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Wu T, Hou H, Dey A, Bachu M, Chen X, Wisniewski J, Kudoh F, Chen C, Chauhan S, Xiao H, Pan R, Ozato K. Bromodomain protein BRD4 directs mitotic cell division of mouse fibroblasts by inhibiting DNA damage. iScience 2024; 27:109797. [PMID: 38993671 PMCID: PMC11237862 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Bromodomain protein BRD4 binds to acetylated histones to regulate transcription. BRD4 also drives cancer cell proliferation. However, the role of BRD4 in normal cell growth has remained unclear. Here, we investigated this question by using mouse embryonic fibroblasts with conditional Brd4 knockout (KO). We found that Brd4KO cells grow more slowly than wild type cells; they do not complete replication, fail to achieve mitosis, and exhibit extensive DNA damage throughout all cell cycle stages. BRD4 was required for expression of more than 450 cell cycle genes including genes encoding core histones and centromere/kinetochore proteins that are critical for genome replication and chromosomal segregation. Moreover, we show that many genes controlling R-loop formation and DNA damage response (DDR) require BRD4 for expression. Finally, BRD4 constitutively occupied genes controlling R-loop, DDR and cell cycle progression. In summary, BRD4 epigenetically marks above genes and serves as a master regulator of normal cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiyun Wu
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Haitong Hou
- Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Anup Dey
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mahesh Bachu
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Weill Cornell Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, 1300 York Avenue Box 65, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Xiongfong Chen
- CCR-SF Bioinformatics Group, Advanced Biomedical and Computational Sciences, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21701, USA
| | - Jan Wisniewski
- Confocal Microscopy and Digital Imaging Facility, Experimental Immunology Branch, CCR, NCI NIH Bldg 10 Rm 4A05, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Fuki Kudoh
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Chao Chen
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Sakshi Chauhan
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Hua Xiao
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Richard Pan
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Keiko Ozato
- Division of Developmental Biology, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Stiegeler N, Garsed DW, Au-Yeung G, Bowtell DDL, Heinzelmann-Schwarz V, Zwimpfer TA. Homologous recombination proficient subtypes of high-grade serous ovarian cancer: treatment options for a poor prognosis group. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1387281. [PMID: 38894867 PMCID: PMC11183307 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1387281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Approximately 50% of tubo-ovarian high-grade serous carcinomas (HGSCs) have functional homologous recombination-mediated (HR) DNA repair, so-called HR-proficient tumors, which are often associated with primary platinum resistance (relapse within six months after completion of first-line therapy), minimal benefit from poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, and shorter survival. HR-proficient tumors comprise multiple molecular subtypes including cases with CCNE1 amplification, AKT2 amplification or CDK12 alteration, and are often characterized as "cold" tumors with fewer infiltrating lymphocytes and decreased expression of PD-1/PD-L1. Several new treatment approaches aim to manipulate these negative prognostic features and render HR-proficient tumors more susceptible to treatment. Alterations in multiple different molecules and pathways in the DNA damage response are driving new drug development to target HR-proficient cancer cells, such as inhibitors of the CDK or P13K/AKT pathways, as well as ATR inhibitors. Treatment combinations with chemotherapy or PARP inhibitors and agents targeting DNA replication stress have shown promising preclinical and clinical results. New approaches in immunotherapy are also being explored, including vaccines or antibody drug conjugates. Many approaches are still in the early stages of development and further clinical trials will determine their clinical relevance. There is a need to include HR-proficient tumors in ovarian cancer trials and to analyze them in a more targeted manner to provide further evidence for their specific therapy, as this will be crucial in improving the overall prognosis of HGSC and ovarian cancer in general.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dale W. Garsed
- Cancer Research, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - George Au-Yeung
- Cancer Research, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - David D. L. Bowtell
- Cancer Research, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Tibor A. Zwimpfer
- Cancer Research, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Gynecological Oncology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Andrikopoulou A, Bletsa G, Rouvalis A, Tsakogiannis D, Kaparelou M, Papatheodoridi A, Haidopoulos D, Liontos M, Dimopoulos MA, Zagouri F. The Prognostic Role of BRD4 Expression in High-Grade Serous Ovarian Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:1962. [PMID: 38893083 PMCID: PMC11171195 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16111962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2024] [Revised: 05/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) domain proteins that bind to acetylated lysine residues of histones serve as the "readers" of DNA acetylation. BRD4 is the most thoroughly studied member of the BET family and regulates the expression of key oncogenes. BRD4 gene amplification has been identified in ovarian cancer (~18-19%) according to The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) analysis. BET inhibitors are novel small molecules that displace BET proteins from acetylated histones and are currently tested in Phase I/II trials. We here aim to explore the prognostic role of the BRD4 gene and protein expression in the ascitic fluid of patients with advanced FIGO III/IV high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSC). METHODS Ascitic fluid was obtained from 28 patients with advanced stage (FIGO III/IV) HGSC through diagnostic/therapeutic paracentesis or laparoscopy before the initiation of chemotherapy. An amount of ~200 mL of ascitic fluid was collected from each patient and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated. Each sample was evaluated for BRD4 and GAPDH gene expression through RT-qPCR and BRD4 protein levels through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Alexandra University Hospital and the Committee on Ethics and Good Practice (CEGP) of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (NKUA). RESULTS Low BRD4 gene expression was associated with worse prognosis at 12 months compared to intermediate/high expression (95% CI; 1.75-30.49; p = 0.008). The same association was observed at 24 months although this association was not statistically significant (95% CI; 0.96-9.2; p = 0.065). Progression-free survival was shorter in patients with low BRD4 gene expression at 12 months (5.6 months; 95% CI; 2.6-8.6) compared to intermediate/high expression (9.8 months; 95% CI; 8.3-11.3) (95% CI; 1.2-16.5; p = 0.03). The same association was confirmed at 24 months (6.9 months vs. 13.1 months) (95% CI; 1.1-8.6; p = 0.048). There was a trend for worse prognosis in patients with high BRD4 protein levels versus intermediate/low BRD4 protein expression both at 12 months (9.8 months vs. 7.6 months; p = 0.3) and at 24 months (14.2 months vs. 16.6 months; p = 0.56) although not statistically significant. Again, there was a trend for shorter PFS in patients with high BRD4 protein expression although not statistically significant both at 12 months (p = 0.29) and at 24 months (p = 0.47). CONCLUSIONS There are contradictory data in the literature over the prognostic role of BRD4 gene expression in solid tumors. In our study, intermediate/high BRD4 gene expression was associated with a favorable prognosis in terms of overall survival and progression-free survival compared to low BRD4 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angeliki Andrikopoulou
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
| | - Garyfalia Bletsa
- Research Center, Hellenic Anticancer Institute, 10680 Athens, Greece; (G.B.); (D.T.)
| | - Angeliki Rouvalis
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1st Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10509 Athens, Greece; (A.R.); (D.H.)
| | - Dimitris Tsakogiannis
- Research Center, Hellenic Anticancer Institute, 10680 Athens, Greece; (G.B.); (D.T.)
| | - Maria Kaparelou
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
| | - Alkistis Papatheodoridi
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
| | - Dimitrios Haidopoulos
- Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1st Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinic, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 10509 Athens, Greece; (A.R.); (D.H.)
| | - Michalis Liontos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
| | - Meletios-Athanasios Dimopoulos
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
| | - Flora Zagouri
- Department of Clinical Therapeutics, Alexandra Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (M.K.); (A.P.); (M.L.); (M.-A.D.); (F.Z.)
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Hong Z, Xu C, Zheng S, Wang X, Tao Y, Tan Y, Lin G, Wu D, Ye D. Nucleophosmin 1 cooperates with BRD4 to facilitate c-Myc transcription to promote prostate cancer progression. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:392. [PMID: 37875480 PMCID: PMC10597990 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01682-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleophosmin 1 (NPM1) is a multifunctional protein that promotes tumor progression in various cancers and is associated with a poor prognosis of prostate cancer (PCa). However, the mechanism by which NPM1 exerts its malignant potential in PCa remains elusive. Here, we showed that NPM1 is overexpressed in PCa cell lines and tissues and that the dysregulation of NPM1 promotes PCa proliferation. We also demonstrated that NPM1 transcriptionally upregulates c-Myc expression in PCa cells that is diminished by blockade of bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4). Furthermore, we detected a correlation between NPM1 and c-Myc in patient PCa specimens. Mechanistically, NPM1 influences and cooperates with BRD4 to facilitate c-Myc transcription to promote PCa progression. In addition, JQ1, a bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) inhibitor, in combination with NPM1 inhibition suppresses PCa progression in vitro and in vivo. These results indicate that NPM1 promotes PCa progression through a c-Myc -mediated pathway via BRD4, and blockade of the NPM1-c-Myc oncogenic pathway may be a therapeutic strategy for PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Hong
- Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Genitourinary Cancer Institute, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Chengdang Xu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, 200065, Shanghai, China
| | - Shengfeng Zheng
- Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Genitourinary Cancer Institute, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinan Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, 200065, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiran Tao
- Department of Urology, Taizhou Hospital of Zhejiang Province affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, 317000, Taizhou, China
| | - Yao Tan
- Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Guowen Lin
- Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Genitourinary Cancer Institute, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Denglong Wu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, 200065, Shanghai, China.
| | - Dingwei Ye
- Department of Urology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Genitourinary Cancer Institute, 200032, Shanghai, China.
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Drumond-Bock AL, Wang L, Wang L, Cybula M, Rostworowska M, Kinter M, Bieniasz M. Increased expression of BRD4 isoforms long (BRD4-L) and short (BRD4-S) promotes chemotherapy resistance in high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma. Genes Cancer 2023; 14:56-76. [PMID: 37705995 PMCID: PMC10496930 DOI: 10.18632/genesandcancer.233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemoresistance in ovarian carcinoma is a puzzling issue that urges understanding of strategies used by cancer cells to survive DNA damage and to escape cell death. Expanding efforts to understand mechanisms driving chemoresistance and to develop alternative therapies targeting chemoresistant tumors are critical. Amplification of BRD4 is frequently associated with chemoresistant ovarian carcinoma, but little is known about the biological effects of the overexpression of BRD4 isoforms in this malignancy. Here, we described the consequences of BRD4-L and BRD4-S overexpression in ovarian carcinoma shedding a light on a complex regulation of BRD4 isoforms. We demonstrated that the BRD4-L transcript expression is required to generate both isoforms, BRD4-L and BRD4-S. We showed that the BRD4-S mRNA expression positively correlated with BRD4-S protein levels, while BRD4-L isoform showed negative correlation between mRNA and protein levels. Moreover, we demonstrated that an overexpression of BRD4 isoforms is associated with chemoresistance in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luiza Drumond-Bock
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Luyao Wang
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Lin Wang
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | | | - Maria Rostworowska
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Michael Kinter
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Magdalena Bieniasz
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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Zhao L, Chen X, Wu H, He Q, Ding L, Yang B. Strategies to synergize PD-1/PD-L1 targeted cancer immunotherapies to enhance antitumor responses in ovarian cancer. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 215:115724. [PMID: 37524205 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Anti-programmed cell death 1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (anti-PD-1/PD-L1) antibodies have developed rapidly but exhibited modest activity in ovarian cancer (OC), achieving a clinical response rate ranging from 5.9% to 19%. Current evidence indicate that the establishment of an integrated cancer-immunity cycle is a prerequisite for anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies. Any impairment in this cycle, including lack of cancer antigens release, impaired antigen-presenting, decreased T cell priming and activation, less T cells that are trafficked or infiltrated in tumor microenvironment (TME), and low tumor recognition and killings, will lead to decreased infiltrated cytotoxic T cells to tumor bed and treatment failure. Therefore, combinatorial strategies aiming to modify cancer-immunity cycle and reprogram tumor immune microenvironment are of great interest. By far, various strategies have been studied to enhance responsiveness to PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in OC. Platinum-based chemotherapy increases neoantigens release; poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (PARPis) improve the function of antigen-presenting cells and promote the trafficking of T cells into tumors; epigenetic drugs help to complete the immune cycle by affecting multiple steps; immunotherapies like anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) antibodies reactivate T cells, and other treatment strategies like radiotherapy helps to increase the expression of tumor antigens. In this review, we will summarize the preclinical studies by analyzing their contribution in modifying the cancer immunity cycle and remodeling tumor environment, and we will also summarize recent progress in clinical trials and discuss some perspectives to improve these treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhao
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Honghai Wu
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qiaojun He
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ling Ding
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
| | - Bo Yang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.
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7
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Duska LR, Zamarin D, Hamilton E, Oza A, Fleming G, Spira A, Yeku OO, Richardson DL, Walling J, Inokuchi K, Matusow B, Bollag G, Swisher EM. Phase IIa Study of PLX2853 in Gynecologic Cancers With Known ARID1A Mutation and Phase Ib/IIa Study of PLX2853/Carboplatin in Platinum-Resistant Epithelial Ovarian Cancer. JCO Precis Oncol 2023; 7:e2300235. [PMID: 37797273 DOI: 10.1200/po.23.00235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The Bromodomain and Extra-Terminal (BET) domain proteins facilitate the development of many human cancers via epigenetic regulation. BET inhibitors may be effective in reversing platinum resistance in ovarian cancer (OC) and may generate synthetic lethality with ARID1A loss. PLX2853 is an orally active, small-molecule inhibitor of BET bromodomain-mediated interactions that exhibits low nanomolar potency in blocking all four BET family members. METHODS We conducted a multicenter and open-label study with two parallel arms: a phase IIa study of PLX2853 monotherapy in patients with advanced gynecologic malignancies with an ARID1A mutation and a phase Ib/IIa combination study of PLX2853 plus carboplatin in women with platinum-resistant OC. The primary objectives were safety and tolerability for phase Ib and efficacy for both phase IIa portions. Thirty-four of 37 enrolled patients completed at least one post-baseline response assessment. RESULTS Of the 14 evaluable patients on the monotherapy arm, 1 (7.1%) achieved a best overall response of partial response (PR), 5 (35.7%) had stable disease (SD), and 8 (57.1%) had progressive disease (PD). Of the 20 evaluable patients on the combination arm, 1 (5.0%) had PR, 9 (45.0%) had SD, and 10 (50%) had PD. CONCLUSION This study confirmed the safety profile of PLX2853 and demonstrated the feasibility of combination with carboplatin. Although these results did not meet the prespecified response criteria, evidence of clinical activity highlights the rationale for further exploration of BET inhibitors in patients with ARID1A-mutated gynecologic malignancies, possibly in combination with agents targeting potential feedback mechanisms such as the PI3K pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda R Duska
- University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, VA
| | | | | | - Amit Oza
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, Toronto, ON
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Zielli T, Labidi-Galy I, Del Grande M, Sessa C, Colombo I. The clinical challenges of homologous recombination proficiency in ovarian cancer: from intrinsic resistance to new treatment opportunities. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2023; 6:499-516. [PMID: 37842243 PMCID: PMC10571062 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2023.08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic cancer. Optimal cytoreductive surgery followed by platinum-based chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab is the conventional therapeutic strategy. Since 2016, the pharmacological treatment of epithelial ovarian cancer has significantly changed following the introduction of the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi). BRCA1/2 mutations and homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) have been established as predictive biomarkers of the benefit from platinum-based chemotherapy and PARPi. While in the absence of HRD (the so-called homologous recombination proficiency, HRp), patients derive minimal benefit from PARPi, the use of the antiangiogenic agent bevacizumab in first line did not result in different efficacy according to the presence of homologous recombination repair (HRR) genes mutations. No clinical trials have currently compared PARPi and bevacizumab as maintenance therapy in the HRp population. Different strategies are under investigation to overcome primary and acquired resistance to PARPi and to increase the sensitivity of HRp tumors to these agents. These tumors are characterized by frequent amplifications of Cyclin E and MYC, resulting in high replication stress. Different agents targeting DNA replication stress, such as ATR, WEE1 and CHK1 inhibitors, are currently being explored in preclinical models and clinical trials and have shown promising preliminary signs of activity. In this review, we will summarize the available evidence on the activity of PARPi in HRp tumors and the ongoing research to develop new treatment options in this hard-to-treat population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Zielli
- Service of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), EOC, Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Intidhar Labidi-Galy
- Department of Oncology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
- Department of Medicine, Center of Translational Research in Onco-Hematology, Geneva 1205, Switzerland
| | - Maria Del Grande
- Service of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), EOC, Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Cristiana Sessa
- Service of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), EOC, Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
| | - Ilaria Colombo
- Service of Medical Oncology, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland (IOSI), EOC, Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
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Quintela M, James DW, Pociute A, Powell L, Edwards K, Coombes Z, Garcia J, Garton N, Das N, Lutchman-Singh K, Margarit L, Beynon AL, Rioja I, Prinjha RK, Harker NR, Gonzalez D, Conlan RS, Francis LW. Bromodomain inhibitor i-BET858 triggers a unique transcriptional response coupled to enhanced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in high-grade ovarian carcinoma cells. Clin Epigenetics 2023; 15:63. [PMID: 37060086 PMCID: PMC10105475 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-023-01477-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ovarian cancer has a specific unmet clinical need, with a persistently poor 5-year survival rate observed in women with advanced stage disease warranting continued efforts to develop new treatment options. The amplification of BRD4 in a significant subset of high-grade serous ovarian carcinomas (HGSC) has led to the development of BET inhibitors (BETi) as promising antitumour agents that have subsequently been evaluated in phase I/II clinical trials. Here, we describe the molecular effects and ex vivo preclinical activities of i-BET858, a bivalent pan-BET inhibitor with proven in vivo BRD inhibitory activity. RESULTS i-BET858 demonstrates enhanced cytotoxic activity compared with earlier generation BETis both in cell lines and primary cells derived from clinical samples of HGSC. At molecular level, i-BET858 triggered a bipartite transcriptional response, comprised of a 'core' network of genes commonly associated with BET inhibition in solid tumours, together with a unique i-BET858 gene signature. Mechanistically, i-BET858 elicited enhanced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death compared to its predecessor i-BET151. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our ex vivo and in vitro studies indicate that i-BET858 represents an optimal candidate to pursue further clinical validation for the treatment of HGSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Quintela
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - David W James
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Agne Pociute
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Lydia Powell
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Kadie Edwards
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Zoe Coombes
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Jetzabel Garcia
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Neil Garton
- Immunology Research Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Nagindra Das
- Swansea Bay University Health Board, Swansea, SA12 7BR, UK
| | | | - Lavinia Margarit
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
- Cwm Taf Morgannwg University Health Board, Swansea, SA2 8QA, UK
| | | | - Inmaculada Rioja
- Immunology Research Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Rab K Prinjha
- Immunology Research Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Nicola R Harker
- Immunology Research Unit, GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Stevenage, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Deyarina Gonzalez
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - R Steven Conlan
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Lewis W Francis
- Swansea University Medical School, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
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10
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Ovarian Cancer—Insights into Platinum Resistance and Overcoming It. Medicina (B Aires) 2023; 59:medicina59030544. [PMID: 36984544 PMCID: PMC10057458 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59030544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy. Platinum-based chemotherapy is the backbone of treatment for ovarian cancer, and although the majority of patients initially have a platinum-sensitive disease, through multiple recurrences, they will acquire resistance. Platinum-resistant recurrent ovarian cancer has a poor prognosis and few treatment options with limited efficacy. Resistance to platinum compounds is a complex process involving multiple mechanisms pertaining not only to the tumoral cell but also to the tumoral microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanism involved in ovarian cancer cells’ resistance to platinum-based chemotherapy, focusing on the alteration of drug influx and efflux pathways, DNA repair, the dysregulation of epigenetic modulation, and the involvement of the tumoral microenvironment in the acquisition of the platinum-resistant phenotype. Furthermore, we review promising alternative treatment approaches that may improve these patients’ poor prognosis, discussing current strategies, novel combinations, and therapeutic agents.
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11
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Guo J, Zheng Q, Peng Y. BET proteins: Biological functions and therapeutic interventions. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 243:108354. [PMID: 36739915 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) family member proteins (BRD2, BRD3, BRD4 and BRDT) play a pivotal role in interpreting the epigenetic information of histone Kac modification, thus controlling gene expression, remodeling chromatin structures and avoid replicative stress-induced DNA damages. Abnormal activation of BET proteins is tightly correlated to various human diseases, including cancer. Therefore, BET bromodomain inhibitors (BBIs) were considered as promising therapeutics to treat BET-related diseases, raising >70 clinical trials in the past decades. Despite preliminary effects achieved, drug resistance and adverse events represent two major challenges for current BBIs development. In this review, we will introduce the biological functions of BET proteins in both physiological and pathological conditions; and summarize the progress in current BBI drug development. Moreover, we will also discuss the major challenges in the front of BET inhibitor development and provide rational strategies to overcome these obstacles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawei Guo
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qingquan Zheng
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yong Peng
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Frontier Medical Center, Tianfu Jincheng Laboratory, Chengdu, 610212, China.
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12
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Huang Y, Liu C, You L, Li X, Chen G, Fan J. Synergistic effect of PARP inhibitor and BRD4 inhibitor in multiple models of ovarian cancer. J Cell Mol Med 2023; 27:634-649. [PMID: 36753396 PMCID: PMC9983312 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer has the highest facility rate among gynaecological tumours. Current therapies including PARP inhibitors have a defect that ovarian tumour is easy to recurrent and become resistant to therapy. To solve this problem, we found that BRD4 inhibitor AZD5153 and PARP inhibitor olaparib had a widespread synergistic effect in multiple models with different gene backgrounds. AZD5153 sensitizes cells to olaparib and reverses the acquired resistance by down-regulating PTEN expression levels to destabilize hereditary materials. In this study, we used the following multiple ovarian cancer models PDX, PDO and 3D/2D cell lines to elucidate the co-effect of AZD5153 and olaparib in vivo and in vitro. The similar results of these models further proved that the mechanism identified was consistent with the biological process occurring in ovarian cancer patients after drug treatment. This consistency between the results of different models suggests the possibility of translating these laboratory research findings into clinical studies towards developing treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyTongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and GynecologyCancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyShanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Chen Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyTongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and GynecologyCancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyShanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Lixin You
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyTongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and GynecologyCancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Xi Li
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyShanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghaiChina
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyTongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and GynecologyCancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
| | - Junpeng Fan
- Department of Obstetrics and GynecologyTongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina,National Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and GynecologyCancer Biology Research Center (Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education), Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and TechnologyWuhanChina
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13
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Zhu W, Huang M, Thakur A, Yan Y, Wu X. FGF19 promotes cell autophagy and cisplatin chemoresistance by activating MAPK signaling in ovarian cancer. PeerJ 2023; 11:e14827. [PMID: 36751636 PMCID: PMC9899438 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chemotherapy is one of the primary treatments for ovarian cancer patients. Autophagy has been linked to chemotherapy resistance in tumor cells. Recent studies have suggested that fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) may be involved in the onset and progression of malignancies. However, the relationship between FGF19 and autophagy in ovarian cancer is still unknown. Methods Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was conducted to analyze gene mutation profiles of 62 cases of high grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC). Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was performed to validate the amplification of FGF19 in HGSOC tissues. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were used to analyze the difference of FGF19 in mRNA and protein expression. Meanwhile, bioinformatics techniques were used to analyze the expression profiles of FGF19 and the correlation with prognosis. Besides, immunofluorescence, transmission electron microscopy and Cell Counting Kit 8 (CCK-8) were used to investigate the potential mechanisms. Results In this study, we found that FGF19 promotes cisplatin resistance in ovarian cancer cells by inducing autophagy. NGS analysis of 62 HGSOC cases identified a significantly amplified gene, FGF19. In addition, the expression level of FGF19 in ovarian cancer samples was higher than that in normal samples. FISH results showed a positive correlation between amplification and expression of FGF19. Knockdown of FGF19 inhibited the cell autophagy through decrease in the expression of LC3 and Beclin 1, and increase in the expression of SQSTM1/p62. Furthermore, we observed that p38 MAPK phosphorylation was down-regulated after FGF19 knockdown. IFN-γ, a potential p38 MAPK activator, counteracted the inhibition of cell autophagy and the anti-proliferation effect of cisplatin induced by FGF19 knockdown in ovarian cancer cells. Conclusion FGF19 increases autophagy and chemoresistance in ovarian cancer by activating the p38 MAPK pathway. These results could point to FGF19 being a potential therapeutic target for ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China,Department of Pathology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Meiyuan Huang
- Department of Pathology, Zhuzhou Hospital Affiliated to Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Zhuzhou, China
| | - Abhimanyu Thakur
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, Ben May Department for Cancer Research, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Yuanliang Yan
- Department of Pharmacy, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaoying Wu
- Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China,Department of Pathology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, China,National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
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14
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Design, synthesis and anti-ovarian cancer activities of thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine based chimeric BRD4 inhibitor/nitric oxide-donator. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 246:114970. [PMID: 36470106 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Bromodomain protein 4 (BRD4) is an attractive epigenetic target that regulating diverse cellular processes, and the discovery of dual-target inhibitors including BRD4 is an effective approach in cancer treatment to increase potency and reduce drug resistance. Based on the multifunctional drug development strategy, a series of new derivatives of nitrooxy (ONO2) or furoxan (1,2,5-oxadiazole 2-oxide) with BRD4 inhibitor capable of inhibiting BRD4 and simultaneously releasing NO were designed and synthesized. When NO concentrations were measured with Griess reagent under physiological conditions, all compounds released NO at micromolar levels, reaching effective antitumor concentrations. Biological studies showed that the most potent BRD4/NO hybrid 11a exhibited good BRD4 inhibitory activity and selectivity. Further mechanistic studies revealed that 11a significantly decreased the expression of BRD4 and c-Myc, as well as induced cellular apoptosis and autophagic cell death both in vitro and in vivo. In summary, we optimized the chimeric BRD4-inhibitor/NO-donor based on our previous studies, and it should be a lead compound for targeted therapy of OC (ovarian cancer) in the future. This interesting strategy could expand the usage of BRDi in human malignancies and endogenous gastro-transmitters.
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15
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Shen H, Hu X, Yang X, Chen J, Fu Y, He H, Shi Y, Zeng R, Chang W, Zheng S. Inhibition of BRD4 enhanced the tumor suppression effect of dasatinib in gastric cancer. Med Oncol 2023; 40:9. [PMID: 36352160 PMCID: PMC9646567 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-022-01831-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BRD4, a member of the bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) family, is elevated in multiple cancer tissues, including gastric cancer (GC). Targeted therapy with BRD4 may help improve the overall survival of patients with GC. Meanwhile, the approved multi-target kinase inhibitor, dasatinib, was recently reported to show varied tumor-suppressive effects in GC cells. This study investigated BRD4 expression in vivo and in vitro using immunohistochemistry and western blotting, respectively. We discussed the relationship between BRD4 expression and patient prognosis. Next, the antitumor efficacy of dasatinib was measured in BRD4-knockdown GC cells to determine the role of BRD4 blockage in dasatinib treatment. Finally, molibresib, a BET inhibitor, was used to measure the cooperative function of BRD4 inhibition and dasatinib treatment in three GC cell lines. Epithelial BRD4 expression was higher in tumoral and metastatic tissues and was strongly associated with unfavorable tumor, node, and metastasis stages and survival. BRD4 expression was heterogeneous in the three GC cell lines tested in vitro. In SGC7901, a BRD4-high GC cell line, knockdown of BRD4 using specific siRNAs suppressed cell growth individually and cooperatively with dasatinib. Moreover, molibresib and dasatinib showed a cooperative effect in suppressing the proliferation of BRD4-high GC cells. In conclusion, we confirmed that increased epithelial BRD4 expression is associated with poor disease stage and prognosis in GC and BRD4 blockage might be a valuable strategy to improve the sensitivity of dasatinib and other drugs in the chemotherapy of advanced GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Shen
- Department of Navy Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Navy Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuefei Hu
- Department of Navy Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Navy Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinrui Yang
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiahui Chen
- Department of Navy Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Navy Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yating Fu
- Department of Navy Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Navy Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei He
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongkang Shi
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China
| | - Rong Zeng
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First People's Hospital of Yunnan Province, The Affiliated Hospital of Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Wenjun Chang
- Department of Navy Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Navy Military Medical University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shangyong Zheng
- School of Medicine, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, People's Republic of China.
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16
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Eischer N, Arnold M, Mayer A. Emerging roles of BET proteins in transcription and co-transcriptional RNA processing. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. RNA 2023; 14:e1734. [PMID: 35491403 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Transcription by RNA polymerase II (Pol II) gives rise to all nuclear protein-coding and a large set of non-coding RNAs, and is strictly regulated and coordinated with RNA processing. Bromodomain and extraterminal (BET) family proteins including BRD2, BRD3, and BRD4 have been implicated in the regulation of Pol II transcription in mammalian cells. However, only recent technological advances have allowed the analysis of direct functions of individual BET proteins with high precision in cells. These studies shed new light on the molecular mechanisms of transcription control by BET proteins challenging previous longstanding views. The most studied BET protein, BRD4, emerges as a master regulator of transcription elongation with roles also in coupling nascent transcription with RNA processing. In contrast, BRD2 is globally required for the formation of transcriptional boundaries to restrict enhancer activity to nearby genes. Although these recent findings suggest non-redundant functions of BRD4 and BRD2 in Pol II transcription, more research is needed for further clarification. Little is known about the roles of BRD3. Here, we illuminate experimental work that has initially linked BET proteins to Pol II transcription in mammalian cells, outline main methodological breakthroughs that have strongly advanced the understanding of BET protein functions, and discuss emerging roles of individual BET proteins in transcription and transcription-coupled RNA processing. Finally, we propose an updated model for the function of BRD4 in transcription and co-transcriptional RNA maturation. This article is categorized under: RNA Processing > 3' End Processing RNA Processing > Splicing Regulation/Alternative Splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Eischer
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mirjam Arnold
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Mayer
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
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17
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Abstract
Transcription elongation by RNA polymerase II (Pol II) has emerged as a regulatory hub in gene expression. A key control point occurs during early transcription elongation when Pol II pauses in the promoter-proximal region at the majority of genes in mammalian cells and at a large set of genes in Drosophila. An increasing number of trans-acting factors have been linked to promoter-proximal pausing. Some factors help to establish the pause, whereas others are required for the release of Pol II into productive elongation. A dysfunction of this elongation control point leads to aberrant gene expression and can contribute to disease development. The BET bromodomain protein BRD4 has been implicated in elongation control. However, only recently direct BRD4-specific functions in Pol II transcription elongation have been uncovered. This mainly became possible with technological advances that allow selective and rapid ablation of BRD4 in cells along with the availability of approaches that capture the immediate consequences on nascent transcription. This review sheds light on the experimental breakthroughs that led to the emerging view of BRD4 as a general regulator of transcription elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Altendorfer
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yelizaveta Mochalova
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Mayer
- Otto-Warburg-Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics, Berlin, Germany
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Veenstra JP, Bittencourt LFF, Aird KM. The senescence-associated secretory phenotype in ovarian cancer dissemination. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C125-C132. [PMID: 35584328 PMCID: PMC9273281 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00049.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Ovarian cancer is a highly aggressive disease with poor survival rates in part due to diagnosis after dissemination throughout the peritoneal cavity. It is well-known that inflammatory signals affect ovarian cancer dissemination. Inflammation is a hallmark of cellular senescence, a stable cell cycle arrest induced by a variety of stimuli including many of the therapies used to treat patients with ovarian cancer. Indeed, recent work has illustrated that ovarian cancer cells in vitro, mouse models, and patient tumors undergo senescence in response to platinum-based or poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor therapies, standard-of-care therapies for ovarian cancer. This inflammatory response, termed the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), is highly dynamic and has pleiotropic roles that can be both beneficial and detrimental in cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic ways. Recent data on other cancer types suggest that the SASP promotes metastasis. Here, we outline what is known about the SASP in ovarian cancer and discuss both how the SASP may promote ovarian cancer dissemination and strategies to mitigate the effects of the SASP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob P. Veenstra
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Lucas Felipe Fernandes Bittencourt
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Katherine M. Aird
- Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology and UPMC Hillman Cancer Center, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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19
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Zhao L, Guo H, Chen X, Zhang W, He Q, Ding L, Yang B. Tackling drug resistance in ovarian cancer with epigenetic targeted drugs. Eur J Pharmacol 2022; 927:175071. [PMID: 35636522 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.175071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetic dysregulation plays a crucial role in the development and progression of ovarian cancer. Since the first experiment conducted on resistant ovarian cancer cells using demethylating drugs, multiple clinical trials have revealed that epigenetic targeted drugs combined with chemotherapy, molecular-targeted drugs, or even immunotherapy could enhance tumor sensitivity and reverse acquired resistances. Here, we summarized the combination strategies of epigenetic targeted drugs with other treatment strategies of ovarian cancer and discussed the principles of combination therapy. Finally, we enumerated several reasonable clinical trial designs as well as future drug development strategies, which may provide promising ideas for the application of epigenetic drugs to ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhao
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Hongjie Guo
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Wenxin Zhang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Qiaojun He
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ling Ding
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
| | - Bo Yang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
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20
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Dai Q, Ye Y. Development and Validation of a Novel Histone Acetylation-Related Gene Signature for Predicting the Prognosis of Ovarian Cancer. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:793425. [PMID: 35252174 PMCID: PMC8894724 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.793425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone acetylation is one of the most common epigenetic modifications, which plays an important role in tumorigenesis. However, the prognostic role of histone acetylation-regulators in ovarian cancer (OC) remains little known. We compared the expression levels of 40 histone acetylation-related genes between 379 OC samples and 88 normal ovarian tissues and identified 37 differently expressed genes (DEGs). We further explored the prognostic roles of these DEGs, and 8 genes were found to be correlated with overall survival (p < 0.1). In the training stage, an 8 gene‐based signature was conducted by the least absolute shrinkage and selector operator (LASSO) Cox regression. Patients in the training cohort were divided into two risk subgroups according to the risk score calculated by the 8-gene signature, and a notable difference of OS was found between the two subgroups (p < 0.001). The 8-gene risk model was then verified to have a well predictive role on OS in the external validation cohort. Combined with the clinical characteristics, the risk score was proved to be an independent risk factor for OS. In conclusion, the histone acetylation-based gene signature has a well predictive effect on the prognosis of OC and can potentially be applied for clinical treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinjin Dai
- Guangzhou Women and Children’s Medical Center, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying Ye
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- *Correspondence: Ying Ye,
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21
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Zhang Y, Zhou M, Li K. MicroRNA-30 inhibits the growth of human ovarian cancer cells by suppressing RAB32 expression. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2022; 36:20587384211058642. [PMID: 34986662 PMCID: PMC8744078 DOI: 10.1177/20587384211058642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction MicroRNAs (miRs) exhibit the potential to act as therapeutic targets for the management of human cancers including ovarian cancer. The role of microRNA-30 (miR-30) via modulation of RAB32 expression has not been studied in ovarian cancer. Consistently, the present study was designed to characterize the molecular role of miR-30/RAB32 axis in human ovarian cancer. Methods Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. Expression analysis was carried out by qRT-PCR. Dual luciferase assay was used to confirm the interaction between miR-30 and RAB32. Scratch-heal and transwell chamber assays were used to monitor the cell migration and invasion. Western blotting and immunofluorescence assays were used to determine the protein expression. Results The results revealed significant (p < 0.05) downregulation of miR-30 in human ovarian cancer cell lines. Overexpression of miR-30 in ovarian SK-OV-3 and A2780 cancer cells significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited their proliferation. Besides, ovarian cancer cells overexpressing miR-30 showed significantly (p < 0.05) lower migration and invasion. The miR-30 upregulation also altered the expression pattern of marker proteins of epithelial–mesenchymal transition in ovarian cancer cells. In silico analysis predicted RAB32 as the molecular target of miR-30 at post-transcriptional level. The silencing of RAB32 mimicked the tumor-suppressive effects of miR-30 overexpression in ovarian cancer cells. Nonetheless, overexpression of RAB32 could prevent the tumor-suppressive effects of miR-30 on SK-OV-3 and A2780 cancer cells. Conclusion Taken together, the results suggest the tumor-suppressive role of miR-30 and point towards the therapeutic utility of miR-30/RAB32 molecular axis in the management of ovarian cancer
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhang
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University (Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Jinan , China
| | - Min Zhou
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Jinan Seventh People's Hospital, Jinan, China
| | - Kun Li
- Department of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University (Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences), Jinan , China
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22
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Drumond-Bock AL, Bieniasz M. The role of distinct BRD4 isoforms and their contribution to high-grade serous ovarian carcinoma pathogenesis. Mol Cancer 2021; 20:145. [PMID: 34758842 PMCID: PMC8579545 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-021-01424-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
High-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (HGSOC) is the most aggressive type of ovarian cancer, often diagnosed at advanced stages. Molecularly, HGSOC shows high degree of genomic instability associated with large number of genetic alterations. BRD4 is the 4th most amplified gene in HGSOC, which correlates with poor patients' prognosis. BRD4 is constitutively expressed and generates two proteins, BRD4 long (BRD4-L) and BRD4 short (BRD4-S). Both isoforms contain bromodomains that bind to lysine-acetylated histones. Amongst other functions, BRD4 participates in chromatin organization, acetylation of histones, transcriptional control and DNA damage repair. In cancer patients with amplified BRD4, the increased activity of BRD4 is associated with higher expression of oncogenes, such as MYC, NOTCH3 and NRG1. BRD4-driven oncogenes promote increased tumor cells proliferation, genetic instability, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis and chemoresistance. Ablation of BRD4 activity can be successfully achieved with bromodomain inhibitors (BETi) and degraders, and it has been applied in pre-clinical and clinical settings. Inhibition of BRD4 function has an effective anti-cancer effect, reducing tumor growth whether ablated by single agents or in combination with other drugs. When combined with standard chemotherapy, BETi are capable of sensitizing highly resistant ovarian cancer cell lines to platinum drugs. Despite the evidence that BRD4 amplification in ovarian cancer contributes to poor patient prognosis, little is known about the specific mechanisms by which BRD4 drives tumor progression. In addition, newly emerging data revealed that BRD4 isoforms exhibit contradicting functions in cancer. Therefore, it is paramount to expand studies elucidating distinct roles of BRD4-L and BRD4-S in HGSOC, which has important implications on development of therapeutic approaches targeting BRD4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luiza Drumond-Bock
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.
| | - Magdalena Bieniasz
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA
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Zhang Z, Zhang Q, Xie J, Zhong Z, Deng C. Enzyme-responsive micellar JQ1 induces enhanced BET protein inhibition and immunotherapy of malignant tumors. Biomater Sci 2021; 9:6915-6926. [PMID: 34524279 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm00724f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bromodomain and extra-terminal (BET) proteins are attractive targets for treating various malignancies including melanoma. The inhibition of BET bromodomains, e.g. with JQ1, is found to downregulate the expression of both c-MYC oncoprotein and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1), which play a crucial role in tumor growth and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, respectively. The BET bromodomain inhibitors like JQ1 though exhibiting high selectivity and affinity show usually low bioavailability and efficacy in vivo due to fast clearance and inferior uptake by tumor cells. The therapeutic effect of JQ1 might further be lowered by drug resistance. Here, enzyme-responsive micellar JQ1 (mJQ1) was fabricated from a poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(L-tyrosine) copolypeptide to enhance JQ1 delivery and the immunotherapy of malignant melanoma. The in vitro results showed that mJQ1 induced clearly better repression of c-MYC and PD-L1 proteins, cell cycle arrest, cell inhibition, and apoptotic activity than free JQ1 in B16F10 cancer cells. The intratumoral administration of mJQ1 at 2.5 mg of JQ1 equiv. per kg was found to show better inhibition of B16F10 tumors in C57BL/6 mice than the intraperitoneal administration of free JQ1 at 50 mg kg-1. In particular, when combined with radiotherapy, mJQ1 effectively suppressed tumor growth and brought about strong local and systemic antitumor immunity as evidenced by elevated CD8+ T cells and increased ratios of CD8+ T cells to Tregs, affording significantly improved survival of B16F10 tumor-bearing mice than their JQ1 counterparts and marked growth suppression of distant tumors. The great potency of enzyme-responsive micellar JQ1 makes it interesting for immunotherapy of various tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenqi Zhang
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, and State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Qiang Zhang
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, and State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Jiguo Xie
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, and State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Zhiyuan Zhong
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, and State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Chao Deng
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, and State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
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Boyson SP, Gao C, Quinn K, Boyd J, Paculova H, Frietze S, Glass KC. Functional Roles of Bromodomain Proteins in Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3606. [PMID: 34298819 PMCID: PMC8303718 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone acetylation is generally associated with an open chromatin configuration that facilitates many cellular processes including gene transcription, DNA repair, and DNA replication. Aberrant levels of histone lysine acetylation are associated with the development of cancer. Bromodomains represent a family of structurally well-characterized effector domains that recognize acetylated lysines in chromatin. As part of their fundamental reader activity, bromodomain-containing proteins play versatile roles in epigenetic regulation, and additional functional modules are often present in the same protein, or through the assembly of larger enzymatic complexes. Dysregulated gene expression, chromosomal translocations, and/or mutations in bromodomain-containing proteins have been correlated with poor patient outcomes in cancer. Thus, bromodomains have emerged as a highly tractable class of epigenetic targets due to their well-defined structural domains, and the increasing ease of designing or screening for molecules that modulate the reading process. Recent developments in pharmacological agents that target specific bromodomains has helped to understand the diverse mechanisms that bromodomains play with their interaction partners in a variety of chromatin processes, and provide the promise of applying bromodomain inhibitors into the clinical field of cancer treatment. In this review, we explore the expression and protein interactome profiles of bromodomain-containing proteins and discuss them in terms of functional groups. Furthermore, we highlight our current understanding of the roles of bromodomain-containing proteins in cancer, as well as emerging strategies to specifically target bromodomains, including combination therapies using bromodomain inhibitors alongside traditional therapeutic approaches designed to re-program tumorigenesis and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel P. Boyson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Colchester, VT 05446, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA;
| | - Cong Gao
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA; (C.G.); (J.B.); (H.P.)
| | - Kathleen Quinn
- Department of Pharmacology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA;
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA; (C.G.); (J.B.); (H.P.)
| | - Joseph Boyd
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA; (C.G.); (J.B.); (H.P.)
| | - Hana Paculova
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA; (C.G.); (J.B.); (H.P.)
| | - Seth Frietze
- Department of Biomedical and Health Sciences, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA; (C.G.); (J.B.); (H.P.)
- University of Vermont Cancer Center, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | - Karen C. Glass
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Colchester, VT 05446, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA;
- University of Vermont Cancer Center, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Liu C, Barger CJ, Karpf AR. FOXM1: A Multifunctional Oncoprotein and Emerging Therapeutic Target in Ovarian Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3065. [PMID: 34205406 PMCID: PMC8235333 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13123065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Forkhead box M1 (FOXM1) is a member of the conserved forkhead box (FOX) transcription factor family. Over the last two decades, FOXM1 has emerged as a multifunctional oncoprotein and a robust biomarker of poor prognosis in many human malignancies. In this review article, we address the current knowledge regarding the mechanisms of regulation and oncogenic functions of FOXM1, particularly in the context of ovarian cancer. FOXM1 and its associated oncogenic transcriptional signature are enriched in >85% of ovarian cancer cases and FOXM1 expression and activity can be enhanced by a plethora of genomic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional, and post-translational mechanisms. As a master transcriptional regulator, FOXM1 promotes critical oncogenic phenotypes in ovarian cancer, including: (1) cell proliferation, (2) invasion and metastasis, (3) chemotherapy resistance, (4) cancer stem cell (CSC) properties, (5) genomic instability, and (6) altered cellular metabolism. We additionally discuss the evidence for FOXM1 as a cancer biomarker, describe the rationale for FOXM1 as a cancer therapeutic target, and provide an overview of therapeutic strategies used to target FOXM1 for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Adam R. Karpf
- Eppley Institute and Fred & Pamela Buffett Cancer Center, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE 68918-6805, USA; (C.L.); (C.J.B.)
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