAGL inhibition properties. Phenyl [4-(piperidin-1-ylmethyl)phenyl]carbamate (2e) emerged as the most potent MAGL inhibitor (IC₅₀  = 19 nM), benzyl (1H-benzo[d]imidazol-2-yl)carbamate (3h) was the most potent FAAH inhibitor (IC₅₀  = 55 nM), and phenyl (6-fluorobenzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)carbamate (2i) egressed as a nonselective dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor (FAAH: 82 nM, MAGL: 72 nM). The enzyme kinetics experiments revealed that the compounds inhibit FAAH/MAGL in a covalent-reversible manner, with a mixed binding mode of action. Moreover, the lead compounds were found suitable for blood-brain permeation in the parallel artificial membrane permeation assay. Furthermore, docking simulation experiments suggested that the potency of the lead compounds was governed by hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions with the enzyme active sites. In silico drug-likeness and ADMETox prediction studies provided useful information on the compounds' oral absorption, metabolism, and toxicity profiles. In summary, this study afforded potent multifunctional carbamates with appreciable pharmacokinetic profiles meriting further investigation.

Exploiting cannabinoid and vanilloid mechanisms for epilepsy treatment

This review focuses on the possible roles of phytocannabinoids, synthetic cannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and "transient receptor potential cation channel, subfamily V, member 1" (TRPV1) channel blockers in epilepsy treatment. The phytocannabinoids are compounds produced by the herb Cannabis sativa, from which Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) is the main active compound. The therapeutic applications of Δ⁹-THC are limited, whereas cannabidiol (CBD), another phytocannabinoid, induces antiepileptic effects in experimental animals and in patients with refractory epilepsies. Synthetic CB₁ agonists induce mixed effects, which hamper their therapeutic applications. A more promising strategy focuses on compounds that increase the brain levels of anandamide, an endocannabinoid produced on-demand to counteract hyperexcitability. Thus, anandamide hydrolysis inhibitors might represent a future class of antiepileptic drugs. Finally, compounds that block the TRPV1 ("vanilloid") channel, a possible anandamide target in the brain, have also been investigated. In conclusion, the therapeutic use of phytocannabinoids (CBD) is already in practice, although its mechanisms of action remain unclear. Endocannabinoid and TRPV1 mechanisms warrant further basic studies to support their potential clinical applications. This article is part of the Special Issue "NEWroscience 2018".

The role of endocannabinoid pathway in the neuropathology of Alzheimer's disease: Can the inhibitors of MAGL and FAAH prove to be potential therapeutic targets against the cognitive impairment associated with Alzheimer's disease?

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive decline of cognitive function in combination with neuronal death. Current approved treatment target single dysregulated pathway instead of multiple mechanism, resulting in lack of efficacy in slowing down disease progression. The proclivity of endocannabinoid system to exert neuroprotective action and mitigate symptoms of neurodegeneration condition has received substantial interest. Growing evidence suggest the endocannabinoids (eCB) system, viz. anadamide (AEA) and arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG), as potential therapeutic targets with the ability to modify Alzheimer's pathology by targeting the inflammatory, neurodegenerative and cognitive aspects of the disease. In order to modulate endocannabinoid system, number of agents have been reported amongst which are inhibitors of the monoacylglycerol (MAGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), the enzymes that hydrolyses 2-AG and AEA respectively. However, little is known regarding the exact mechanistic signalling and their effects on pathophysiology and cognitive decline associated with Alzheimer's disease. Both MAGL and FAAH inhibitors possess fascinating properties that may offer a multi-faceted approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease such as potential to protect neurons from deleterious effect of amyloid-β, reducing phosphorylation of tau, reducing amyloid-β induced oxidative stress, stimulating neurotrophin to support brain intrinsic repair mechanism etc. Based on empirical evidence, MAGL and FAAH inhibitors might have potential for therapeutic efficacy against cognitive impairment associated with Alzheimer's disease. The aim of this review is to summarize the experimental studies demonstrating the polyvalent properties of MAGL or FAAH inhibitor compounds for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, and also effect of these on learning and types of memories, which together encourage to study these compounds over other therapeutics targets. Further research in this direction would enhance the molecular mechanisms and development of applicable interventions for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, which nevertheless stay as the primary unmet need.

Selective Fatty Acid Amide Hydrolase Inhibitors as Potential Novel Antiepileptic Agents

Temporal lobe epilepsy is the most common form of epilepsy, and current antiepileptic drugs are ineffective in many patients. The endocannabinoid system has been associated with an on-demand protective response to seizures. Blocking endocannabinoid catabolism would elicit antiepileptic effects, devoid of psychotropic effects. We herein report the discovery of selective anandamide catabolic enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors with promising antiepileptic efficacy, starting from a further investigation of our prototypical inhibitor 2a. When tested in two rodent models of epilepsy, 2a reduced the severity of the pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus and the elongation of the hippocampal maximal dentate activation. Notably, 2a did not affect hippocampal dentate gyrus long-term synaptic plasticity. These data prompted our further endeavor aiming at discovering new antiepileptic agents, developing a new set of FAAH inhibitors (3a-m). Biological studies highlighted 3h and 3m as the best performing analogues to be further investigated. In cell-based studies, using a neuroblastoma cell line, 3h and 3m could reduce the oxinflammation state by decreasing DNA-binding activity of NF-kB p65, devoid of cytotoxic effect. Unwanted cardiac effects were excluded for 3h (Langendorff perfused rat heart). Finally, the new analogue 3h reduced the severity of the pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus as observed for 2a.

Cannabis sativa: Interdisciplinary Strategies and Avenues for Medical and Commercial Progression Outside of CBD and THC

Cannabis sativa (Cannabis) is one of the world’s most well-known, yet maligned plant species. However, significant recent research is starting to unveil the potential of Cannabis to produce secondary compounds that may offer a suite of medical benefits, elevating this unique plant species from its illicit narcotic status into a genuine biopharmaceutical. This review summarises the lengthy history of Cannabis and details the molecular pathways that underpin the production of key secondary metabolites that may confer medical efficacy. We also provide an up-to-date summary of the molecular targets and potential of the relatively unknown minor compounds offered by the Cannabis plant. Furthermore, we detail the recent advances in plant science, as well as synthetic biology, and the pharmacology surrounding Cannabis. Given the relative infancy of Cannabis research, we go on to highlight the parallels to previous research conducted in another medically relevant and versatile plant, Papaver somniferum (opium poppy), as an indicator of the possible future direction of Cannabis plant biology. Overall, this review highlights the future directions of cannabis research outside of the medical biology aspects of its well-characterised constituents and explores additional avenues for the potential improvement of the medical potential of the Cannabis plant.

Health benefits of 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols: an exploration beyond 4-desmethyl phytosterols

4,4-Dimethyl phytosterols possess two methyl groups at the carbon-4 atom of the aliphatic A-ring. The methyl groups are crucial for the molecular recognition of endogenous and exogenous bioactive compounds. Phytosterols have received worldwide attention owing to their recognized health benefits. However, 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols are less appreciated. Recent research studies revealed that 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols exert numerous beneficial effects on disease prevention, and are particularly involved in the endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS). The purpose of this review is to summarize and highlight the currently available information regarding the structures and sources of 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols, and to provide detailed preclinical studies performed to evaluate their potential for treating various diseases. Future research on 4,4-dimethyl phytosterols is warranted to confirm their relationship with the ECS, and to elucidate the mechanism directly toward clinical trials.

Possible therapeutic applications of cannabis in the neuropsychopharmacology field

Cannabis use induces a plethora of actions on the CNS via its active chemical ingredients, the so-called phytocannabinoids. These compounds have been frequently associated with the intoxicating properties of cannabis preparations. However, not all phytocannabinoids are psychotropic, and, irrespective of whether they are psychotropic or not, they have also shown numerous therapeutic properties. These properties are mostly associated with their ability to modulate the activity of an intercellular communication system, the so-called endocannabinoid system, which is highly active in the CNS and has been found altered in many neurological disorders. Specifically, this includes the neuropsychopharmacology field, with diseases such as schizophrenia and related psychoses, anxiety-related disorders, mood disorders, addiction, sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, anorexia nervosa and other feeding-related disorders, dementia, epileptic syndromes, as well as autism, fragile X syndrome and other neurodevelopment-related disorders. Here, we gather, from a pharmacological and biochemical standpoint, the recent advances in the study of the therapeutic relevance of the endocannabinoid system in the CNS, with especial emphasis on the neuropsychopharmacology field. We also illustrate the efforts that are currently being made to investigate at the clinical level the potential therapeutic benefits derived from elevating or inhibiting endocannabinoid signaling in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Regulating membrane lipid levels at the synapse by small-molecule inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase: new developments in therapeutic and PET imaging applications

Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is a major endocannabinoid hydrolyzing enzyme and can be regulated to control endogenous lipid levels in the brain. This review highlights the pharmacological roles and in vivo PET imaging of MAGL in brain.

Druggable targets of the endocannabinoid system: Implications for the treatment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) affects nearly half of all HIV-infected individuals. Synaptodendritic damage correlates with neurocognitive decline in HAND, and many studies have demonstrated that HIV-induced neuronal injury results from excitotoxic and inflammatory mechanisms. The endocannabinoid (eCB) system provides on-demand protection against excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation. Here, we discuss evidence of the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of the eCB system from in vitro and in vivo studies. We examine the pharmacology of the eCB system and evaluate the therapeutic potential of drugs that modulate eCB signaling to treat HAND. Finally, we provide perspective on the need for additional studies to clarify the role of the eCB system in HIV neurotoxicity and speculate that strategies that enhance eCB signaling might slow cognitive decline in HAND.

Medical Use of Cannabinoids

Cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoids and the enzymes responsible for their biosynthesis and degradation constitute the endocannabinoid system. In recent decades, the endocannabinoid system has attracted considerable interest as a potential therapeutic target in numerous pathological conditions. Its involvement in several physiological processes is well known, such as in energy balance, appetite stimulation, blood pressure, pain modulation, embryogenesis, nausea and vomiting control, memory, learning and immune response, among others, as well as in pathological conditions where it exerts a protective role in the development of certain disorders. As a result, it has been reported that changes in endocannabinoid levels may be related to neurological diseases such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis, as well as anorexia and irritable bowel syndrome. Alterations in the endocannabinoid system have also been associated with cancer, affecting the growth, migration and invasion of some tumours. Cannabinoids have been tested in several cancer types, including brain, breast and prostate cancers. Cannabinoids have shown promise as analgesics for the treatment of both inflammatory and neuropathic pain. There is also evidence for a role of the endocannabinoid system in the control of emotional states, and cannabinoids could prove useful in decreasing and palliating post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms and anxiolytic disorders. The role of the endocannabinoid system in addictions has also been examined, and cannabinoids have been postulated as alternative and co-adjuvant treatments in some abuse syndromes, mainly in ethanol and opioid abuses. The expression of the endocannabinoid system in the eye suggests that it could be a potential therapeutic target for eye diseases. Considering the importance of the endocannabinoid system and the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in this vast number of medical conditions, several clinical studies with cannabinoid-based medications are ongoing. In addition, some cannabinoid-based medications have already been approved in various countries, including nabilone and dronabinol capsules for the treatment of nausea and vomiting associated with chemotherapy, dronabinol capsules for anorexia, an oral solution of dronabinol for both vomiting associated with chemotherapy and anorexia, a Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol/cannabidiol oromucosal spray for pain related to cancer and for spasticity and pain associated with multiple sclerosis, and an oral solution of cannabidiol for Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes. Here, we review the available efficacy, safety and tolerability data for cannabinoids in a range of medical conditions.

Cannabinoids, hippocampal excitability and efficacy for the treatment of epilepsy

Interest in cannabis and its related cannabinoids THC and CBD for use as anti-convulsant therapy has been progressively increasing. While the destigmatization of cannabis and cannabis related research have progressed in the last few decades, there are still many questions that remain unanswered. This review seeks to summarize the progress made in cannabis research in the past four decades and to identify possible directions for future research that are critical for the development of cannabinoid-based therapy in epilepsy.

Effects on Neurons and Hippocampal Slices by Single and Multiple Primary Blast Pressure Waves From Detonating Spherical Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) Explosive Charges

Threshold shock-impulse levels required to induce cellular injury and cumulative effects upon single and/or multiple exposures are not well characterized. Currently, there are few in vitro experimental models with blast pressure waves generated by using real explosives in the laboratory for investigating the effects of primary blast-induced traumatic brain injury. An in vitro indoor experimental platform is developed using real military explosive charges to accurately represent battlefield blast exposure and to probe the effects of primary explosive blast on dissociated neurons and tissue slices. Preliminary results indicate that physical insults altered membrane permeability, impacted cellular viability, created axonal beadings, and led to synaptic protein loss in hippocampal slice cultures. Injuries from blast under the conditions that were examined did not appear to cause immediate or sustained damage to the cells. Three consecutive primary blasts failed to disrupt the overall cellular integrity in the hippocampal slice cultures and produced a unique type of pathology comprised with distinct reduction in synaptic proteins before cellular deterioration set in. These observed changes might add to the challenges in regard to enhancing our understanding of the complex biochemical and molecular mechanisms caused by primary blast-induced injury.

N-Acyl pyrazoles: Effective and tunable inhibitors of serine hydrolases

A series of N-acyl pyrazoles was examined as candidate serine hydrolase inhibitors in which the active site acylating reactivity and the leaving group ability of the pyrazole could be tuned not only through the nature of the acyl group (reactivity: amide > carbamate > urea), but also through pyrazole C4 substitution with electron-withdrawing or electron-donating substituents. Their impact on enzyme inhibitory activity displayed pronounced effects with the activity improving substantially as one alters both the nature of the reacting carbonyl group (urea > carbamate > amide) and the pyrazole C4 substituent (CN > H > Me). It was further demonstrated that the acyl chain of the N-acyl pyrazole ureas can be used to tailor the potency and selectivity of the inhibitor class to a targeted serine hydrolase. Thus, elaboration of the acyl chain of pyrazole-based ureas provided remarkably potent, irreversible inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH, apparent K_i = 100-200 pM), dual inhibitors of FAAH and monoacylglycerol hydrolase (MGLL), or selective inhibitors of MGLL (IC₅₀ = 10-20 nM) while simultaneously minimizing off-target activity (e.g., ABHD6 and KIAA1363).

Inhibitions of anandamide transport and FAAH synthesis decrease apoptosis and oxidative stress through inhibition of TRPV1 channel in an in vitro seizure model

The expression level of TRPV1 is high in hippocampus which is a main epileptic area in the brain. In addition to the actions of capsaicin (CAP) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), the TRPV1 channel is activated in neurons by endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide (AEA). In the current study, we investigated the role of inhibitors of TRPV1 (capsazepine, CPZ), AEA transport (AM404), and FAAH (URB597) on the modulation of Ca²⁺ entry, apoptosis, and oxidative stress in in vitro seizure-induced rat hippocampus and human glioblastoma (DBTRG) cell line. The seizure was induced in the hippocampal and DBTRG neurons using in vitro 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) to trigger a seizure-like activity model. CPZ and AM404 were fully effective in reversing 4-AP-induced intracellular free Ca²⁺ concentration of the hippocampus and TRPV1 current density of DBTRG. However, AEA and CAP did not activate TRPV1 in the URB597-treated neurons. Hence, we observed TRPV1 blocker effects of URB597 in the DBTRG neurons. In addition, the AM404 and CPZ treatments decreased intracellular ROS production, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, apoptosis, caspases 3 and 9 values in the hippocampus. In conclusion, the results indicate that inhibition of AEA transport, FAAH synthesis, and TRPV1 activity can result in remarkable neuroprotective effects in the epileptic neurons. Possible molecular pathways of involvement of capsazepine (CPZ) and AM4040 in anandamide and capsaicin (CAP)-induced apoptosis, oxidative stress, and Ca²⁺ accumulation through TRPV1 channel in the seizure-induced rat hippocampus and human glioblastoma neurons. The TRPV1 channel is activated by different stimuli including reactive oxygen species (ROS), anandamide (AEA), and CAP and it is blocked by capsazepine (CPZ). Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) is also activated by AEA. The AEA levels in cytosol are decreased by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) enzyme. Inhibition of FAAH through URB597 induces stimulation of CB1 receptor through accumulation AEA. URB597 acts antiepileptic effects through inhibition of TRPV1. Overloaded Ca²⁺ concentration of mitochondria can induce an apoptotic program by stimulating the release of apoptosis-promoting factors such as caspases 3 and caspase 9 by generating ROS due to respiratory chain damage. AM404 and CPZ reduce TRPV1 channel activation and Ca²⁺ entry in the in vitro 4-AP seizure model-induced hippocampal and glioblastoma neurons.

Enhanced endocannabinoid tone as a potential target of pharmacotherapy

The endocannabinoid system is up-regulated in numerous pathophysiological states such as inflammatory, neurodegenerative, gastrointestinal, metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, pain, and cancer. It has been suggested that this phenomenon primarily serves an autoprotective role in inhibiting disease progression and/or diminishing signs and symptoms. Accordingly, enhancement of endogenous endocannabinoid tone by inhibition of endocannabinoid degradation represents a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of many diseases. Importantly, this allows for the avoidance of unwanted psychotropic side effects that accompany exogenously administered cannabinoids. The effects of endocannabinoid metabolic pathway modulation are complex, as endocannabinoids can exert their actions directly or via numerous metabolites. The two main strategies for blocking endocannabinoid degradation are inhibition of endocannabinoid-degrading enzymes and inhibition of endocannabinoid cellular uptake. To date, the most investigated compounds are inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an enzyme that degrades the endocannabinoid anandamide. However, application of FAAH inhibitors (and consequently other endocannabinoid degradation inhibitors) in medicine became questionable due to a lack of therapeutic efficacy in clinical trials and serious adverse effects evoked by one specific compound. In this paper, we discuss multiple pathways of endocannabinoid metabolism, changes in endocannabinoid levels across numerous human diseases and corresponding experimental models, pharmacological strategies for enhancing endocannabinoid tone and potential therapeutic applications including multi-target drugs with additional targets outside of the endocannabinoid system (cyclooxygenase-2, cholinesterase, TRPV1, and PGF_2α-EA receptors), and currently used medicines or medicinal herbs that additionally enhance endocannabinoid levels. Ultimately, further clinical and preclinical studies are warranted to develop medicines for enhancing endocannabinoid tone.

Antiepileptic and Neuroprotective Effects of Oleamide in Rat Striatum on Kainate-Induced Behavioral Seizure and Excitotoxic Damage via Calpain Inhibition

Oleamide was first known as a sleep-inducing fatty acid amide, and later shown to have wide range of neuropharmacological effects upon different neurochemical systems. However, the effects of oleamide on brain damage have scarcely been studied, and the molecular mechanisms and sites of its action remain elusive. Kainic acid (KA) has been used to produce an epileptic animal model that mimics human temporal lobe epilepsy and to induce calpain-activated excitotoxicity, which occurs in numerous neurodegenerative disorders. In this study, we examined whether oleamide protects against the KA-induced excitotoxic brain damage accompanied by behavioral seizure activity and neuronal cell death. Moreover, whether these effects of oleamide were mediated by calpain activity-related cellular mechanisms was investigated. KA-induced epileptic rats were produced by an intrastriatal injection of KA (5 nmole). Oral administration of oleamide (0.5, 2, and 10 mg/kg) 30 min prior to the KA injection showed dose-dependent inhibition of the KA-induced behavioral seizure activities that were monitored starting from 60 to 180 min post-surgery. Further repetitive oral administration of oleamide (once per day) for the next 4 consecutive days post-KA injection produced significant neuroprotection against the disrupted neuronal integrity that resulted from KA-induced excitotoxic damage that was also demonstrated by staining of striatal tissue sections with cresyl violet, hematoxylin/eosin, and fluoro-Jade B. In addition, oleamide blocked the KA-induced cleavage of cyclin-dependent kinase-5 coactivator (Cdk5-p35) and collapsin response mediator protein-2, which are believed to be mediated by calpain activation in striatal tissues dissected from KA-induced epileptic rats. Oleamide also reversed the KA-induced reduction in expression of an endogenous calpain inhibitory protein, calpastatin, and a marker of synaptic activity, synapsin-II. The hypothesis that oleamide could induce direct calpain inhibition was further investigated using in vitro calpain assays in both brain tissue and a cell-free and calpain-overexpressed neuronal cell system. These findings together suggest that oleamide has protective effects against excitotoxicity-induced neuronal death and behavioral seizure, partly via its direct calpain inhibitory activity.

The potential role of cannabinoids in epilepsy treatment

INTRODUCTION

Epilepsy is one of the world's oldest recognized and prevalent neurological diseases. It has a great negative impact on patients' quality of life (QOL) as a consequence of treatment resistant seizures in about 30% of patients together with drugs' side effects and comorbidities. Therefore, new drugs are needed and cannabinoids, above all cannabidiol, have recently gathered attention. Areas covered: This review summarizes the scientific data from human and animal studies on the major cannabinoids which have been of interest in the treatment of epilepsy, including drugs acting on the endocannabinoid system. Expert commentary: Despite the fact that cannabis has been used for many purposes over 4 millennia, the development of drugs based on cannabinoids has been very slow. Only recently, research has focused on their potential effects and CBD is the first treatment of this group with clinical evidence of efficacy in children with Dravet syndrome; moreover, other studies are currently ongoing to confirm its effectiveness in patients with epilepsy. On the other hand, it will be of interest to understand whether drugs acting on the endocannabinoid system will be able to reach the market and prove their known preclinical efficacy also in patients with epilepsy.

Inhibitor of Endocannabinoid Deactivation Protects Against In Vitro and In Vivo Neurotoxic Effects of Paraoxon

The anticholinesterase paraoxon (Pxn) is related to military nerve agents that increase acetylcholine levels, trigger seizures, and cause excitotoxic damage in the brain. In rat hippocampal slice cultures, high-dose Pxn was applied resulting in a presynaptic vulnerability evidenced by a 64% reduction in synapsin IIb (syn IIb) levels, whereas the postsynaptic protein GluR1 was unchanged. Other signs of Pxn-induced cytotoxicity include the oxidative stress-related production of stable 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE)-protein adducts. Next, the Pxn toxicity was tested for protective effects by the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor AM5206, a compound linked to enhanced repair signaling through the endocannabinoid pathway. The Pxn-mediated declines in syn IIb and synaptophysin were prevented by AM5206 in the slice cultures. To test if the protective results in the slice model translate to an in vivo model, AM5206 was injected i.p. into rats, followed immediately by subcutaneous Pxn administration. The toxin caused a pathogenic cascade initiated by seizure events, leading to presynaptic marker decline and oxidative changes in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. AM5206 exhibited protective effects including the reduction of seizure severity by 86%, and improving balance and coordination measured 24 h post-insult. As observed in hippocampal slices, the FAAH inhibitor also prevented the Pxn-induced loss of syn IIb in vivo. In addition, the AM5206 compound reduced the 4-HNE modifications of proteins and the β1 integrin activation events both in vitro and in vivo. These results indicate that Pxn exposure produces oxidative and synaptic toxicity that leads to the behavioral deficits manifested by the neurotoxin. In contrast, the presence of FAAH inhibitor AM5206 offsets the pathogenic cascade elicited by the Pxn anticholinesterase.

First dual AK/GSK-3β inhibitors endowed with antioxidant properties as multifunctional, potential neuroprotective agents

The manuscript deals with the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel benzoxazinone-based and indole-based compounds as multifunctional neuroprotective agents. These compounds inhibit human adenosine kinase (hAK) and human glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (hGSK-3β) enzymes. Computational analysis based on a molecular docking approach underlined the potential structural requirements for simultaneously targeting both proteins' allosteric sites. In silico hints drove the synthesis of appropriately decorated benzoxazinones and indoles (5a-s, and 6a-c) and biochemical analysis revealed their behavior as allosteric inhibitors of hGSK-3β. For both our hit 4 and the best compounds of the series (5c,l and 6b) the potential antioxidant profile was assessed in human neuroblastoma cell lines (IMR 32, undifferentiated and neuronal differentiated), by evaluating the protective effect of selected compounds against H₂O₂ cytotoxicity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Results showed a strong efficacy of the tested compounds, even at the lower doses, in counteracting the induced oxidative stress (50 μM of H₂O₂) and in preventing ROS formation. In addition, the tested compounds did not show any cytotoxic effect determined by the LDH release, at the concentration range analyzed (from 0.1 to 50 μM). This study allowed the identification of compound 5l, as the first dual hAK/hGSK-3β inhibitor reported to date. Compound 5l, which behaves as an effective antioxidant, holds promise for the development of new series of potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by an innovative pharmacological profile.

N-stearoyltyrosine protects primary cortical neurons against oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced apoptosis through inhibiting anandamide inactivation system

N-stearoylthrosine (NST), a synthesized anandamide (AEA) analogue, plays a neuroprotective role in neurodegenerative diseases and cerebrovascular diseases. Several studies have demonstrated that the endocannabinoids systems (ECS) are involved in the neuroprotective effects against cerebral ischemic injury. Oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced neuronal injury elevated the levels of endocannabinoids and activated ECS. This research was conducted to investigate the neuroprotective effect of NST against OGD-induced neuronal injury in cultured primary cortical neurons and the potential mechanism involved. Cortical neurons were treated with NST at indicate concentrations for 30min prior to injury and OGD injured neurons were incubated with normal conditions for 0-24h. The best neuroprotective effect of NST against OGD-induced injury occurred at 10μM. All data indicated that the neuroprotective effect of NST against OGD-induced injury resulted from blocking anandamide membrane transporter (AMT) (IC₅₀=11.74nM) and inhibiting fatty acid amide hydrolase activity (FAAH) (IC₅₀=16.54nM). Our findings demonstrated that NST has an important role in cerebral ischemic injury pathological progression through activating cannabinoid receptors by inhibiting AEA inactivation system. These data suggested a potential role for NST in the therapeutic consideration of cerebral ischemic injury. However, inhibition of AEA inactivation system may provide a neuroprotective effect during cerebral ischemic injury.

Blast waves from detonated military explosive reduce GluR1 and synaptophysin levels in hippocampal slice cultures

Explosives create shockwaves that cause blast-induced neurotrauma, one of the most common types of traumatic brain injury (TBI) linked to military service. Blast-induced TBIs are often associated with reduced cognitive and behavioral functions due to a variety of factors. To study the direct effects of military explosive blasts on brain tissue, we removed systemic factors by utilizing rat hippocampal slice cultures. The long-term slice cultures were briefly sealed air-tight in serum-free medium, lowered into a 37°C water-filled tank, and small 1.7-gram assemblies of cyclotrimethylene trinitramine (RDX) were detonated 15cm outside the tank, creating a distinct shockwave recorded at the culture plate position. Compared to control mock-treated groups of slices that received equal submerge time, 1-3 blast impacts caused a dose-dependent reduction in the AMPA receptor subunit GluR1. While only a small reduction was found in hippocampal slices exposed to a single RDX blast and harvested 1-2days later, slices that received two consecutive RDX blasts 4min apart exhibited a 26-40% reduction in GluR1, and the receptor subunit was further reduced by 64-72% after three consecutive blasts. Such loss correlated with increased levels of HDAC2, a histone deacetylase implicated in stress-induced reduction of glutamatergic transmission. No evidence of synaptic marker recovery was found at 72h post-blast. The presynaptic marker synaptophysin was found to have similar susceptibility as GluR1 to the multiple explosive detonations. In contrast to the synaptic protein reductions, actin levels were unchanged, spectrin breakdown was not detected, and Fluoro-Jade B staining found no indication of degenerating neurons in slices exposed to three RDX blasts, suggesting that small, sub-lethal explosives are capable of producing selective alterations to synaptic integrity. Together, these results indicate that blast waves from military explosive cause signs of synaptic compromise without producing severe neurodegeneration, perhaps explaining the cognitive and behavioral changes in those blast-induced TBI sufferers that have no detectable neuropathology.

Harnessing the pyrroloquinoxaline scaffold for FAAH and MAGL interaction: definition of the structural determinants for enzyme inhibition

The pharmacogenic pyrroloquinoxaline scaffold has been exploited for developing piperazine and 4-aminopiperidine carboxamides/carbamates as inhibitors of the endocannabinoids’ catabolic enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase.

Cannabinoids and Epilepsy

Cannabis has been used for centuries to treat seizures. Recent anecdotal reports, accumulating animal model data, and mechanistic insights have raised interest in cannabis-based antiepileptic therapies. In this study, we review current understanding of the endocannabinoid system, characterize the pro- and anticonvulsive effects of cannabinoids [e.g., Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol (CBD)], and highlight scientific evidence from pre-clinical and clinical trials of cannabinoids in epilepsy. These studies suggest that CBD avoids the psychoactive effects of the endocannabinoid system to provide a well-tolerated, promising therapeutic for the treatment of seizures, while whole-plant cannabis can both contribute to and reduce seizures. Finally, we discuss results from a new multicenter, open-label study using CBD in a population with treatment-resistant epilepsy. In all, we seek to evaluate our current understanding of cannabinoids in epilepsy and guide future basic science and clinical studies.

Attenuation of kainic acid-induced status epilepticus by inhibition of endocannabinoid transport and degradation in guinea pigs

Status epilepticus (SE) is a medical emergency associated with a high rate of mortality if not treated promptly. Exogenous and endogenous cannabinoids have been shown to possess anticonvulsant properties both in vivo and in vitro. Here we study the influence of endocannabinoid metabolism on the development of kainic acid-induced SE in guinea pigs. For this purpose, the inhibitors of endocannabinoid transport, AM404, and enzymatic (fatty acid amide hydrolase) degradation, URB597, were applied. Cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist, AM251, was also tested. Animal behavior as well as local electric field potentials in four structures: medial septum, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex and amygdala were analyzed when AM404 (120nmol), URB597 (4.8nmol) or AM251 (20nmol) were administrated alone or together with 0.4μg of kainic acid. All substances were injected i.c.v. AM404, URB597 or AM251 administered alone did not alter markedly local field potentials of all four studied structures in the long-term compared with their basal activity. AM404 and URB597 significantly alleviated kainic acid-induced SE, decreasing behavioral manifestations, duration of seizure events and SE in general without changing the amplitude of local field potentials. AM251 did not produce distinct effects on SE in terms of our experimental paradigm. There was no apparent change of the seizure initiation pattern when kainic acid was coadministrated with AM404, URB597 or AM251. The present study provides electrophysiologic and behavioral evidences that inhibition of endocannabinoid metabolism plays a protective role against kainic acid-induced SE and may be employed for therapeutic purposes. Further investigations of the influences of cannabinoid-related compounds on SE genesis and especially epileptogenesis are required.

Distinct modulation of the endocannabinoid system upon kainic acid-induced in vivo seizures and in vitro epileptiform bursting

There is clear evidence on the neuroprotective role of the endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling cascade in various models of epilepsy. In particular, increased levels of eCBs protect against kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this effect and its age-dependence are still unknown. To clarify this issue, we investigated which step of the biosynthetic and catabolic pathways of the eCBs may be responsible for the eCB-mediated neuroprotection in the hippocampus of P14 and P56-70 KA-treated rats. We found that both anandamide and N-palmitoylethanolamine, together with their biosynthetic enzyme significantly increased in the hippocampus of younger KA-treated rats, while decreasing in adults. In contrast, the levels of the other major eCB, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, similar to its biosynthetic enzyme, were higher in the hippocampus of P56-70 compared to P14 rats. In line with these data, extracellular field recordings in CA1 hippocampus showed that enhancement of endogenous AEA and 2-AG significantly counteracted KA-induced epileptiform bursting in P56-70 and P14 rats, respectively. On the contrary, while the CB1R antagonist SR141716 per se did not affect the population spike, it did worsen KA-induced bursts, confirming increased eCB tone upon KA treatment. Altogether these data indicate an age-specific alteration of the eCB system caused by KA and provide insights for the protective mechanism of the cannabinoid system against epileptiform discharges.

The fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor PF-3845 promotes neuronal survival, attenuates inflammation and improves functional recovery in mice with traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death in young adults in the United States, but there is still no effective agent for treatment. N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide, AEA) is a major endocannabinoid in the brain. Its increase after brain injury is believed to be protective. However, the compensatory role of AEA is transient due to its rapid hydrolysis by the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). Thus, inhibition of FAAH can boost the endogenous levels of AEA and prolong its protective effect. Using a TBI mouse model, we found that post-injury chronic treatment with PF3845, a selective and potent FAAH inhibitor, reversed TBI-induced impairments in fine motor movement, hippocampus dependent working memory and anxiety-like behavior. Treatment with PF3845 inactivated FAAH activity and enhanced the AEA levels in the brain. It reduced neurodegeneration in the dentate gyrus, and up-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 and Hsp70/72 in both cortex and hippocampus. PF3845 also suppressed the increased production of amyloid precursor protein, prevented dendritic loss and restored the levels of synaptophysin in the ipsilateral dentate gyrus. Furthermore, PF3845 suppressed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 and enhanced the expression of arginase-1 post-TBI, suggesting a shift of microglia/macrophages from M1 to M2 phenotype. The effects of PF3845 on TBI-induced behavioral deficits and neurodegeneration were mediated by activation of cannabinoid type 1 and 2 receptors and might be attributable to the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and AKT. These results suggest that selective inhibition of FAAH is likely to be beneficial for TBI treatment.

2012 Division of medicinal chemistry award address. Trekking the cannabinoid road: a personal perspective

My involvement with the field of cannabinoids spans close to 3 decades and covers a major part of my scientific career. It also reflects the robust progress in this initially largely unexplored area of biology. During this period of time, I have witnessed the growth of modern cannabinoid biology, starting from the discovery of its two receptors and followed by the characterization of its endogenous ligands and the identification of the enzyme systems involved in their biosynthesis and biotransformation. I was fortunate enough to start at the beginning of this new era and participate in a number of the new discoveries. It has been a very exciting journey. With coverage of some key aspects of my work during this period of "modern cannabinoid research," this Award Address, in part historical, intends to give an account of how the field grew, the key discoveries, and the most promising directions for the future.

Anticonvulsant effects of N-arachidonoyl-serotonin, a dual fatty acid amide hydrolase enzyme and transient receptor potential vanilloid type-1 (TRPV1) channel blocker, on experimental seizures: the roles of cannabinoid CB1 receptors and TRPV1 channels

Selective blockade of anandamide hydrolysis, through the inhibition of the FAAH enzyme, has anticonvulsant effects, which are mediated by CB1 receptors. Anandamide, however, also activates TRPV1 channels, generally with an opposite outcome on neuronal modulation. Thus, we suggested that the dual FAAH and TRPV1 blockade with N-arachidonoyl-serotonin (AA-5-HT) would be efficacious in inhibiting pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizures in mice. We also investigated the contribution of CB1 activation and TRPV1 blockade to the overt effect of AA-5-HT. In the first experiment, injection of AA-5-HT (0.3-3.0 mg/kg) delayed the onset and reduced the duration of PTZ (60 mg)-induced seizures in mice. These effects were reversed by pre-treatment with the CB1 antagonist, AM251 (1.0-3.0 mg/kg). Finally, we observed that administration of the selective TRPV1 antagonist, SB366791 (0.1-1 mg/kg), did not entirely mimic AA-5-HT effects. In conclusion, AA-5-HT alleviates seizures in mice, an effect inhibited by CB1 antagonism, but not completely mimicked by TRPV1 blockage, indicating that the overall effect of AA-5-HT seems to depend mainly on CB1 receptors. This may represent a new strategy for the development of drugs against seizures, epilepsies and related syndromes.

Alterations of endocannabinoids in cerebrospinal fluid of dogs with epileptic seizure disorder

Background

Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurological disorders in dogs characterized by recurrent seizures. The endocannabinoid (EC) system plays a central role in suppressing pathologic neuronal excitability and in controlling the spread of activity in an epileptic network. Endocannabinoids are released on demand and their dysregulation has been described in several pathological conditions. Recurrent seizures may lead to an adverse reorganization of the EC system and impairment of its protective effect. In the current study, we tested the hypothesis that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of the endocannabinoids anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2AG) are altered in epileptic dogs. Concentrations of AEA and total AG (sum of 2AG and 1AG) were measured in 40 dogs with idiopathic epilepsy and in 16 unaffected, healthy control dogs using liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry.

Results

AEA and total AG were measured at 4.94 (3.18 – 9.17) pM and 1.43 (0.90 – 1.92) nM in epileptic dogs and at 3.19 (2.04 – 4.28) pM and 1.76 (1.08 – 2.69) nM in the control group, respectively (median, 25 – 75% percentiles in brackets). The AEA difference between epileptic and healthy dogs was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Values correlated with seizure severity and duration of seizure activity. Dogs with cluster seizures and/or status epilepticus and with seizure activity for more than six months displayed the highest EC concentrations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we present the first endocannabinoid measurements in canine CSF and confirm the hypothesis that the EC system is altered in canine idiopathic epilepsy.

Elevating endocannabinoid levels: pharmacological strategies and potential therapeutic applications

The endocannabinoid system consists of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, of endogenous agonists for these receptors known as ‘endocannabinoids’, and of processes responsible for endocannabinoid biosynthesis, cellular uptake and metabolism. There is strong evidence first, that this system up-regulates in certain disorders as indicated by an increased release of endocannabinoids onto their receptors and/or by increases in the expression levels or coupling efficiency of these receptors, and second, that this up-regulation often appears to reduce or abolish unwanted effects of these disorders or to slow their progression. This discovery has raised the possibility of developing a medicine that enhances up-regulation of the endocannabinoid system associated with these disorders by inhibiting the cellular uptake or intracellular metabolism of an endocannabinoid following its ‘autoprotective’ endogenous release. For inhibition of endocannabinoid metabolism, research has focused particularly on two highly investigated endocannabinoids, anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol, and hence on inhibitors of the main anandamide-metabolising enzyme, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), and of the main 2-arachidonoyl glycerol-metabolising enzyme, monoacylglycerol (MAG) lipase. The resulting data have provided strong preclinical evidence that selective FAAH and MAG lipase inhibitors would ameliorate the unwanted effects of several disorders, when administered alone or with a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, and that the benefit-to-risk ratio of a FAAH inhibitor would exceed that of a MAG lipase inhibitor or dual inhibitor of FAAH and MAG lipase. Promising preclinical data have also been obtained with inhibitors of endocannabinoid cellular uptake. There is now an urgent need for clinical research with these enzyme and uptake inhibitors.

Active-site inhibitors modulate the dynamic properties of human monoacylglycerol lipase: a hydrogen exchange mass spectrometry study

Human monoacylglycerol lipase (hMGL) regulates endocannabinoid signaling primarily by deactivating the lipid messenger 2-arachidonoylglycerol. Agents that carbamylate hMGLs catalytic Ser(122) constitute a leading class of therapeutically promising hMGL inhibitors. We have applied peptide-level hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to characterize hMGL's conformational responses to two potent carbamylating inhibitors, AM6580 (irreversible) and AM6701 (slowly reversible). A dynamic, solvent-exposed lid domain is characteristic of hMGL's solution conformation. Both hMGL inhibitors restricted backbone enzyme motility in the active-site region and increased substrate binding-pocket solvent exposure. Covalent reaction of AM6580 with hMGL generates a bulkier carbamylated Ser(122) residue as compared to the more discrete Ser(122) modification by AM6701, a difference reflected in AM6580's more pronounced effect upon hMGL conformation. We demonstrate that structurally distinct carbamylating hMGL inhibitors generate particular conformational ensembles characterized by region-specific hMGL dynamics. By demonstrating the distinctive influences of two hMGL inhibitors on enzyme conformation, this study furthers our understanding at the molecular level of the dynamic features of hMGL interaction with small-molecule ligands.

Selective inhibition of alpha/beta-hydrolase domain 6 attenuates neurodegeneration, alleviates blood brain barrier breakdown, and improves functional recovery in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury

2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) is the most abundant endocannabinoid in the central nervous system and is elevated after brain injury. Because of its rapid hydrolysis, however, the compensatory and neuroprotective effect of 2-AG is short-lived. Although inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase, a principal enzyme for 2-AG degradation, causes a robust increase of brain levels of 2-AG, it also leads to cannabinoid receptor desensitization and behavioral tolerance. Alpha/beta hydrolase domain 6 (ABHD6) is a novel 2-AG hydrolytic enzyme that accounts for a small portion of 2-AG hydrolysis, but its inhibition is believed to elevate the levels of 2-AG within the therapeutic window without causing side effect. Using a mouse model of traumatic brain injury (TBI), we found that post-insult chronic treatment with a selective ABHD6 inhibitor WWL70 improved motor coordination and working memory performance. WWL70 treatment reduced lesion volume in the cortex and neurodegeneration in the dendate gyrus. It also suppressed the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 and enhanced the expression of arginase-1 in the ipsilateral cortex at 3 and 7 days post-TBI, suggesting microglia/macrophages shifted from M1 to M2 phenotypes after treatment. The blood-brain barrier dysfunction at 3 and 7 days post-TBI was dramatically reduced. Furthermore, the beneficial effects of WWL70 involved up-regulation and activation of cannabinoid type 1 and type 2 receptors and were attributable to the phosphorylation of the extracellular signal regulated kinase and the serine/threonine protein kinase AKT. This study indicates that the fine-tuning of 2-AG signaling by modulating ABHD6 activity can exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in TBI.

1,3,4-Oxadiazol-2-ones as fatty-acid amide hydrolase and monoacylglycerol lipase inhibitors: Synthesis, in vitro evaluation and insight into potency and selectivity determinants by molecular modelling

Inhibition of the key hydrolytic enzymes of the endocannabinoid system, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), has been proposed as potential mode of action for various therapeutic applications. Continuing our previous work, we take the first steps of structure-activity relationship exploration and show that 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-ones can serve as scaffold for both selective FAAH and MAGL inhibitors, and also function as a dual FAAH/MAGL inhibitor at sub-micromolar IC50 values. Moreover, 10-fold selectivity against MAGL over FAAH was achieved with compound 3d (FAAH and MAGL IC50; 2.0 and 0.22 μM). Lastly, enzyme and ligand features contributing to the potency and selectivity differences are analysed by molecular docking.

Sulfonyl fluoride inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase

Sulfonyl fluorides are known to inhibit esterases. Early work from our laboratory has identified hexadecyl sulfonylfluoride (AM374) as a potent in vitro and in vivo inhibitor of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). We now report on later generation sulfonyl fluoride analogs that exhibit potent and selective inhibition of FAAH. Using recombinant rat and human FAAH, we show that 5-(4-hydroxyphenyl)pentanesulfonyl fluoride (AM3506) has similar inhibitory activity for both the rat and the human enzyme, while rapid dilution assays and mass spectrometry analysis suggest that the compound is a covalent modifier for FAAH and inhibits its action in an irreversible manner. Our SAR results are highlighted by molecular docking of key analogs.

Biochemical and mass spectrometric characterization of human N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase inhibition

The mechanism of inactivation of human enzyme N-acylethanolamine-hydrolyzing acid amidase (hNAAA), with selected inhibitors identified in a novel fluorescent based assay developed for characterization of both reversible and irreversible inhibitors, was investigated kinetically and using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). 1-Isothiocyanatopentadecane (AM9023) was found to be a potent, selective and reversible hNAAA inhibitor, while two others, 5-((biphenyl-4-yl)methyl)-N,N-dimethyl-2H-tetrazole-2-carboxamide (AM6701) and N-Benzyloxycarbonyl-L-serine β-lactone (N-Cbz-serine β-lactone), inhibited hNAAA in a covalent and irreversible manner. MS analysis of the hNAAA/covalent inhibitor complexes identified modification only of the N-terminal cysteine (Cys126) of the β-subunit, confirming a suggested mechanism of hNAAA inactivation by the β-lactone containing inhibitors. These experiments provide direct evidence of the key role of Cys126 in hNAAA inactivation by different classes of covalent inhibitors, confirming the essential role of cysteine for catalysis and inhibition in this cysteine N-terminal nucleophile hydrolase enzyme. They also provide a methodology for the rapid screening and characterization of large libraries of compounds as potential inhibitors of NAAA, and subsequent characterization or their mechanism through MALDI-TOF MS based bottom up-proteomics.

Characterization of the effects of reuptake and hydrolysis inhibition on interstitial endocannabinoid levels in the brain: an in vivo microdialysis study

The present experiments employed in vivo microdialysis to characterize the effects of commonly used endocannabinoid clearance inhibitors on basal and depolarization-induced alterations in interstitial endocannabinoid levels in the nucleus accumbens of rat brain. Compounds targeting the putative endocannabinoid transporter and hydrolytic enzymes (FAAH and MAGL) were compared. The transporter inhibitor AM404 modestly enhanced depolarization-induced increases in 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) levels but did not alter levels of N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamide (anandamide, AEA). The transport inhibitor UCM707 did not alter dialysate levels of either endocannabinoid. The FAAH inhibitors URB597 and PF-3845 robustly increased AEA levels during depolarization without altering 2-AG levels. The MAGL inhibitor URB602 significantly enhanced depolarization-induced increases in 2-AG, but did not alter AEA levels. In contrast, the MAGL inhibitor JZL184 did not alter 2-AG or AEA levels under any condition tested. Finally, the dual FAAH/MAGL inhibitor JZL195 significantly enhanced depolarization-induced increases in both AEA and 2-AG levels. In contrast to the present observations in rats, prior work in mice has demonstrated a robust JZL184-induced enhancement of depolarization-induced increases in dialysate 2-AG. Thus, to further investigate species differences, additional tests with JZL184, PF-3845, and JZL195 were performed in mice. Consistent with prior reports, JZL184 significantly enhanced depolarization-induced increases in 2-AG without altering AEA levels. PF-3845 and JZL195 produced profiles in mouse dialysates comparable to those observed in rats. These findings confirm that interstitial endocannabinoid levels in the brain can be selectively manipulated by endocannabinoid clearance inhibitors. While PF-3845 and JZL195 produce similar effects in both rats and mice, substantial species differences in JZL184 efficacy are evident, which is consistent with previous studies.