Current approaches in lipid-based nanocarriers for oral drug delivery

Enhancing photodynamic and radionuclide therapy by small interfering RNA (siRNA)-RAD51 transfection via self-emulsifying delivery systems (SNEDDS)

BACKGROUND AIMS

Gene-silencing by small interfering RNA (siRNA) is an attractive therapy to regulate cancer death, tumor recurrence or metastasis. Because siRNAs are easily degraded, it is necessary to develop transport and delivery systems to achieve efficient tumor targeting. Self-nanoemulsifying systems (SNEDDS) have been successfully used for pDNA transport and delivery, so they may be useful for siRNA. The aim of this work is to introduce siRNA-RAD51 into a SNEDDS prepared with Phospholipon-90G, Labrafil-M1944-CS and Cremophor-RH40 and evaluate its efficacy in preventing homologous recombination of DNA double-strand breaks caused by photodynamic therapy (PDT) and ionizing radiation (IR).

METHODS

The siRNA-RAD51 was loaded into SNEDDS using chitosan. Transfection capacity was estimated by comparison with Lipofectamine-2000.

RESULTS

SNEDDS(siRNA-RAD51) induced gene silencing effect on the therapies evaluated by cell viability and clonogenic assays using T47D breast cancer cells.

CONCLUSIONS

SNEDDS(siRNA-RAD51) shown to be an effective siRNA-delivery system to decrease cellular resistance in PDT or IR.

In-vivo and in-vitro assessment of curcumin loaded bile salt stabilized nanovesicles for oral delivery

BACKGROUND

Bile salts enriched nanovesicles (bilosomes) have been attention worthy in the past few years due to their distinctive effect on the enhancement of drug delivery through various physiological administration routes. Oral delivery of multifunctioning phytochemical curcumin has faced a lot of difficulties due to its scarce solubility and poor oral bioavailability.

OBJECTIVE

The current investigation aimed to develop curcumin loaded bilosomes for improvement of oral curcumin bioavailability with maximum efficiency and safety.

METHODS

The effect of formulation variables (type of span, SDC % to total lipid content Span/Cholesterol molar ratio) on physicochemical characterization and in vitro drug release in simulated intestinal fluid was investigated. Furthermore, in-vivo protective effect of bilosomes on hepatic and renal functions was also studied.

RESULTS

and conclusion. The results revealed that the best curcumin loaded bilosomal formulation showed spherical nanovesicular morphology with particle size 145.1 ± 19.42 nm with highly reasonable %EE (93%), Zeta potential (≥ -30mv), prominent controlled in-vitro release reaching 55.18 ± 1.10 after 96 h. The formulation also showed good storage stability with negligible differences in physical features and content. The IC50 values of bilosomal, niosomal, and free curcumin were 216.50, 211.44, and 121.63 mmol/ml, respectively revealing that the unencapsulated curcumin displayed high toxicity on Caco2 cell line (nearly 2 folds). Additionally, the prepared bilosomes showed significant in-vivo hepatic and renal protection in liver cirrhosis induced rats with conservation to all liver and renal markers and histopathological morphology. The study assumes the effectiveness and safety of oral delivery of curcumin loaded bile salts stabilized nanovesicles and its powerful commandment for further investigations.

Lipid-based nanocarriers: an attractive approach for rheumatoid arthritis management

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as transformative tools in modern drug delivery, offering unparalleled potential in enhancing the efficacy and safety of various therapeutics. In the context of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), a disabling autoimmune disorder characterized by chronic inflammation, joint damage, and limited patient mobility, LNPs hold significant promise for revolutionizing treatment strategies. LNPs offer several advantages over traditional drug delivery systems, including improved pharmacokinetics, enhanced tissue penetration, and reduced systemic toxicity. This article concisely summarizes the pathogenesis of RA, its associated risk factors, and therapeutic techniques and their challenges. Additionally, it highlights the noteworthy advancements made in managing RA through LNPs, including liposomes, niosomes, bilosomes, cubosomes, spanlastics, ethosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid micelles, lipid nanocapsules, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc. It also delves into the specific functional attributes of these nanocarrier systems, focusing on their role in treating and monitoring RA.

Porous silicon and silica carriers for delivery of peptide therapeutics

Peptides have gained tremendous popularity as biological therapeutic agents in recent years due to their favourable specificity, diversity of targets, well-established screening methods, ease of production, and lower cost. However, their poor physiological and storage stability, pharmacokinetics, and fast clearance have limited their clinical translation. Novel nanocarrier-based strategies have shown promise in overcoming these issues. In this direction, porous silicon (pSi) and mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have been widely explored as potential carriers for the delivery of peptide therapeutics. These materials possess several advantages, including large surface areas, tunable pore sizes, and adjustable pore architectures, which make them attractive carriers for peptide delivery systems. In this review, we cover pSi and MSNs as drug carriers focusing on their use in peptide delivery. The review provides a brief overview of their fabrication, surface modification, and interesting properties that make them ideal peptide drug carriers. The review provides a systematic account of various studies that have utilised these unique porous carriers for peptide delivery describing significant in vitro and in vivo results. We have also provided a critical comparison of the two carriers in terms of their physicochemical properties and short-term and long-term biocompatibility. Lastly, we have concluded the review with our opinion of this field and identified key areas for future research for clinical translation of pSi and MSN-based peptide therapeutic formulations.

Hydrophobic solid lipid-based microparticles for the protection of gastric-sensitive hydrophilic active biomolecules for oral administration in the treatment of EPI

Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency (EPI), induced by conditions such as cystic fibrosis, chronic pancreatitis, and Crohn's disease, is a frequently overlooked and underdiagnosed gastrointestinal disorder. It leads to inadequate intestinal digestion due to insufficient secretion of pancreatic juice, resulting in discomfort, pain, and ultimately severe malnutrition. Despite numerous treatments proving ineffective over the past three decades, a strictly hydrophobic solid lipid formulation, administered orally, is proposed in this study to restore digestive function. This technology relies on the hydrophobic nature of the matrix to physically protect the hydrophilic active principle from the gastric environment while enabling its immediate release in the duodenum by targeting the amphiphilic nature of bile salts. Results demonstrate that this formulation effectively protects an acid-sensitive active ingredient during gastric passage (Simulated Gastric Fluid or SGF), facilitating its rapid release upon entering an artificial duodenal environment (Simulated Intestinal Fluid or SIF). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the preservation of a protein-based active ingredient extends beyond its primary protein structure to include its functional aspects, such as enzymatic activity. This drug delivery technology could enable the protection of hydrophilic active biomolecules, such as pancreatin, which are sensitive to gastric acidity, while promoting their immediate release upon contact with bile salts in the proximal duodenum, with the ultimate goal of correcting the digestive defect induced by EPI.

Lipid nanoparticles for enhancing oral bioavailability

In recent studies, lipid nanoparticles have attracted attention as drug delivery systems owing to their preeminent potential in achieving the desired bioavailability of biopharmaceutics (BCS) class II and class IV drugs. The current debate concerns the bioavailability of these poorly absorbed drugs with their simultaneous oral degradation. Lipid nanoparticles, including solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), are lipid-based carrier systems that can effectively encapsulate both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs, offering versatile drug delivery systems. The unique properties of lipids (biodegradability and biocompatibility) and their transportation pathways enhance the biological availability of drugs. These particles can increase the gastrointestinal absorption and solubilization of minimally bioavailable drugs via a selective lymphatic pathway. This review mainly focuses on providing a brief update on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) that synergistically increase the bioavailability of limited permeable drugs and highlight the transversal mechanisms of LNPs across the gastrointestinal hurdles, transmembrane absorption, transport kinetics, and computational tools. Finally, the present hurdles and future perspectives of LNPs for oral drug delivery systems are discussed.

Computational assessment of lipid facilitated membrane permeation of vancomycin using force-probe molecular dynamic simulation

In this study the efficacy of different edible lipids for drug permeation enhancement of vancomycin through biological membrane was investigated using molecular dynamic simulation. In this regard, at first the ability of the lipids for complex formation with the drug was evaluated for number of most common edible lipids including tripalmitin (TPA), trimyristin (TMY), labrafil (LAB), glycerol monostearate (GMS), glycerol monooleate (GMO), Distearoylphosphorylethanolamine (DSPE), dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DPPE), Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), cholesterol (CL), stearic acid (SA), palmitic acid (PA) and oleic acid (OA). Then the complexes were pulled thorough a bilayer membrane while the changes in force were probed. The results showed that besides the SA, PA and OA the other examined lipids were able to perform a perfect molecular complex with the drug. Also the results of pulling simulation revealed that the least of force was needed for drug transmittance through the membrane when it was covered by LAB, TMY and DSPE. These results indicated that these lipids can be the excellent materials of choice as permeation enhancer for preparing a proper oral formulation of vancomycin.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A Review: Surface Engineering of Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems

This review explores the evolution of lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) for drug delivery (DD). Herein, LBNPs are classified into liposomes and cell membrane-based nanoparticles (CMNPs), each with unique advantages and challenges. Conventional LBNPs possess drawbacks such as poor targeting, quick clearance, and limited biocompatibility. One of the possible alternatives to overcome these challenges is surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with materials such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aptamers, antibody fragments, peptides, CD44, hyaluronic acid, folic acid, palmitic acid, and lactoferrin. Thus, the main focus of this review will be on the different surface modifications that enable LBNPs to have beneficial properties for DD, such as enhancing mass transport properties, immune evasion, improved stability, and targeting. Moreover, various CMNPs are explored used for DD derived from cells such as red blood cells (RBCs), platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, and stem cells, highlighting their unique natural properties (e.g., biocompatibility and ability to evade the immune system). This discussion extends to the biomimicking of hybrid NPs accomplished through the surface coating of synthetic (mainly polymeric) NPs with different cell membranes. This review aims to provide a comprehensive resource for researchers on recent advances in the field of surface modification of LBNPs and CMNPs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the dynamic field of lipid-based DD systems.

"Enhancing Oral Drug Absorption: Overcoming Physiological and Pharmaceutical Barriers for Improved Bioavailability"

The oral route stands out as the most commonly used method for drug administration, prized for its non-invasive nature, patient compliance, and easy administration. Several elements influence the absorption of oral medications, including their solubility, permeability across mucosal membranes, and stability within the gastrointestinal (GI) environment. Research has delved into comprehending physicochemical, biochemical, metabolic, and biological obstacles that impact the bioavailability of a drug. To improve oral drug absorption, several pharmaceutical technologies and delivery methods have been studied, including cyclodextrins, micelles, nanocarriers, and lipid-based carriers. This review examines both traditional and innovative drug delivery methods, as well as the physiological and pharmacological barriers influencing medication bioavailability when taken orally. Additionally, it describes the challenges and advancements in developing formulations suitable for oral use.

Natural Food Components as Biocompatible Carriers: A Novel Approach to Glioblastoma Drug Delivery

Efficient drug delivery methods are crucial in modern pharmacotherapy to enhance treatment efficacy, minimize adverse effects, and improve patient compliance. Particularly in the context of glioblastoma treatment, there has been a recent surge in interest in using natural dietary components as innovative carriers for drug delivery. These food-derived carriers, known for their safety, biocompatibility, and multifunctional properties, offer significant potential in overcoming the limitations of conventional drug delivery systems. This article thoroughly overviews numerous natural dietary components, such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids, used as drug carriers. Their mechanisms of action, applications in different drug delivery systems, and specific benefits in targeting glioblastoma are examined. Additionally, the safety, biocompatibility, and regulatory considerations of employing food components in drug formulations are discussed, highlighting their viability and future prospects in the pharmaceutical field.

Donepezil Nanoemulsion Induces a Torpor-like State with Reduced Toxicity in Nonhibernating Xenopus laevis Tadpoles

Achieving a reversible decrease of metabolism and other physiological processes in the whole organism, as occurs in animals that experience torpor or hibernation, could contribute to increased survival after serious injury. Using a Bayesian network tool with transcriptomic data and chemical structure similarity assessments, we predicted that the Alzheimer's disease drug donepezil (DNP) could be a promising candidate for a small molecule drug that might induce a torpor-like state. This was confirmed in a screening study with Xenopus laevis tadpoles, a nonhibernator whole animal model. To improve the therapeutic performance of the drug and minimize its toxicity, we encapsulated DNP in a nanoemulsion formulated with low-toxicity materials. This formulation is composed of emulsified droplets <200 nm in diameter that contain 1.250 mM DNP, representing ≥95% encapsulation efficiency. The DNP nanoemulsion induced comparable torpor-like effects to those produced by the free drug in tadpoles, as indicated by reduced swimming motion, cardiac beating frequency, and oxygen consumption, but with an improved biodistribution. Use of the nanoemulsion resulted in a more controlled increase of DNP concentration in the whole organism compared to free DNP, and to a higher concentration in the brain, which reduced DNP toxicity and enabled induction of a longer torpor-like state that was fully reversible. These studies also demonstrate the potential use of Xenopus tadpoles as a high-throughput in vivo screen to assess the efficacy, biodistribution, and toxicity of drug-loaded nanocarriers.

Solubilization of Paclitaxel with Natural Compound Rubusoside toward Improving Oral Bioavailability in a Rodent Model

Paclitaxel, which features low water solubility and permeability, is an efflux pump substrate. The current paclitaxel drugs are given intravenously after resolving the solubility issue. Yet, oral delivery to achieve therapeutic bioavailability is not effective due to low absorption. This study evaluated a natural compound, rubusoside, to improve oral bioavailability in an animal model. Free paclitaxel molecules were processed into nano-micelles formed in water with rubusoside. The particle size of the nano-micelles in water was determined using dynamic light scattering. The oral bioavailability of paclitaxel in nano-micelles was determined against Cremophor/alcohol-solubilized Taxol after oral and intravenous administration to pre-cannulated Sprague Dawley rats. When loaded into the rubusoside-formed nano-micelles, paclitaxel reached a supersaturated concentration of 6 mg/mL, 60,000-fold over its intrinsic saturation of 0.1 µg/mL. The mean particle size was 4.7 ± 0.7 nm in diameter. Compared with Taxol®, maximum blood concentration was increased by 1.5-fold; the time to reach maximum concentration shortened to 0.8 h from 1.7 h; and, relative oral bioavailability increased by 88%. Absolute oral bioavailability was 1.7% and 1.3% for the paclitaxel nano-micelles and Taxol®, respectively. Solubilizing paclitaxel with rubusoside was successful, but oral bioavailability remained low. Further inhibition of the efflux pump and/or first metabolism may allow more oral paclitaxel to enter systemic circulation.

Lipid- and Polymer-Based Nanocarrier Platforms for Cancer Vaccine Delivery

Cancer immunotherapy has gained popularity in recent years in the search for effective treatment modalities for various malignancies, particularly those that are resistant to conventional chemo- and radiation therapy. Cancer vaccines target the cancer-immunity cycle by boosting the patient's own immune system to recognize and kill cancer cells, thus serving as both preventative and curative therapeutic tools. Among the different types of cancer vaccines, those based on nanotechnology have shown great promise in advancing the field of cancer immunotherapy. Lipid-based nanoparticles (NPs) have become the most advanced platforms for cancer vaccine delivery, but polymer-based NPs have also received considerable interest. This Review aims to provide an overview of the nanotechnology-enabled cancer vaccine landscape, focusing on recent advances in lipid- and polymer-based nanovaccines and their hybrid structures and discussing the challenges against the clinical translation of these important nanomedicines.

Rising potentials of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) loaded lipid-based delivery platforms for breast cancer

Breast cancer is a major global health concern that requires the development of innovative treatment strategies. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a polyphenolic phytocompound found abundantly in green tea, has exhibited potential anti-cancer properties, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-angiogenic, and anti-proliferative effects. However, the clinical translation of EGCG is hindered by its poor bioavailability and stability. Lipid-based nanocarriers have materialized as an optimistic platform for encapsulating various therapeutics due to their high drug-loading capacity, stability, biocompatibility, and versatility. The rationale for encapsulating EGCG-loaded lipid nanoparticles is to enhance the therapeutic efficacy, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of EGCG for breast cancer treatment. This targeted delivery minimizes off-target effects and enhances the accumulation of EGCG within tumors or diseased tissues in a controlled or sustained manner, reducing systemic toxicity. In addition, co-delivery of EGCG with synergistic agents can enhance therapeutic efficacy through complementary mechanisms of action, overcome biological barriers, and can be combined with other treatment modalities, i.e., radiation therapy, immunotherapy, chemotherapy, etc., to achieve synergistic effectiveness and overcome resistance mechanisms. The advancement of EGCG-loaded lipid nanoparticles exhibits the potential effectiveness of EGCG-based treatments, can overcome the challenges of administering EGCG, and can transform cancer therapy and other biomedical applications.

Graphical abstract

Understanding the potential role of Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in breast cancer treatment through various signaling pathways and further loaded into the lipid-based delivery system for the improvement of mechanical and biological characteristics of the EGCG.

Lipid- and polymer-based formulations containing TNF-α inhibitors for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases

Monoclonal antibodies inhibiting tumor necrosis factor-alpha (iTNF-α) have revolutionized the therapeutic regimen of inflammatory bowel disease, but their main drawback is the parenteral route of administration they require. An alternative approach lies in the delivery of these molecules to the area involved in the inflammatory process by means of innovative formulations able to promote their localization in affected tissues while also decreasing the number of administrations required. This review describes the advantages deriving from the use of lipid- and polymer-based systems containing iTNF-α, focusing on their physicochemical and technological properties and discussing the preclinical results obtained in vivo using rodent models of colitis.

A Review of Nanotechnology in microRNA Detection and Drug Delivery

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression. Dysfunction in miRNAs can lead to various diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions. To date, approximately 2000 miRNAs have been identified in humans. These small molecules have shown promise as disease biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, identifying miRNA biomarkers for diseases and developing effective miRNA drug delivery systems are essential. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches to addressing scientific and medical challenges. Traditional miRNA detection methods include next-generation sequencing, microarrays, Northern blotting, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Nanotechnology can serve as an effective alternative to Northern blotting and RT-qPCR for miRNA detection. Moreover, nanomaterials exhibit unique properties that differ from larger counterparts, enabling miRNA therapeutics to more effectively enter target cells, reduce degradation in the bloodstream, and be released in specific tissues or cells. This paper reviews the application of nanotechnology in miRNA detection and drug delivery systems. Given that miRNA therapeutics are still in the developing stages, nanotechnology holds great promise for accelerating miRNA therapeutics development.

Comparative Analysis of PEG-Free and PEG-Based Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Therapeutic (Poly) Peptides

This study aims to compare the potential of Polyethylene glycol (PEG-free and PEG-based self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) for the oral administration of insulin glargine (IG). Hydrophobic ion pairs (HIPs) of IG are formed using various counterions. HIPs are assessed for log P octanol/water and dissociation behavior. They are incorporated into SEDDS based on polyglycerol (PG) and zwitterionic surfactant (ZW) using response surface methodology and compared to conventional PEG-SEDDS in size, stability, and log D SEDDS/release medium. Oral IG bioavailability in PG/ZW-SEDDS and PEG-SEDDS is evaluated in rats. Among the various counterions studied, IG-BIS (bis(isotridecyl)sulfosuccinate) HIPs demonstrated the highest log P and an improved dissociation profile. PG/ZW-SEDDS and PEG-SEDDS have similar ≈40 nm sizes and are stable over 24 h. Both formulations have log D > 4 in water and >2 in 50 mM phosphate buffer pH 6.8. PG/ZW-SEDDS yielded an oral bioavailability of 2.13 ± 0.66% for IG, while the employment of PEG-SEDDS resulted in an oral bioavailability of 1.15 ± 0.35%. This study highlights the prospective utilization of PEG-free SEDDS involving the concurrent application of PG and ZW surfactants, an alternative to conventional PEG surfactants, for improved oral therapeutic (poly) peptide delivery.

Carrier Systems for Advanced Drug Delivery: Improving Drug Solubility/Bioavailability and Administration Routes

The disadvantages of some conventional drugs, including their low bioavailability, poor targeting efficiency, and important side effects, have led to the rational design of drug delivery systems. In particular, the introduction of drug delivery systems is a potential approach to enhance the uptake of therapeutic agents and deliver them at the right time and in the right amount of concentration at the required site, as well as open new strategies for effective illness treatment. In this review, we provide a basic understanding of drug delivery systems with an emphasis on the use of cyclodextrin-, polymer- and surfactant-based delivery systems. These systems are very attractive because they are biocompatible and biodegradable nanomaterials with multifunctional components. We also provide some details on their design considerations and their use in a variety of medical applications by employing several routes of administration.

Multifaceted role of erlotinib in various cancer: nanotechnology intervention, patent landscape, and advancements in clinical trials

Erlotinib (ELB) is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets the activity of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) protein found in both healthy and cancerous cells. It binds reversibly to the ATP-binding site of the EGFR tyrosine kinase. ELB was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2004 for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment in patients who relapsed after at least one other therapy. It was authorized for use with gemcitabine in 2005 for the treatment of advanced pancreatic cancer. In addition to lung cancer, ELB has shown promising results in the treatment of other cancers, including breast, prostate, colon, pancreatic, cervical, ovarian, and head and neck cancers. However, its limited water solubility, as a BCS class II drug, presents biopharmaceutical problems. Nanoformulations have been developed to overcome these issues, including increased solubility, controlled release, enhanced stability, tumor accumulation, reduced toxicity, and overcoming drug resistance. In older patients, ELB management should involve individualized dosing based on age-related changes in drug metabolism and close monitoring for adverse effects. Regular assessments of renal and hepatic functions are essential. This review provides an overview of ELB's role of ELB in treating various cancers, its associated biopharmaceutical issues, and the latest developments in ELB-related nanotechnology interventions. It also covers ELB patents granted in previous years and the ongoing clinical trials.

Advancing liposome technology for innovative strategies against malaria

This review discusses the potential of liposomes as drug delivery systems for antimalarial therapies. Malaria continues to be a significant cause of mortality and morbidity, particularly among children and pregnant women. Drug resistance due to patient non-compliance and troublesome side effects remains a significant challenge in antimalarial treatment. Liposomes, as targeted and efficient drug carriers, have garnered attention owing to their ability to address these issues. Liposomes encapsulate hydrophilic and/or hydrophobic drugs, thus providing comprehensive and suitable therapeutic drug delivery. Moreover, the potential of passive and active drug delivery enables drug concentration in specific target tissues while reducing adverse effects. However, successful liposome formulation is influenced by various factors, including drug physicochemical characteristics and physiological barriers encountered during drug delivery. To overcome these challenges, researchers have explored modifications in liposome nanocarriers to achieve efficient drug loading, controlled release, and system stability. Computational approaches have also been adopted to predict liposome system stability, membrane integrity, and drug-liposome interactions, improving formulation development efficiency. By leveraging computational methods, optimizing liposomal drug delivery systems holds promise for enhancing treatment efficacy and minimizing side effects in malaria therapy. This review consolidates the current understanding and highlights the potential of liposome strategies against malaria.

Navigating the future: Microfluidics charting new routes in drug delivery

Microfluidics has emerged as a transformative force in the field of drug delivery, offering innovative avenues to produce a diverse range of nano drug delivery systems. Thanks to its precise manipulation of small fluid volumes and its exceptional command over the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, this technology is notably able to enhance the pharmacokinetics of drugs. It has initiated a revolutionary phase in the domain of drug delivery, presenting a multitude of compelling advantages when it comes to developing nanocarriers tailored for the delivery of poorly soluble medications. These advantages represent a substantial departure from conventional drug delivery methodologies, marking a paradigm shift in pharmaceutical research and development. Furthermore, microfluidic platformsmay be strategically devised to facilitate targeted drug delivery with the objective of enhancing the localized bioavailability of pharmaceutical substances. In this paper, we have comprehensively investigated a range of significant microfluidic techniques used in the production of nanoscale drug delivery systems. This comprehensive review can serve as a valuable reference and offer insightful guidance for the development and optimization of numerous microfluidics-fabricated nanocarriers.

Striving for Uniformity: A Review on Advances and Challenges To Achieve Uniform Polyethylene Glycol

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is the polymer of choice in drug delivery systems due to its biocompatibility and hydrophilicity. For over 20 years, this polymer has been widely used in the drug delivery of small drugs, proteins, oligonucleotides, and liposomes, improving the stability and pharmacokinetics of many drugs. However, despite the extensive clinical experience with PEG, concerns have emerged related to its use. These include hypersensitivity, purity, and nonbiodegradability. Moreover, conventional PEG is a mixture of polymers that can complicate drug synthesis and purification leading to unwanted immunogenic reactions. Studies have shown that uniform PEGylated drugs may be more effective than conventional PEGylated drugs as they can overcome issues related to molecular heterogeneity and immunogenicity. This has led to significant research efforts to develop synthetic procedures to produce uniform PEGs (monodisperse PEGs). As a result, iterative step-by-step controlled synthesis methods have been created over time and have shown promising results. Nonetheless, these procedures have presented numerous challenges due to their iterative nature and the requirement for multiple purification steps, resulting in increased costs and time consumption. Despite these challenges, the synthetic procedures went through several improvements. This review summarizes and discusses recent advances in the synthesis of uniform PEGs and its derivatives with a focus on overall yields, scalability, and purity of the polymers. Additionally, the available characterization methods for assessing polymer monodispersity are discussed as well as uniform PEG applications, side effects, and possible alternative polymers that can overcome the drawbacks.

Could nanotechnology improve exercise performance? Evidence from animal studies

This review provides the current state of knowledge regarding the use of nutritional nanocompounds on exercise performance. The reviewed studies used the following nanocompounds: resveratrol-loaded lipid nanoparticles, folic acid into layered hydroxide nanoparticle, redox-active nanoparticles with nitroxide radicals, and iron into liposomes. Most of these nutritional nanocompounds seem to improve performance in endurance exercise compared to the active compound in the non-nanoencapsulated form and/or placebo. Nutritional nanocompounds also induced the following physiological and metabolic alterations: 1) improved antioxidant activity and reduced oxidative stress; 2) reduction in inflammation status; 3) maintenance of muscle integrity; 4) improvement in mitochondrial function and quality; 5) enhanced glucose levels during exercise; 6) higher muscle and hepatic glycogen levels; and 7) increased serum and liver iron content. However, all the reviewed studies were conducted in animals (mice and rats). In conclusion, nutritional nanocompounds are a promising approach to improving exercise performance. As the studies using nutritional nanocompounds were all conducted in animals, further studies in humans are necessary to better understand the application of nutritional nanocompounds in sport and exercise science.

Targeting the Gut: A Systematic Review of Specific Drug Nanocarriers

The intestine is essential for the modulation of nutrient absorption and the removal of waste. Gut pathologies, such as cancer, inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and celiac disease, which extensively impact gut functions, are thus critical for human health. Targeted drug delivery is essential to tackle these diseases, improve therapy efficacy, and minimize side effects. Recent strategies have taken advantage of both active and passive nanocarriers, which are designed to protect the drug until it reaches the correct delivery site and to modulate drug release via the use of different physical-chemical strategies. In this systematic review, we present a literature overview of the different nanocarriers used for drug delivery in a set of chronic intestinal pathologies, highlighting the rationale behind the controlled release of intestinal therapies. The overall aim is to provide the reader with useful information on the current approaches for gut targeting in novel therapeutic strategies.

Nanomedicine for the eradication of Helicobacter pylori: recent advances, challenges and future perspective

Helicobacter pylori infection is linked to gastritis, ulcers and gastric cancer. Nanomedicine offers a promising solution by utilizing nanoparticles for precise drug delivery, countering antibiotic resistance and delivery issues. Nanocarriers such as liposomes and nanoparticles enhance drug stability and circulation, targeting infection sites through gastric mucosa characteristics. Challenges include biocompatibility, stability, scalability and personalized therapies. Despite obstacles, nanomedicine's potential for reshaping H. pylori eradication is significant and showcased in this review focusing on benefits, limitations and future prospects of nanomedicine-based strategies.

Magnetic Nanoparticles: A Review on Synthesis, Characterization, Functionalization, and Biomedical Applications

Nowadays, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are applied in numerous fields, especially in biomedical applications. Since biofluidic samples and biological tissues are nonmagnetic, negligible background signals can interfere with the magnetic signals from MNPs in magnetic biosensing and imaging applications. In addition, the MNPs can be remotely controlled by magnetic fields, which make it possible for magnetic separation and targeted drug delivery. Furthermore, due to the unique dynamic magnetizations of MNPs when subjected to alternating magnetic fields, MNPs are also proposed as a key tool in cancer treatment, an example is magnetic hyperthermia therapy. Due to their distinct surface chemistry, good biocompatibility, and inducible magnetic moments, the material and morphological structure design of MNPs has attracted enormous interest from a variety of scientific domains. Herein, a thorough review of the chemical synthesis strategies of MNPs, the methodologies to modify the MNPs surface for better biocompatibility, the physicochemical characterization techniques for MNPs, as well as some representative applications of MNPs in disease diagnosis and treatment are provided. Further portions of the review go into the diagnostic and therapeutic uses of composite MNPs with core/shell structures as well as a deeper analysis of MNP properties to learn about potential biomedical applications.

Lipid-based nanomedicines for the treatment of bacterial respiratory infections: current state and new perspectives

The global threat posed by antimicrobial resistance demands urgent action and the development of effective drugs. Lower respiratory tract infections remain the deadliest communicable disease worldwide, often challenging to treat due to the presence of bacteria that form recalcitrant biofilms. There is consensus that novel anti-infectives with reduced resistance compared with conventional antibiotics are needed, leading to extensive research on innovative antibacterial agents. This review explores the recent progress in lipid-based nanomedicines developed to counteract bacterial respiratory infections, especially those involving biofilm growth; focuses on improved drug bioavailability and targeting and highlights novel strategies to enhance treatment efficacy while emphasizing the importance of continued research in this dynamic field.

Potential of Natural Products as Therapeutic Agents for Inflammatory Diseases

Inflammation is a complex biological response that plays a pivotal role in various pathological conditions, including inflammatory diseases. The search for effective therapeutic agents has led researchers to explore natural products due to their diverse chemical composition and potential therapeutic benefits. This review comprehensively examines the current state of research on natural products as potential therapeutic agents for inflammatory diseases. The article discusses the antiinflammatory properties of various natural compounds, their mechanisms of action, and their potential applications in managing inflammatory disorders. Additionally, formulation and delivery systems, challenges and future prospects in this field are also highlighted.

Lipid Nanocapsule: A Novel Approach to Drug Delivery System Formulation Development

Nanocapsules are polymeric nanoparticles encased in a polymeric coating composed of a predominantly non-ionic surfactant, macromolecules, phospholipids, and an oil core. Lipophilic drugs have been entrapped using various nanocarriers, including lipid cores, likely lipid nanocapsules, solid lipid nanoparticles, and others. A phase inversion temperature approach is used to create lipid nanocapsules. The PEG (polyethyleneglycol) is primarily utilised to produce nanocapsules and is a critical parameter influencing capsule residence time. With their broad drug-loading features, lipid nanocapsules have a distinct advantage in drug delivery systems, such as the capacity to encapsulate hydrophilic or lipophilic pharmaceuticals. Lipid nanocapsules, as detailed in this review, are surface modified, contain target-specific patterns, and have stable physical and chemical properties. Furthermore, lipid nanocapsules have target-specific delivery and are commonly employed as a marker in the diagnosis of numerous illnesses. This review focuses on nanocapsule synthesis, characterisation, and application, which will help understand the unique features of nanocapsules and their application in drug delivery systems.

Nanomedicine against biofilm infections: A roadmap of challenges and limitations

Microbial biofilms are complex three-dimensional structures where sessile microbes are embedded in a polymeric extracellular matrix. Their resistance toward the host immune system as well as to a diverse range of antimicrobial treatments poses a serious health and development threat, being in the top 10 global public health threats declared by the World Health Organization. In an effort to combat biofilm-related microbial infections, several strategies have been developed to independently eliminate biofilms or to complement conventional antibiotic therapies. However, their limitations leave room for other treatment alternatives, where the application of nanotechnology to biofilm eradication has gained significant relevance in recent years. Their small size, penetration efficiency, and the design flexibility that they present makes them a promising alternative for biofilm infection treatment, although they also present set-backs. This review aims to describe the main possibilities and limitations of nanomedicine against biofilms, while covering the main aspects of biofilm formation and study, and the current therapies for biofilm treatment. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Regulatory and Policy Issues in Nanomedicine.

Oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract in health and disease

Oral administration is the preferred route of administration based on the convenience for and compliance of the patient. Oral nanomedicines have been developed to overcome the limitations of free drugs and overcome gastrointestinal (GI) barriers, which are heterogeneous across healthy and diseased populations. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview and comparison of the oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in health and disease (GI and extra-GI diseases) and highlight emerging strategies that exploit these differences for oral nanomedicine-based treatment. We introduce the key GI barriers related to oral delivery and summarize their pathological changes in various diseases. We discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in the GIT in health by describing the general biointeractions based on the type of oral nanomedicine and advanced biointeractions facilitated by advanced strategies applied in this field. We then discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in different diseases and explore how pathological characteristics have been harnessed to advance the development of oral nanomedicine.

Unraveling Complex Hysteresis Phenomenon in 1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-Glycero-3-Phosphocholine Monolayer: Insight into Factors Influencing Surface Dynamics

This study explores the hysteresis phenomenon in DPPC (1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) monolayers, considering several variables, including temperature, compression and expansion rates, residence time, and subphase content. The investigation focuses on analyzing the influence of these variables on key indicators such as the π-A isotherm curve, loop area, and compression modulus. By employing the Langmuir-Blodgett technique, the findings reveal that all the examined factors significantly affect the aforementioned parameters. Notably, the hysteresis loop, representing dissipated energy, provides valuable insights into the monolayer's viscoelasticity, molecular packing, phase transition changes, and resistance during the isocycle process. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the structural and dynamic properties of DPPC monolayers, offering insights into their behavior under varying conditions. Moreover, the knowledge gained from this study can aid in the development of precise models and strategies for controlling and manipulating monolayer properties, with potential applications in drug delivery systems, surface coatings, as well as further investigation into air penetration into alveoli and the blinking mechanism.

Exploring the permeability of Amphotericin B trough serum albumin dispersions and lipid nanocarriers for oral delivery

Amphotericin B (AmB) is a potent polyenic antifungal agent with leishmanicidal activity. Due to its low solubility and permeability in the gastrointestinal tract, AmB is usually administered intravenously. In this context, various approaches have been used to try to improve these properties. Some of the systems developed have shown proven successful, but there is still a lack of knowledge about the pathways AmB takes after oral administration. Therefore, the aim of this work was not only to obtain aqueous dispersions containing AmB at different aggregation states, but also to entrap this molecule in nanocarriers, and evaluate the influence of these conditions on the jejunal permeability of AmB. To observe the aggregation states of AmB, physicochemical characterization of AmB-albumin complexes and AmB-loaded formulations was performed. Different degrees of AmB aggregation states were obtained. Thus, permeability tests were performed in the Ussing chamber and a decrease in AmB concentration in the donor compartment was observed. Electrophysiological measurements showed different responses depending on the AmB formulation. In conclusion, although control of the AmB aggregation state was observed by physicochemical characterization, this approach does not seem to have a sufficient effect on AmB permeability, but on its toxicity. For a complete understanding of AmB-loaded nanocarriers, other pathways, such as lymphatic absorption, should also be investigated.

Improving Drug Delivery on Candida Albicans Using Geraniol Nanoemulsion

Geraniol (GE) is a monoterpene alcohol with excellent antifungal activity. However, its low solubility and high volatility impair its use. Nanoemulsions (NE) are excellent delivery systems for poorly soluble and volatile drugs, achieving controlled release of the active ingredient. The aim of this study was to improve the delivery of geraniol (GE) incorporated in NE against Candida albicans in order to evaluate the antibiofilm effect and cytotoxicity. Nanoemulsion containing 10% oil phase (cholesterol) (w/w), 10% surfactant (mixture of soy phosphatidylcholine and Brij 58; 1:2) (w/w), and 80% aqueous phase (phosphate buffer) (w/w) was synthesized. Incorporation of GE was carried out by sonication and the final compounds were characterized by hydrodynamic diameter, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP), in addition to evaluation of physicochemical stability after 6 months and 1 year. The GE-NE effect was evaluated on Candida albicans biofilms and cytotoxic effect was evaluated on immortalized normal oral cell line NOK-Si. The diameter of GE-NE was 232.3 ± 2.7 nm and PDI 0.155 with exhibited homogeneity and stability in solution. GE-NE showed antibiofilm activity at a concentration of 75 μg/mL with reduction of >6.0 log10, and no cytotoxicity against NOK-Si cells at concentrations below 150 μg/mL was observed. GE-NE proved to be a promising candidate for prevention and treatment of fungal diseases.

Lipid-based nanocarriers challenging the ocular biological barriers: Current paradigm and future perspectives

Eye is the most specialized and sensory body organ and treating eye diseases efficiently is necessary. Despite various attempts, the design of a consummate ophthalmic drug delivery system remains unsolved because of anatomical and physiological barriers that hinder drug transport into the desired ocular tissues. It is important to advance new platforms to manage ocular disorders, whether they exist in the anterior or posterior cavities. Nanotechnology has piqued the interest of formulation scientists because of its capability to augment ocular bioavailability, control drug release, and minimize inefficacious drug absorption, with special attention to lipid-based nanocarriers (LBNs) because of their cellular safety profiles. LBNs have greatly improved medication availability at the targeted ocular site in the required concentration while causing minimal adverse effects on the eye tissues. Nevertheless, the exact mechanisms by which lipid-based nanocarriers can bypass different ocular barriers are still unclear and have not been discussed. Thus, to bridge this gap, the current work aims to highlight the applications of LBNs in the ocular drug delivery exploring the different ocular barriers and the mechanisms viz. adhesion, fusion, endocytosis, and lipid exchange, through which these platforms can overcome the barrier characteristics challenges.

OPTIMIZATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ESSENTIAL OILS FORMULATION FOR ENHANCED STABILITY AND DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM OF MEFLOQUINE

Objective: This work aims to choose suitable essential oil formulations to improve the bioavailability and long-term aqueous stability of mefloquine in drug delivery systems. Methods: Oil phases of pomegranate oil, black cumin seed oil, and garlic oil. To choose the proper oil and surfactant for creating pseudo-ternary phase diagrams, cremophore EL, tween®20 and tween®80 (surfactants), and brij 35 (co-surfactants) were used in a variety of concentrations and combinations (Smix). Mefloquine was estimated to be soluble in a variety of oils, surfactants, and co-surfactants. Drug solubility, drug release research, thermodynamic stability, mean hydrodynamic size and zeta potential. Results: Garlic with smix of cremophore EL and brij 35, Pomegranate with Tween 2.0, and Black cumin seed oil with Tween 80 showed the highest solubilization and emulsification capabilities and were further investigated using ternary phase diagrams. When combined with the co-surfactants under investigation, cremophore EL demonstrated a greater self-emulsification zone than tween® 80 and tween 20. Garlic oil, cremophore EL, and brij 35 nanoemulsion showed smaller size, greater zeta potential, less emulsification time, high transmittance, and better drug solubility than microemulsion formulations on especially those made with tween®20 and tween 80. Mefloquine loaded garlic oil nanoemulsion showed considerably low release in body fluid (32.48%) and a good release in intestinal fluid (82.78%) by 12 h in a drug release study. Conclusion: Garlic oil as the oil phase and a mixture of cremophore EL and brij 35 as the surfactant phase are ideal surfactants and co-surfactant for mefloquine loaded garlic oil nanoemulsion with greater drug release in release kinetics investigation.

Bilosomes as Nanocarriers for the Drug and Vaccine Delivery against Gastrointestinal Infections: Opportunities and Challenges

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) environment has an intricate and complex nature, limiting drugs' stability, oral bioavailability, and adsorption. Additionally, due to the drugs' toxicity and side effects, renders are continuously seeking novel delivery systems. Lipid-based drug delivery vesicles have shown various loading capacities and high stability levels within the GIT. Indeed, most vesicular platforms fail to efficiently deliver drugs toward this route. Notably, the stability of vesicular constructs is different based on the different ingredients added. A low GIT stability of liposomes and niosomes and a low loading capacity of exosomes in drug delivery have been described in the literature. Bilosomes are nonionic, amphiphilic, flexible surfactant vehicles that contain bile salts for the improvement of drug and vaccine delivery. The bilosomes' stability and plasticity in the GIT facilitate the efficient carriage of drugs (such as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and antifungal drugs), vaccines, and bioactive compounds to treat infectious agents. Considering the intricate and harsh nature of the GIT, bilosomal formulations of oral substances have a remarkably enhanced delivery efficiency, overcoming these conditions. This review aimed to evaluate the potential of bilosomes as drug delivery platforms for antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, and antiparasitic GIT-associated drugs and vaccines.

Microfluidics for nano-drug delivery systems: From fundamentals to industrialization

In recent years, owing to the miniaturization of the fluidic environment, microfluidic technology offers unique opportunities for the implementation of nano drug delivery systems (NDDSs) production processes. Compared with traditional methods, microfluidics improves the controllability and uniformity of NDDSs. The fast mixing and laminar flow properties achieved in the microchannels can tune the physicochemical properties of NDDSs, including particle size, distribution and morphology, resulting in narrow particle size distribution and high drug-loading capacity. The success of lipid nanoparticles encapsulated mRNA vaccines against coronavirus disease 2019 by microfluidics also confirmed its feasibility for scaling up the preparation of NDDSs via parallelization or numbering-up. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of microfluidics-based NDDSs, including the fundamentals of microfluidics, microfluidic synthesis of NDDSs, and their industrialization. The challenges of microfluidics-based NDDSs in the current status and the prospects for future development are also discussed. We believe that this review will provide good guidance for microfluidics-based NDDSs.

Impact of Peptide Structure on Colonic Stability and Tissue Permeability

Most marketed peptide drugs are administered parenterally due to their inherent gastrointestinal (GI) instability and poor permeability across the GI epithelium. Several molecular design techniques, such as cyclisation and D-amino acid (D-AA) substitution, have been proposed to improve oral peptide drug bioavailability. However, very few of these techniques have been translated to the clinic. In addition, little is known about how synthetic peptide design may improve stability and permeability in the colon, a key site for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer. In this study, we investigated the impact of various cyclisation modifications and D-AA substitutions on the enzymatic stability and colonic tissue permeability of native oxytocin and 11 oxytocin-based peptides. Results showed that the disulfide bond cyclisation present in native oxytocin provided an improved stability in a human colon model compared to a linear oxytocin derivative. Chloroacetyl cyclisation increased native oxytocin stability in the colonic model at 1.5 h by 30.0%, whereas thioether and N-terminal acetylated cyclisations offered no additional protection at 1.5 h. The site and number of D-AA substitutions were found to be critical for stability, with three D-AAs at Tyr, Ile and Leu, improving native oxytocin stability at 1.5 h in both linear and cyclic structures by 58.2% and 79.1%, respectively. Substitution of three D-AAs into native cyclic oxytocin significantly increased peptide permeability across rat colonic tissue; this may be because D-AA substitution favourably altered the peptide's secondary structure. This study is the first to show how the strategic design of peptide therapeutics could enable their delivery to the colon via the oral route.

Nanoparticle-Based Antioxidants in Stress Signaling and Programmed Cell Death in Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer (BC) is a complex and heterogeneous disease, and oxidative stress is a hallmark of BC. Oxidative stress is characterized by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defense mechanisms. ROS has been implicated in BC development and progression by inducing DNA damage, inflammation, and angiogenesis. Antioxidants have been shown to scavenge ROS and protect cells from oxidative damage, thereby regulating signaling pathways involved in cell growth, survival, and death. Plants contain antioxidants like ascorbic acid, tocopherols, carotenoids, and flavonoids, which have been found to regulate stress signaling and PCD in BC. Combining different antioxidants has shown promise in enhancing the effectiveness of BC treatment. Antioxidant nanoparticles, when loaded with antioxidants, can effectively target breast cancer cells and enhance their cellular uptake. Notably, these nanoparticles have shown promising results in inducing PCD and sensitizing breast cancer cells to chemotherapy, even in cases where resistance is observed. This review aims to explore how nanotechnology can modulate stress signaling and PCD in breast cancer. By summarizing current research, it underscores the potential of nanotechnology in enhancing antioxidant properties for the treatment of breast cancer.

Challenges and opportunities in delivering oral peptides and proteins

INTRODUCTION

Rapid advances in bioengineering enable the use of complex proteins as therapeutic agents to treat diseases. Compared with conventional small molecule drugs, proteins have multiple advantages, including high bioactivity and specificity with low toxicity. Developing oral dosage forms with active proteins is a route to improve patient compliance and significantly reduce production costs. However, the gastrointestinal environment remains a challenge to this delivery path due to enzymatic degradation, low permeability, and weak absorption, leading to reduced delivery efficiency and poor clinical outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes the barriers to oral delivery of peptides and complex proteins, current oral delivery strategies utilized and the opportunities and challenges ahead to try and circumvent these barriers. Oral protein drugs on the market and clinical trials provide insights and approaches for advancing delivery strategies.

EXPERT OPINION

Although most current studies on oral protein delivery rely on in vitro and in vivo animal data, the safety and limitations of the approach in humans remain uncertain. The shortage of clinical data limits the development of new or alternative strategies. Therefore, designing appropriate oral delivery strategies remains a significant challenge and requires new ideas, innovative design strategies and novel model systems.

An Overview of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and its Application in Drug Delivery through Different Routes

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) are nano-sized colloidal drug delivery system that contains a lipid mixture consisting of both solid and liquid lipids in their core. This Lipid-Based Nanosystem is introduced as a biocompatible, non-toxic, and safe nano-drug delivery system as compared to polymeric or metallic nanoparticles. Due to its safety, stability, and high drug loading capacity compared to other lipid-based nanocarriers, NLC gained the attention of researchers to formulate safe and effective drug carriers. The ability to increase drug solubility and permeability while encapsulating the drug in a lipidic shell makes them an ideal carrier for drug delivery through difficult-to-achieve routes. Surface modification of NLC and the use of various additives result in drug targeting and increased residence time. With such qualities, NLCs can be used to treat a variety of diseases such as cancer, infections, neurodegenerative diseases, hypertension, diabetes, and pain management. This review focuses on the recent developments being made to deliver the drugs and genes through different routes via these nanocarriers. Here, we also discuss about historical background, structure, types of NLC and commonly employed techniques for manufacturing lipid-based nanocarriers.

Nanomedicine in the Management of Alzheimer's Disease: State-of-the-Art

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a deadly, progressive, and irreversible brain condition that impairs cognitive abilities. Globally, it affects 32.6 million individuals, and if no viable therapies are available by 2050, that figure might rise to 139 million. The current course of treatment enhances cognitive abilities and temporarily relieves symptoms, but it does not halt or slow the disease's development. Additionally, treatments are primarily offered in conventional oral dosage forms, and conventional oral treatments lack brain specialization and cause adverse effects, resulting in poor patient compliance. A potential nanotechnology-based strategy can improve the bioavailability and specificity of the drug targeting in the brain. Furthermore, this review extensively summarizes the applications of nanomedicines for the effective delivery of drugs used in the management of AD. In addition, the clinical progress of nanomedicines in AD is also discussed, and the challenges facing the clinical development of nanomedicines are addressed in this article.

Oral drug delivery: Influence of mucus on cellular interactions and uptake of lipid-based nanocarriers in Caco-2 cells

This study aimed to investigate the impact of the mucus gel barrier on intestinal mucosal uptake of lipid-based nanocarriers (NCs). Zwitterionic- (ZW), polyglycerol- (PG) and polyethylene glycol- (PEG) surfactant-based o/w nanoemulsions were developed. NCs were assessed regarding their size and zeta potential, stability in biorelevant media and mucus, mucus permeation behavior, cellular interactions and uptake by Caco-2 cells with and without mucus and by a Caco-2/HT29-MTX co-culture. All NCs were in the size range of 178 - 204 nm and exhibited a zeta potential between -4.2 and +1.2 mV. ZW- and PG-NCs demonstrated mucus permeating properties comparable to PEG-NCs. In contrast, ZW- and PG-NCs showed high cellular uptake, whereas limited cellular uptake was observed in case of PEG-NCs. Furthermore, mucus on Caco-2 cells as well as the mucus secreting co-culture had a significant impact on the cellular uptake of all tested NCs. According to these results, ZW- and PG-NCs are advantageous to overcome the mucus and epithelial barrier of the intestinal mucosa. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Within this study the impact of mucus on cellular uptake of lipid-based nanocarriers (NCs) with different surface decorations was investigated. The potential of NCs with zwitterionic-, polyglycerol- and polyethylene glycol-surfactants on their surface to overcome the mucus and epithelial barrier was evaluated. Zwitterionic- and polyglycerol-NCs showed mucus permeating properties similar to PEG-NCs. In contrast, zwitterionic- and polyglycerol-NCs substantially outperformed PEG-NCs in their cellular uptake properties. According to these findings, zwitterionic- and polyglycerol-NCs have the potential to overcome both the mucus and epithelial barrier of the mucosa.

Impact of nanotechnology on the oral delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds

Nanotechnology is an advanced field that has remarkable nutraceutical and food applications. Phyto-bioactive compounds (PBCs) play critical roles in promoting health and disease treatment. However, PBCs generally encounter several limitations that delay their widespread application. For example, most PBCs have low aqueous solubility, poor biostability, poor bioavailability, and a lack of target specificity. Moreover, the high concentrations of effective PBC doses also limit their application. As a result, encapsulating PBCs into an appropriate nanocarrier may increase their solubility and biostability and protect them from premature degradation. Moreover, nanoencapsulation could improve absorption and prolong circulation with a high opportunity for targeted delivery that may decrease unwanted toxicity. This review addresses the main parameters, variables, and barriers that control and affect oral PBC delivery. Moreover, this review discusses the potential role of biocompatible and biodegradable nanocarriers in improving the water solubility, chemical stability, bioavailability, and specificity/selectivity of PBCs.

Improving in vivo oral bioavailability of a poorly soluble drug: a case study on polymeric versus lipid nanoparticles

Poorly soluble drugs must be appropriately formulated for clinical use to increase the solubility, dissolution rate, and permeation across the intestinal epithelium. Polymeric and lipid nanocarriers have been successfully investigated for this aim, and their physicochemical properties, and in particular, the surface chemistry, significantly affect the pharmacokinetics of the drugs after oral administration. In the present study, PLGA nanoparticles (SS13NP) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SS13SLN) loaded with SS13, a BCS IV model drug, were prepared. SS13 bioavailability following the oral administration of SS13 (free drug), SS13NP, or SS13SLN was compared. SS13NP had a suitable size for oral administration (less than 300 nm), a spherical shape and negative zeta potential, similarly to SS13SLN. On the contrary, SS13NP showed higher physical stability but lower encapsulation efficiency (54.31 ± 6.66%) than SS13SLN (100.00 ± 3.11%). When orally administered (0.6 mg of drug), SS13NP showed higher drug AUC values with respect to SS13SLN (227 ± 14 versus 147 ± 8 µg/mL min), with higher C_max (2.47 ± 0.14 µg/mL versus 1.30 ± 0.15 µg/mL) reached in a shorter time (20 min versus 60 min). Both formulations induced, therefore, the oral bioavailability of SS13 (12.67 ± 1.43% and 4.38 ± 0.39% for SS13NP and SS12SLN, respectively) differently from the free drug. These in vivo results confirm that the chemical composition of nanoparticles significantly affects the in vivo fate of a BCS IV drug. Moreover, PLGA nanoparticles appear more efficient and rapid than SLN in allowing drug absorption and transport to systemic circulation.

A mesoporous polydopamine-derived nanomedicine for targeted and synergistic treatment of inflammatory bowel disease by pH-Responsive drug release and ROS scavenging

Repurposing clinically approved drugs to construct novel nanomedicines is currently a very attractive therapeutic approach. Selective enrichment of anti-inflammatory drugs and reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging at the region of inflammation by stimuli-responsive oral nanomedicine is an effective strategy for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). This study reports a novel nanomedicine, which is based on the excellent drug loading and free radical scavenging ability of mesoporous polydopamine nanoparticles (MPDA NPs). By initiating polyacrylic acid（PAA）polymerization on its surface, a "core-shell" structure nano-carrier with pH response is constructed. Then, under alkaline conditions, using the π-π stacking and hydrophobic interaction between the anti-inflammatory drug sulfasalazine (SAP) and MPDA, the nanomedicines (PAA@MPDA-SAP NPs) loaded efficiently (928 μ g mg^-1) of SAP was successfully formed. Our results reveal that PAA@MPDA-SAP NPs can pass through the upper digestive tract smoothly and finally accumulate in the inflamed colon. Through the synergistic effect of anti-inflammation and antioxidation, it can effectively reduce the expression of pro-inflammatory factors and enhance the intestinal mucosal barrier, and finally significantly alleviate the symptoms of colitis in mice. Furthermore, we confirmed that PAA@MPDA-SAP NPs have good biocompatibility and anti-inflammatory repair ability under inflammation induction through human colonic organoids. In summary, this work provides a theoretical basis for the development of nanomedicines for IBD therapy.

Amplifying the efficacy of ALA-based prodrugs for photodynamic therapy using nanotechnology

5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is a clinically approved prodrug involved in intracellular Heme biosynthesis to produce the natural photosensitizer (PS) Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX). ALA based photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been used to treat various malignant and non-malignant diseases. However, natural ALA has disadvantages such as weak lipophilicity, low stability and poor bioavailability, greatly reducing its clinical performance. The emerging nanotechnology is expected to address these limitations and thus improve the therapeutic outcomes. Herein, we summarized important recent advances in the design of ALA-based prodrugs using nanotechnology to improve the efficacy of PDT. The potential limitations and future perspectives of ALA-based nanomedicines are also briefly presented and discussed.