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Vigh-Larsen JF, Junge N, Cialdella-Kam L, Tomás R, Young L, Krustrup P, Mohr M, Nybo L. Testing in Intermittent Sports-Importance for Training and Performance Optimization in Adult Athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:1505-1537. [PMID: 39004796 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Performance in intermittent sports relies on the interplay between multiple physiological systems determining the capacity to perform short explosive efforts as well as repeated intense actions with limited recovery over the course of an entire game. Testing should reflect these demands to allow for sport- and position-specific capacity analyses that eventually may translate into optimized training and improved performance. This may include individual load management and optimized training prescription, intensity targeting for specific positions or individual athletes, as well as benchmarking for monitoring of training progression and enhanced engagement of athletes. This review provides an overview of available tests in different exercise domains identified as relevant (from assessment of single explosive actions to intermittent endurance capacity), forming the basis for recommendations on how to compose a comprehensive yet feasible test battery that may be integrated into the seasonal competition and training plan. The test procedures should cover the performance spectrum of relevance for the individual athlete-also in team sports to account for positional differences. We emphasize the benefits of sport-specific tests, highlight parameters of importance for test standardization, and discuss how the applied test battery may be supplemented with secondary tests directed toward specific energy systems to allow for more in-depth analyses when required (e.g., in terms of an underperforming athlete). The synergy between testing and tracking of match performance (utilizing time-motion or global positioning systems) is highlighted, and although tracking cannot substitute for testing, combining the tools may provide a comprehensive overview of the physiological demands and performance during competition contextualized to the athletes' maximal exercise capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicklas Junge
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Lynn Cialdella-Kam
- Warfighter Performance Department, Naval Health Research Center, San Diego, CA
| | - Rita Tomás
- Portugal Football School, Federação Portuguesa de Futebol Avenida das Seleções, Oeiras, PORTUGAL
| | - Laura Young
- American College of Sports Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | | | | | - Lars Nybo
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DENMARK
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Voet JG, Lamberts RP, Viribay A, de Koning JJ, van Erp T. Durability and Underlying Physiological Factors: How Do They Change Throughout a Cycling Season in Semiprofessional Cyclists? Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:809-819. [PMID: 38871342 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate how cycling time-trial (TT) performance changes over a cycling season, both in a "fresh" state and in a "fatigued" state (durability). Additionally, the aim was to explore whether these changes are related to changes in underlying physiological factors such as gross efficiency, energy expenditure (EE), and substrate oxidation (fat oxidation [FatOx] and carbohydrate oxidation [CarbOx]). METHODS Sixteen male semiprofessional cyclists visited the laboratory on 3 occasions during a cycling season (PRE, START, and IN) and underwent a performance test in both fresh and fatigued states (after 38.1 [4.9] kJ/kg), containing a submaximal warm-up for the measurement of gross efficiency, EE, FatOx, and CarbOx and a maximal TT of 1 (TT1min) and 10 minutes (TT10min). Results were compared across states (fresh vs fatigued) and periods (PRE, START, and IN). RESULTS The average power output (PO) in TT1min decreased (P < .05) from fresh to fatigued state across all observed periods, whereas there was no change in the PO in TT10min. Over the course of the season, the PO in TT1min in the fatigued state improved more compared with the PO in TT1min in the fresh state. Furthermore, while EE did not significantly change, there was an increase in FatOx and a decrease in CarbOx toward the fatigued state. These changes diminished during the cycling season (IN), indicating a greater contribution of CarbOx in the fatigued state. CONCLUSIONS TT1min performance is more sensitive to fatigue compared with TT10min. Also, during a cycling season, durability improves more when compared with fresh maximal POs, which is also observed in the changes in substrate oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens G Voet
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Robert P Lamberts
- Division of Movement Science and Exercise Therapy (MSET), Department of Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Aitor Viribay
- Physiology, Nutrition and Sport, Glut4Science, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of Leon, Leon, Spain
| | - Jos J de Koning
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Teun van Erp
- Division of Movement Science and Exercise Therapy (MSET), Department of Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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Hamilton K, Kilding AE, Plews DJ, Mildenhall MJ, Waldron M, Charoensap T, Cox TH, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Maunder E. Durability of the moderate-to-heavy-intensity transition is related to the effects of prolonged exercise on severe-intensity performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:2427-2438. [PMID: 38546844 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05459-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Power output at the moderate-to-heavy-intensity transition decreases during prolonged exercise, and resilience to this has been termed 'durability'. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between durability and the effect of prolonged exercise on severe-intensity performance, and explore intramuscular correlates of durability. METHODS On separate days, 13 well-trained cyclists and triathletes (V̇O2peak, 57.3 ± 4.8 mL kg-1 min-1; training volume, 12 ± 2.1 h week-1) undertook an incremental test and 5-min time trial (TT) to determine power output at the first ventilatory threshold (VT1) and severe-intensity performance, with and without 150-min of prior moderate-intensity cycling. A single resting vastus lateralis microbiopsy was obtained. RESULTS Prolonged exercise reduced power output at VT1 (211 ± 40 vs. 198 ± 39 W, ∆ -13 ± 16 W, ∆ -6 ± 7%, P = 0.013) and 5-min TT performance (333 ± 75 vs. 302 ± 63 W, ∆ -31 ± 41 W, ∆ -9 ± 10%, P = 0.017). The reduction in 5-min TT performance was significantly associated with durability of VT1 (rs = 0.719, P = 0.007). Durability of VT1 was not related to vastus lateralis carnosine content, citrate synthase activity, or complex I activity (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION These data provide the first direct support that durability of the moderate-to-heavy-intensity transition is an important performance parameter, as more durable athletes exhibited smaller reductions in 5-min TT performance following prolonged exercise. We did not find relationships between durability and vastus lateralis carnosine content, citrate synthase activity, or complex I activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Hamilton
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Mark Waldron
- A-STEM Centre, College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
- School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
| | - Thanchanok Charoensap
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tobias H Cox
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Gallo G, Faelli EL, Ruggeri P, Filipas L, Codella R, Plews DJ, Maunder E. Power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition decreases in a non-linear fashion during prolonged exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:2353-2364. [PMID: 38483635 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05440-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aims of this study were to: (i) describe the time course of the decrease in power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise; (ii) investigate the association between durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition and exercise capacity; and (iii) explore physiological correlates of durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. METHODS Twelve trained cyclists (age: 40 ± 8 y, V ˙ O2peak: 52.3 ± 5.2 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed an exhaustive cycling protocol involving alternating incremental exercise tests to determine power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition via the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), and 30-min bouts at 90% of the power output at the previously estimated VT1 in the rested state. The individual time course of VT1 was modelled using linear and second-order polynomial functions, and time to a 5% decrease in VT1 (Δ5%VT1) was estimated using the best-fitting model. RESULTS Power output at VT1 decreased according to a second-order polynomial function in 11 of 12 participants. Time-to-task failure (234 ± 66 min) was correlated with Δ5%VT1 (139 ± 78 min, rs = 0.676, p = 0.016), and these were strongly correlated with absolute and relative rates of fat oxidation at specific exercise intensities measured during the incremental test performed in the rested state. CONCLUSIONS These data: (i) identify a non-linear time course of decreases in the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise; (ii) support the importance of durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition in prolonged exercise capacity; and (iii) suggest durability of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition is related to fat oxidation rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Gallo
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Neuroscience, RehabilitationGenoa, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV, 16100, Genoa, Italy
| | | | - Piero Ruggeri
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Luca Filipas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Roberto Codella
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Department of Endocrinology, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS MultiMedica, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Kjøsen Talsnes R, Torvik PØ, Skovereng K, Sandbakk Ø. Comparison of acute physiological responses between one long and two short sessions of moderate-intensity training in endurance athletes. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1428536. [PMID: 39139482 PMCID: PMC11319183 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1428536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose To compare acute physiological responses and perceived training stress between one long and two short time- and intensity-matched sessions of moderate-intensity training in endurance athletes. Methods Fourteen male endurance athletes (VO2max: 69.2 ± 4.2 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed one 6 × 10-min interval session (SINGLE) and two 3 × 10-min interval sessions interspersed with 6.5 h recovery (DOUBLE) of moderate-intensity training on two separate days, while running in the laboratory, using a counterbalanced cross-over trial. The two training days were separated into a first part/session (interval stage 1-3) and second part/session (interval stage 4-6). Respiratory variables, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentrations (BLa), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were collected during sessions, whereas supine heart rate (HR) was assessed in a 60-min recovery period following sessions. Measures of perceived training stress (1-10) were assessed in the morning of the subsequent day. Results HR, Bla, and RPE increased in the second compared to first part of SINGLE (168 ± 7 vs. 173 ± 7 bpm, 2.60 ± 0.75 vs. 3.01 ± 0.81 mmol·L-1, and 13.4 ± 1.0 vs. 14.8 ± 1.1-point, respectively, all p < 0.05). HR and Bla decreased in the second compared to first session of DOUBLE (171 ± 9 vs. 166 ± 9 bpm and 2.72 ± 0.96 vs. 2.14 ± 0.65 mmol·L-1, respectively, both p < 0.05). SINGLE revealed higher supine HR in the recovery period following sessions (65.4 ± 2.5 vs. 60.7 ± 2.5 bpm p < 0.05), session RPE (sRPE, 7.0 ± 1.0 vs. 6.0 ± 1.3-point, p = .001) and sRPE training load (929 ± 112 vs. 743 ± 98, p < 0.001) compared to DOUBLE. In the subsequent morning, increased levels of perceived fatigue and muscle soreness were observed following SINGLE compared to DOUBLE (7.0 ± 2.5 vs. 8.0 ± 1.0-point, p = .049 and 6.0 ± 2.5 vs. 7.0 ± 2.5-point, p = .002, respectively). Conclusion One long moderate-intensity training session was associated with a duration-dependent "drift" in physiological responses compared to two short time- and intensity-matched sessions, thereby suggesting a higher overall training stimulus. Simultaneously, the lower cost of the two shorter sessions indicates that such organization could allow more accumulated time at this intensity. Overall, these findings serve as a starting point to better understand the pros and cons of organizing moderate-intensity training as one long versus shorter sessions performed more frequently (e.g., as "double threshold training") in endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per-Øyvind Torvik
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Barranco-Gil D, Alejo LB, Revuelta C, de Paz S, Ibañez M, Lucia A, Valenzuela PL. Intensity Matters: Effect of Different Work-Matched Efforts on Subsequent Performance in Cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024:1-6. [PMID: 39069285 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the effect of 2 work-matched efforts of different intensities on subsequent performance in well-trained cyclists. METHODS The present study followed a randomized controlled crossover design. Twelve competitive junior cyclists volunteered to participate (age, 17 [1] y; maximum oxygen uptake, 71.0 [4.7] mL·kg-1·min-1). The power-duration relationship was assessed through 2-minute, 5-minute, and 12-minute field tests under fresh conditions (control). On subsequent days and following a randomized order, participants repeated the aforementioned tests after 2 training sessions matched for mechanical work (∼15 kJ/kg) of different intensities (ie, a moderate-intensity continuous-training [60%-70% of critical power; CP] session or a session including high-intensity intervals [3-min repetition bouts at 110%-120% of the CP interspersed by 3-min rest periods]). RESULTS A significantly lower power output was found in the 2-minute test after the high-intensity training session compared not only with the control condition (-8%, P < .001) but also with the moderate-intensity continuous-training session (-7%, P = .003), with no significant differences between the latter conditions. No significant differences between conditions were found for the remaining tests. As a consequence, the high-intensity training session resulted in significantly lower W' values compared to both the control condition (-27%, P = .001) and the moderate-intensity continuous-training session (-26%, P = .012), with no differences between the 2 latter conditions and with no differences for CP. CONCLUSION A session including high-intensity intermittent efforts induces a greater fatigue, particularly in short-duration efforts and W', than a work-matched continuous-training session of moderate intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lidia B Alejo
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Revuelta
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sabbas de Paz
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ibañez
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Alimco-Campagnolo U19 Team, Vitoria, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro L Valenzuela
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Systems Biology, University of Alcala, Madrid, Spain
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Llanos-Lagos C, Ramirez-Campillo R, Moran J, Sáez de Villarreal E. The Effect of Strength Training Methods on Middle-Distance and Long-Distance Runners' Athletic Performance: A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2024; 54:1801-1833. [PMID: 38627351 PMCID: PMC11258194 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02018-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The running performance of middle-distance and long-distance runners is determined by factors such as maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), velocity at VO2max (vVO2max), maximum metabolic steady state (MMSS), running economy, and sprint capacity. Strength training is a proven strategy for improving running performance in endurance runners. However, the effects of different strength training methods on the determinants of running performance are unclear. OBJECTIVE The aim of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to compare the effect of different strength training methods (e.g., high load, submaximal load, plyometric, combined) on performance (i.e., time trial and time until exhaustion) and its determinants (i.e., VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, sprint capacity) in middle-distance and long-distance runners. METHODS A systematic search was conducted across electronic databases (Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS). The search included articles indexed up to November 2022, using various keywords combined with Boolean operators. The eligibility criteria were: (1) middle- and long-distance runners, without restriction on sex or training/competitive level; (2) application of a strength training method for ≥ 3 weeks, including high load training (≥ 80% of one repetition maximum), submaximal load training (40-79% of one repetition maximum), plyometric training, and combined training (i.e., two or more methods); (3) endurance running training control group under no strength training or under strength training with low loads (< 40% of one repetition maximum); (4) running performance, VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS and/or sprint capacity measured before and after a strength training intervention program; (5) randomized and non-randomized controlled studies. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) approach. A random-effects meta-analysis and moderator analysis were performed using Comprehensive meta-analysis (version 3.3.0.70). RESULTS The certainty of the evidence was very low to moderate. The studies included 324 moderately trained, 272 well trained, and 298 highly trained athletes. The strength training programs were between 6 and 40 weeks duration, with one to four intervention sessions per week. High load and combined training methods induced moderate (effect size = - 0.469, p = 0.029) and large effect (effect size = - 1.035, p = 0.036) on running performance, respectively. While plyometric training was not found to have a significant effect (effect size = - 0.210, p = 0.064). None of the training methods improved VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, or sprint capacity (all p > 0.072). Moderators related to subject (i.e., sex, age, body mass, height, VO2max, performance level, and strength training experience) and intervention (i.e., weeks, sessions per week and total sessions) characteristics had no effect on running performance variables or its determinants (all p > 0.166). CONCLUSIONS Strength training with high loads can improve performance (i.e., time trial, time to exhaustion) in middle-distance and long-distance runners. A greater improvement may be obtained when two or more strength training methods (i.e., high load training, submaximal load training and/or plyometric training) are combined, although with trivial effects on VO2max, vVO2max, MMSS, or sprint capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Llanos-Lagos
- Physical Performance Sports Research Center (PPSRC), Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41704, Seville, Spain.
| | - Rodrigo Ramirez-Campillo
- Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, School of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, 7591538, Chile
| | - Jason Moran
- School of Sport, Rehabilitation and Exercise Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, CO43SQ, UK
| | - Eduardo Sáez de Villarreal
- Physical Performance Sports Research Center (PPSRC), Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41704, Seville, Spain
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Stöggl TL, Strepp T, Wiesinger HP, Haller N. A training goal-oriented categorization model of high-intensity interval training. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1414307. [PMID: 38957216 PMCID: PMC11218030 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1414307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
There are various categorization models of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) in the literature that need to be more consistent in definition, terminology, and concept completeness. In this review, we present a training goal-oriented categorization model of HIIT, aiming to find the best possible consensus among the various defined types of HIIT. This categorization concludes with six different types of HIIT derived from the literature, based on the interaction of interval duration, interval intensity and interval:recovery ratio. We discuss the science behind the defined types of HIIT and shed light on the possible effects of the various types of HIIT on aerobic, anaerobic, and neuromuscular systems and possible transfer effects into competition performance. We highlight various research gaps, discrepancies in findings and not yet proved know-how based on a lack of randomized controlled training studies, especially in well-trained to elite athlete cohorts. Our HIIT "toolbox" approach is designed to guide goal-oriented training. It is intended to lay the groundwork for future systematic reviews and serves as foundation for meta-analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas L. Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Red Bull Athlete Performance Center, Thalgau, Austria
| | - Tilmann Strepp
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hans-Peter Wiesinger
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Institute of Nursing Science and Practice, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
- Institute of General Practice, Family Medicine and Preventive Medicine, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Nils Haller
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Paris Lodron University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Department of Sports Medicine, Rehabilitation and Disease Prevention, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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Falk Neto JH, Faulhaber M, Kennedy MD. The Characteristics of Endurance Events with a Variable Pacing Profile-Time to Embrace the Concept of "Intermittent Endurance Events"? Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:164. [PMID: 38921858 PMCID: PMC11207974 DOI: 10.3390/sports12060164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
A variable pacing profile is common in different endurance events. In these races, several factors, such as changes in elevation or race dynamics, lead participants to perform numerous surges in intensity. These surges are so frequent that certain events, such as cross-country (XC) skiing, mountain biking (MTB), triathlon, and road cycling, have been termed "intermittent endurance events". The characteristics of these surges vary depending on the sport: MTB and triathlon require athletes to perform numerous short (<10 s) bouts; XC skiing require periods of short- and moderate-(30 s to 2 min) duration efforts, while road cycling is comprised of a mix of short-, moderate-, and long-duration (>2 min) bouts. These bouts occur at intensities above the maximal metabolic steady state (MMSS), with many efforts performed at intensities above the athletes' maximal aerobic power or speed (MAP/MAS) (i.e., supramaximal intensities). Given the factors that influence the requirement to perform surges in these events, athletes must be prepared to always engage in a race with a highly stochastic pace. The aim of this review is to characterize the variable pacing profile seen in endurance events and to discuss how the performance of multiple maximal and supramaximal surges in intensity can affect how athletes fatigue during a race and influence training strategies that can lead to success in these races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao Henrique Falk Neto
- Athlete Health Lab., Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
| | - Martin Faulhaber
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Michael D. Kennedy
- Athlete Health Lab., Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
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10
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Leo P, Mateo-March M, Giorgi A, Muriel X, Javaloyes A, Barranco-Gil D, Pallarés JG, Lucia A, Mujika I, Valenzuela PL. The Influence of High-Intensity Work on the Record Power Profile of Under-23, Pro Team, and World Tour Cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:545-549. [PMID: 38531349 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Durability (ie, the ability to attenuate the decline in performance after accumulated work) has been identified as a performance determinant in elite cyclists. The aim of the present study was to compare durability in elite cyclists of various performance levels, particularly after high-intensity work, referred to as "high-intensity durability." METHODS Forty-nine (N = 49) male road cyclists were categorized as either under 23 years of age (U23) (N = 11), Pro Team (N = 13), or World Tour (N = 24). The participants' critical power (CP) was assessed during the preseason. Thereafter, the participants' maximum mean power (MMP) values were determined for efforts of different durations (from 5 s to 30 min) after different levels of accumulated work above CP (from 0 to 7.5 kJ·kg-1). RESULTS U23 cyclists showed a significant reduction of all relative MMP values for durations ≥1 minute after ≥5 kJ·kg-1 above CP compared with the "fresh" state (0 kJ·kg-1), whereas in Pro Team and World Tour cyclists, a significant reduction was not observed until 7.5 kJ·kg-1 above CP. In the "fresh" state, both Pro Team and particularly World Tour cyclists attained higher MMP values for efforts ≥10 minutes than U23 riders. However, more differences emerged with greater previous work levels, and indeed after 7.5 kJ·kg-1 above CP World Tour cyclists attained higher MMP values than both U23 and Pro Team cyclists for most efforts (≥30 s). CONCLUSION Pro Team and particularly World Tour cyclists tolerate greater levels of accumulated work at high intensity, which might support the importance of high-intensity durability for performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- UniSA Allied Health & Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Manuel Mateo-March
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Sport Sciences, Sports Research Center, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - Andrea Giorgi
- Androni Giocattoli-Sidermec Professional Cycling Team, Siena, Italy
- Department of Internal Medicine, Specialist Medicine and Rehabilitation, Azienda USL Toscana-SouthEast, Siena, Italy
| | - Xabier Muriel
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Alejandro Javaloyes
- Department of Sport Sciences, Sports Research Center, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - Jesús G Pallarés
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Basque Country
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pedro L Valenzuela
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Systems Biology, University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
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11
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Maunder E, King A, Rothschild JA, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Hedges CP, Merry TL, Kilding AE. Locally applied heat stress during exercise training may promote adaptations to mitochondrial enzyme activities in skeletal muscle. Pflugers Arch 2024; 476:939-948. [PMID: 38446167 PMCID: PMC11139708 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-024-02939-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
There is some evidence for temperature-dependent stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis; however, the role of elevated muscle temperature during exercise in mitochondrial adaptation to training has not been studied in humans in vivo. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of elevating muscle temperature during exercise in temperate conditions through the application of mild, local heat stress on mitochondrial adaptations to endurance training. Eight endurance-trained males undertook 3 weeks of supervised cycling training, during which mild (~ 40 °C) heat stress was applied locally to the upper-leg musculature of one leg during all training sessions (HEAT), with the contralateral leg serving as the non-heated, exercising control (CON). Vastus lateralis microbiopsies were obtained from both legs before and after the training period. Training-induced increases in complex I (fold-change, 1.24 ± 0.33 vs. 1.01 ± 0.49, P = 0.029) and II (fold-change, 1.24 ± 0.33 vs. 1.01 ± 0.49, P = 0.029) activities were significantly larger in HEAT than CON. No significant effects of training, or interactions between local heat stress application and training, were observed for complex I-V or HSP70 protein expressions. Our data provides partial evidence to support the hypothesis that elevating local muscle temperature during exercise augments training-induced adaptations to mitochondrial enzyme activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew King
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Christopher P Hedges
- Discipline of Nutrition, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Troy L Merry
- Discipline of Nutrition, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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12
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Mateo-March M, Leo P, Muriel X, Javaloyes A, Mujika I, Barranco-Gil D, Pallarés JG, Lucia A, Valenzuela PL. Is all work the same? Performance after accumulated work of differing intensities in male professional cyclists. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:430-434. [PMID: 38604818 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Although the ability to attenuate power output (PO) declines after accumulated work (i.e., 'durability') is increasingly recognized as a major determinant of cycling performance, the potential role of the intensity of the previous work is unclear. We assessed the effect of work-matched levels of accumulated work at different intensities on performance in male professional cyclists. DESIGN Observational field-based study. METHODS PO data was registered in 17 cyclists during a competition season, and the critical power (CP) was repeatedly determined every 4 weeks from training sessions and competitions. Participants' maximum mean power (MMP) for different durations (5 s, 5 min, 10 min, and 20 min) and the CP were determined under 'fresh' conditions (0 kJ·kg-1) and after varying levels of accumulated work (2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kJ·kg-1) at intensities below and above the CP. RESULTS A significant decline was found for all MMP values following all levels of accumulated work above the CP (-4.0 %, -1.7 %, -1.8 %, and -3.2 % for 30s, 5 min, 10 min and 20 min-MMP, respectively; all p < 0.001), versus no change after any level of accumulated work below the CP (all p > 0.05). Similar results were observed for the CP, which decreased after all levels of accumulated work above (-2.2 %, -6.1 %, and -16.2 %, after 2.5, 5.0 and 7.5 kJ·kg-1, p < 0.001) but not below this indicator (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS In male professional cyclists, accumulated work above the CP impairs performance compared with work-matched, albeit less intense efforts. This raises concerns on the use of mechanical work per se as a single fatigue/stress indicator in these athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Mateo-March
- Department of Sport Sciences, Sports Research Center, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Spain; Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Spain. https://twitter.com/mmateo_march
| | - Peter Leo
- University Innsbruck, Department Sport Science, Austria. https://twitter.com/peter_leo
| | - Xabier Muriel
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Spain. https://twitter.com/xabimu
| | - Alejandro Javaloyes
- Department of Sport Sciences, Sports Research Center, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Spain. https://twitter.com/alejandro_java
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Spain; Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Chile. https://twitter.com/inigomujika
| | | | - Jesús G Pallarés
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Spain. https://twitter.com/dpallaresjg
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Department of Systems Biology, University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pedro L Valenzuela
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PAHERG), Research Institute of the Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Madrid, Spain; Department of Systems Biology, University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain. https://twitter.com/pl_valenzuela
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13
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Unhjem RJ. Changes in running economy and attainable maximal oxygen consumption in response to prolonged running: The impact of training status. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14637. [PMID: 38671555 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
During prolonged running at moderate-to-high intensity, running economy (RE) deteriorates and attainable maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) decreases. Whether these changes appear similarly in trained and untrained runners exercising at the same relative intensity is not clear. We recruited 10 trained runners (TR) and 10 active adults (AA), and compared RE and attainable VO2max before and after 1 h of running at 70% of VO2max. Submaximal VO2 increased more (p = 0.019) in AA (0.20 ± 0.13 L min-1) than in TR (0.07 ± 0.05 L min-1). Attainable VO2max decreased in AA (-0.21 ± 0.15 L min-1, p = 0.002), but remained unchanged in TR (-0.05 ± 0.10 L min-1, p = 0.18). Relative intensity (i.e., VO2/attainable VO2max), increased more (p = 0.001) in AA (8.3 ± 4.4%) than in TR (2.6 ± 1.9%). These results demonstrate that the ability to resist changes in RE and VO2max following prolonged running is superior in trained versus untrained runners, when exercising at the same relative intensity.
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14
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Sellés-Pérez S, Arévalo-Chico H, Fernández-Sáez J, Cejuela R. Training Characteristics, Performance, and Body Composition of Three U23 Elite Female Triathletes throughout a Season. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:53. [PMID: 38393273 PMCID: PMC10892950 DOI: 10.3390/sports12020053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: There is a lack of data on the long-term training characteristics and performance markers of elite young female endurance athletes. The aim of this study was to present the training load (ECOs), as well as the evolution of the anthropometric values and performance of three elite U23 female triathletes over a season. (2) Methods: General training data and performance data relating to the swimming, cycling, and running legs of the 2021 season were described. The training intensity distribution (TID) was presented using the triphasic model, while the training load was based on the ECO model. An anthropometric analysis was also conducted in accordance with the ISAK standards. (3) Results: Triathletes increased their VO2max in cycling (6.9-10%) and running (7.1-9.1%), as well as their power and speed associated with the VO2max (7.7-8.6% in cycling and 5.1-5.3% in running) and their swimming speed associated with the lactate thresholds (2.6-4.0% in LT2 and 1.2-2.5% in LT1). The triathletes completed more than 10 h of weekly average training time, with peak weeks exceeding 15 h. The average TID of the three triathletes was 82% in phase 1, 6% in phase 2, and 12% in phase 3. A decrease in the sum of skinfolds and fat mass percentage was observed during the season in the three triathletes, although the last measurement revealed a stagnation or slight rise in these parameters. (4) Conclusions: The triathletes performed a combination of two training periodization models (traditional and block periodization) with a polarized TID in most of the weeks of the season. Improvements in performance and physiological parameters were observed after the general preparatory period as well as a positive body composition evolution throughout the season, except at the end, where the last measurement revealed stagnation or a slight decline. This study can be useful as a general guide for endurance coaches to organize a training season with female U23 triathletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Sellés-Pérez
- Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain; (H.A.-C.); (R.C.)
| | - Hector Arévalo-Chico
- Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain; (H.A.-C.); (R.C.)
| | - José Fernández-Sáez
- Unitat de Suport a la Recerca Terres de l’Ebre, Fundació Institut, Universitari per a la Recerca a l’atenció Primària de Salur Jordi Gol i Urina (IDIAPGol), 43500 Tortosa, Spain;
- Facultat de Enfermería, Campus Terres de l’Ebre, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43500 Tortosa, Spain
| | - Roberto Cejuela
- Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 San Vicente del Raspeig, Spain; (H.A.-C.); (R.C.)
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15
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Lee SJL, Sim MP, VAN Rens FECA, Peiffer JJ. Fatigue Resistance Is Altered during the High-Hormone Phase of Eumenorrheic Females but Not Oral Contraceptive Users. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2024; 56:92-102. [PMID: 37699150 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to examine the effect of ovarian hormones and their synthetic equivalents on substrate utilization and fatigue resistance during a race-specific cycling protocol. METHODS Seventeen well-trained female cyclists (nine eumenorrheic females, eight oral contraceptive users) completed two experimental trials, in a randomized order, in their low- (follicular/sugar pill) and high-hormone (luteal/active pill) phases. Each 91-min trial consisted of a 45-min moderate-intensity component (submaximal cycling, or SMC) followed by 6 min of high-intensity (HIT) and then a fatigue resistance test (FRT): 6 × 1-min all-out efforts with 1-min active recovery. Meals, comprising carbohydrate (CHO) intake of 8 g·kg -1 body mass, were standardized 24-h pretrial. An electrolyte-only solution was provided ad libitum during each trial. RESULTS In eumenorrheic females, a large reduction in average power during FRT was observed in the luteal phase (277 ± 31 vs 287 ± 33 W; P = 0.032). Greater CHO ox (~ 4%, P = 0.020) during SMC and ventilatory inefficiencies during SMC and HIT (~7%, P < 0.001) were also observed in the luteal phase. In contraceptive users, despite some phasal changes in cardiorespiratory and metabolic data in SMC (~6% higher blood glucose and ~2% higher minute ventilation in active pill phase), none of the performance parameters in the FRT were different. CONCLUSIONS Fatigue resistance was compromised only in high-hormone phase of the menstrual cycle, with eumenorrheic females likely susceptible because of increased CHO utilization during SMC. Hormone-induced ventilatory inefficiencies may also have increased metabolic demand. These findings emphasize the need to maintain CHO availability for power production, particularly in high-hormone phases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Fleur E C A VAN Rens
- Discipline of Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA
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16
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Stevenson JD, Kilding AE, Plews DJ, Maunder E. Prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:309-315. [PMID: 37495864 PMCID: PMC10786968 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To quantify the effects of prolonged cycling on the rate of ventilation ([Formula: see text]), frequency of respiration (FR), and tidal volume (VT) associated with the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. METHODS Fourteen endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes (one female) completed an assessment of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, determined as the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), before (PRE) and after (POST) two hours of moderate-intensity cycling. The power output, [Formula: see text], FR, and VT associated with VT1 were determined PRE and POST. RESULTS As previously reported, power output at VT1 significantly decreased by ~ 10% from PRE to POST. The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was unchanged from PRE to POST (72 ± 12 vs. 69 ± 13 L.min-1, ∆ - 3 ± 5 L.min-1, ∆ - 4 ± 8%, P = 0.075), and relatively consistent (within-subject coefficient of variation, 5.4% [3.7, 8.0%]). The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was produced with increased FR (27.6 ± 5.8 vs. 31.9 ± 6.5 breaths.min-1, ∆ 4.3 ± 3.1 breaths.min-1, ∆ 16 ± 11%, P = 0.0002) and decreased VT (2.62 ± 0.43 vs. 2.19 ± 0.36 L.breath-1, ∆ - 0.44 ± 0.22 L.breath-1, ∆ - 16 ± 7%, P = 0.0002) in POST. CONCLUSION These data suggest prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, but [Formula: see text] remains stable. Real-time monitoring of [Formula: see text] may be a useful means of assessing proximity to the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise and is worthy of further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian D Stevenson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
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17
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Forbes SC, Candow DG, Neto JHF, Kennedy MD, Forbes JL, Machado M, Bustillo E, Gomez-Lopez J, Zapata A, Antonio J. Creatine supplementation and endurance performance: surges and sprints to win the race. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2023; 20:2204071. [PMID: 37096381 PMCID: PMC10132248 DOI: 10.1080/15502783.2023.2204071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Creatine supplementation is an effective ergogenic aid to augment resistance training and improve intense, short duration, intermittent performance. The effects on endurance performance are less known. The purpose of this brief narrative review is to discuss the potential mechanisms of how creatine can affect endurance performance, defined as large muscle mass activities that are cyclical in nature and are >~3 min in duration, and to highlight specific nuances within the literature. Mechanistically, creatine supplementation elevates skeletal muscle phosphocreatine (PCr) stores facilitating a greater capacity to rapidly resynthesize ATP and buffer hydrogen ion accumulation. When co-ingested with carbohydrates, creatine enhances glycogen resynthesis and content, an important fuel to support high-intensity aerobic exercise. In addition, creatine lowers inflammation and oxidative stress and has the potential to increase mitochondrial biogenesis. In contrast, creatine supplementation increases body mass, which may offset the potential positive effects, particularly in weight-bearing activities. Overall, creatine supplementation increases time to exhaustion during high-intensity endurance activities, likely due to increasing anaerobic work capacity. In terms of time trial performances, results are mixed; however, creatine supplementation appears to be more effective at improving performances that require multiple surges in intensity and/or during end spurts, which are often key race-defining moments. Given creatines ability to enhance anaerobic work capacity and performance through repeated surges in intensity, creatine supplementation may be beneficial for sports, such as cross-country skiing, mountain biking, cycling, triathlon, and for short-duration events where end-spurts are critical for performance, such as rowing, kayaking, and track cycling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott C Forbes
- Brandon University, Department of Physical Education Studies, Brandon, MB, Canada
| | - Darren G Candow
- University of Regina, Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies, Regina, SK, Canada
| | | | - Michael D Kennedy
- University of Alberta, Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Jennifer L Forbes
- Brandon University, Department of Physical Education Studies, Brandon, MB, Canada
| | | | - Erik Bustillo
- Train 8Nine/CrossFit Coconut Grove, Erik Bustillo Consulting, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Jose Gomez-Lopez
- Rehab & Nutrition Center, Human Performance Laboratory, Motion Training, Lo Barnechea, Chile
| | | | - Jose Antonio
- Nova Southeastern University, Department of Health and Human Performance, Davie, FL, USA
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18
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Coates AM, Joyner MJ, Little JP, Jones AM, Gibala MJ. A Perspective on High-Intensity Interval Training for Performance and Health. Sports Med 2023; 53:85-96. [PMID: 37804419 PMCID: PMC10721680 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01938-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Interval training is a simple concept that refers to repeated bouts of relatively hard work interspersed with recovery periods of easier work or rest. The method has been used by high-level athletes for over a century to improve performance in endurance-type sports and events such as middle- and long-distance running. The concept of interval training to improve health, including in a rehabilitative context or when practiced by individuals who are relatively inactive or deconditioned, has also been advanced for decades. An important issue that affects the interpretation and application of interval training is the lack of standardized terminology. This particularly relates to the classification of intensity. There is no common definition of the term "high-intensity interval training" (HIIT) despite its widespread use. We contend that in a performance context, HIIT can be characterized as intermittent exercise bouts performed above the heavy-intensity domain. This categorization of HIIT is primarily encompassed by the severe-intensity domain. It is demarcated by indicators that principally include the critical power or critical speed, or other indices, including the second lactate threshold, maximal lactate steady state, or lactate turnpoint. In a health context, we contend that HIIT can be characterized as intermittent exercise bouts performed above moderate intensity. This categorization of HIIT is primarily encompassed by the classification of vigorous intensity. It is demarcated by various indicators related to perceived exertion, oxygen uptake, or heart rate as defined in authoritative public health and exercise prescription guidelines. A particularly intense variant of HIIT commonly termed "sprint interval training" can be distinguished as repeated bouts performed with near-maximal to "all out" effort. This characterization coincides with the highest intensity classification identified in training zone models or exercise prescription guidelines, including the extreme-intensity domain, anaerobic speed reserve, or near-maximal to maximal intensity classification. HIIT is considered an essential training component for the enhancement of athletic performance, but the optimal intensity distribution and specific HIIT prescription for endurance athletes is unclear. HIIT is also a viable method to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and other health-related indices in people who are insufficiently active, including those with cardiometabolic diseases. Research is needed to clarify responses to different HIIT strategies using robust study designs that employ best practices. We offer a perspective on the topic of HIIT for performance and health, including a conceptual framework that builds on the work of others and outlines how the method can be defined and operationalized within each context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra M Coates
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Michael J Joyner
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jonathan P Little
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - Andrew M Jones
- Sport and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Martin J Gibala
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
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19
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Sitko S, Cirer-Sastre R, López-Laval I. An Update Of The Allen & Coggan Equation To Predict 60-Min Power Output In Cyclists Of Different Performance Levels. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:983-987. [PMID: 37802084 DOI: 10.1055/a-2079-1363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
The Allen & Coggan protocol suggests that 95% of the power output during a 20-min time trial is a valid surrogate for 60-min maximal power. The validity of this concept has not been studied previously in cyclists with different performance levels. As a result, we classified 120 cyclists in our study as recreationally trained, trained, well trained or professional, based on their maximal oxygen consumption. Participants performed a functional threshold power testing protocol based on a 20-min time trial and a 60-min time trial, separated by a 72-hour rest. Sixty-minute maximal power was successfully modeled with 20-min maximal power and performance group using 2/3 of the dataset (R2=0.77, 95% CrI [0.74, 0.79]) with different coefficients for each group: Professional: PO60min=PO20min × 0.96; well trained: PO60min=PO20min × 0.95; trained: PO60min=PO20min × 0.92 and recreationally trained: PO60min=PO20min × 0.88. The predictions of the original equation and our model were assessed using the remaining third of the data. The predictive performance of the updated equation was better (original: R2=0.51, mean absolute error=27 W, mean bias=-12 W; updated: R2=0.54, mean absolute error=25 W, mean bias=-7 W).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Sitko
- Department of Physiatry and Nursery, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Rafel Cirer-Sastre
- Institut Nacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC), Universitat de Lleida (UdL), Lleida, Spain
| | - Isaac López-Laval
- Department of Physiatry and Nursery, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
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20
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Van Hooren B, Bongers BC, Rogers B, Gronwald T. The Between-Day Reliability of Correlation Properties of Heart Rate Variability During Running. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2023; 48:453-460. [PMID: 37516677 PMCID: PMC10582140 DOI: 10.1007/s10484-023-09599-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
The short-term scaling exponent of detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA-a1) of heart rate variability may be a helpful tool to assess autonomic balance as a prelude to daily, individualized training. For this concept to be useful, between-session reliability should be acceptable. The aim of this study was to explore the reliability of DFA-a1 during a low-intensity exercise session in both a non-fatigued and a fatigued condition in healthy males and females. Ten participants completed two sessions with each containing an exhaustive treadmill ramp protocol. Before and after the fatiguing ramp, a standardized submaximal low-intensity exercise bout was performed during which DFA-a1, heart rate, and oxygen consumption (VO2) were measured. We compared between-session reliability of all metrics prior to the ramps (i.e., non-fatigued status) and after the first ramp (i.e., fatigued status). Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) with 95% confidence intervals (CI), the standard error of measurement, and the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) were determined. The ICC and SWC pre fatiguing ramp were 0.85 (95% CI 0.39-0.96) and 5.5% for DFA-a1, 0.85 (0.38-0.96) and 2.2% for heart rate, and 0.84 (0.31-0.96) and 3.1% for VO2. Post fatiguing ramp, the ICC and SWC were 0.55 (0.00-0.89) and 7.9% for DFA-a1, 0.91 (0.62-0.98) and 1.6% for heart rate, and 0.80 (0.17-0.95) and 3.0% for VO2. DFA-a1 shows generally acceptable to good between-session reliability with a SWC of 0.06 and 0.07 (5.5-7.9%) during non-fatigued and fatigued conditions. This suggests that this metric may be useful to inform on training readiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Van Hooren
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Bart C Bongers
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Surgery, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Bruce Rogers
- College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Thomas Gronwald
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Van Hooren B, Mennen B, Gronwald T, Bongers BC, Rogers B. Correlation properties of heart rate variability to assess the first ventilatory threshold and fatigue in runners. J Sports Sci 2023:1-10. [PMID: 37916488 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2277034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The short-term scaling exponent alpha1 of detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA-a1) of heart rate variability (HRV) has shown potential to delineate the first ventilatory threshold (VT1). The aims of this study were to investigate the accuracy of this method for VT1 determination in runners using a consumer grade chest belt and to explore the effects of acute fatigue. METHODS We compared oxygen uptake (V̇O2) and heart rate (HR) at gas exchange VT1 to V̇O2 and HR at a DFA-a1 value of 0.75. Gas exchange and HRV data were obtained from 14 individuals during a treadmill run involving two incremental ramps. Agreement was assessed using Bland-Altman analysis and linear regression. RESULTS Bland-Altman analysis between gas exchange and HRV V̇O2 and HR at VT1 during the first ramp showed a mean (95% limits of agreement) bias of -0.5 (-6.8 to 5.8) ml∙kg-1∙min-1, and -0.9 (-12.2 to 10.5) beats∙min-1, with R2 of 0.83 and 0.56, respectively. During the second ramp, the differences were -7.3 (-18.1 to 3.5) ml∙kg-1∙min-1 and -12.3 (-30.4 to 5.9) beats∙min-1, with R2 of 0.62 and 0.43, respectively. CONCLUSION A chest-belt derived DFA-a1 of 0.75 is closely related to gas exchange VT1, with the variability in accuracy at an individual level being similar to gas exchange methods. This suggests this to be a useful method for exercise intensity demarcation. The altered relationship during the second ramp indicates that DFA-a1 is only able to accurately demarcate exercise intensity thresholds in a non-fatigued state, but also opens opportunities for fatigue-based training prescription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bas Van Hooren
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Bram Mennen
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Gronwald
- MSH Medical School Hamburg, Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bart C Bongers
- Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Department of Surgery, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Bruce Rogers
- College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
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22
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Valenzuela PL, Alejo LB, Lucia A, Barranco-Gil D. What Does It Take to Become a Professional Cyclist? A Laboratory-Based Longitudinal Analysis in Competitive Young Riders. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1275-1282. [PMID: 37611911 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Laboratory-based indicators are commonly used for performance assessment in young cyclists. However, evidence supporting the use of these indicators mostly comes from cross-sectional research, and their validity as predictors of potential future performance remains unclear. We aimed to assess the role of laboratory variables for predicting transition from U23 (under 23 y) to professional category in young cyclists. METHODS Sixty-five U23 male road cyclists (19.6 [1.5] y) were studied. Endurance (maximal graded test and simulated 8-min time trial [TT]), muscle strength/power (squat, lunge, and hip thrust), and body composition (assessed with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) indicators were determined. Participants were subsequently followed and categorized attending to whether they had transitioned ("Pro") or not ("Non-Pro") to the professional category during the study period. RESULTS The median follow-up period was 3 years. Pro cyclists (n = 16) showed significantly higher values than Non-Pro riders (n = 49) for ventilatory thresholds, peak power output, peak oxygen uptake, and TT performance (all P < .05, effect size > 0.69) and lower levels of fat mass and bone mineral content/density (P < .05, effect size > 0.63). However, no significant differences were found for muscle strength/power indicators (P > .05, effect size < 49). The most accurate individual predictor was TT performance (overall predictive value = 76% for a cutoff value of 5.6 W·kg-1). However, some variables that did not reach statistical significance in univariate analyses contributed significantly to a multivariate model (R2 = .79, overall predictive value = 94%). CONCLUSIONS Although different "classic" laboratory-based endurance indicators can predict the potential of reaching the professional category in U23 cyclists, a practical indicator such as 8-minute TT performance showed the highest prediction accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro L Valenzuela
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PaHerg), Research Institute of the University Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid,Spain
- Biology Systems Department, University of Alcalá, Madrid,Spain
| | - Lidia B Alejo
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid,Spain
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Physical Activity and Health Research Group (PaHerg), Research Institute of the University Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid,Spain
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid,Spain
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23
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Almquist NW, Hansen J, Rønnestad BR. Development of Cycling Performance Variables and Durability in Female and Male National Team Cyclists: From Junior to Senior. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:2053-2063. [PMID: 37259247 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
AIM This study investigated the development of power profiles and performance-related measures from the junior level (<19 yr) via U23 (19-23 yr) to senior level (>23 yr) in 19 female and 100 male Norwegian national team cyclists. METHODS A total of 285 tests were performed in a 3-d laboratory-standardized testing regime. The tests included power profiles with shorter duration (6-60 s) and longer durations (12-30 min) together with performance-related measures: critical power (CP), work capacity above CP (W'), power output at 4 and 2 mmol·L -1 [BLa - ] (L 4 and L 2 ), maximal aerobic power (W max ), and maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O 2max ), gross efficiency (GE), and pedaling efficiency. RESULTS Females and males evolve similarly when maturing from junior via U23 to senior categories (all P > 0.07), except for V̇O 2max , which increased in females (but not males) from junior to senior level (534 ± 436 mL·min -1 , P = 0.013). In general, only performances of longer durations improved with age (12 and 30 min, P = 0.028 and P = 0.042, respectively). Performance-related measures like W max , V̇O 2max , CP, L 4 , L 2 , and pedaling efficiency in the fresh state improved with age (all P ≤ 0.025). Importantly, performance in the semifatigued state during a 5-min maximal test was also improved with age ( P = 0.045) despite a higher external energy expenditure before the test ( P = 0.026). CONCLUSIONS Junior cyclists show highly developed sprint abilities, and the primary improvements of absolute power outputs and performance-related measures are seen for durations >60 s when maturing to U23 and senior categories. However, the durability, i.e., the capacity to maintain performance in a semifatigued state, is improved with age.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joar Hansen
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, NORWAY
| | - Bent R Rønnestad
- Section for Health and Exercise Physiology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, NORWAY
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24
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Fleckenstein D, Seelhöfer J, Walter N, Ueberschär O. From Incremental Test to Continuous Running at Fixed Lactate Thresholds: Individual Responses on %VO 2max, %HR max, Lactate Accumulation, and RPE. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:198. [PMID: 37888525 PMCID: PMC10611166 DOI: 10.3390/sports11100198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
With Norway's successes in middle and long-distance running, lactate-guided threshold training has regained importance in recent years. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the individual responses on common monitoring parameters based on a lactate-guided conventional training method. In total, 15 trained runners (10 males, 5 females; 18.6 ± 3.3 years; VO2max: 59.3 ± 5.9 mL kg-1 min-1) completed a 40-min continuous running session at a fixed lactate threshold load of 2 mmol L-1. Lactate (La), oxygen uptake (VO2), heart rate (HR), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. The chosen workload led to lactate values of 2.85 ± 0.56 mmol L-1 (range: 1.90-3.80), a percentage of VO2max utilization (%VO2max) of 79.2 ± 2.5% (range: 74.9-83.8), a percentage of HRmax utilization (%HRmax) of 92.2 ± 2.5% (range: 88.1-95.3), and an RPE of 6.1 ± 1.9 (range: 3-10) at the end of the running session. Thereby, the individual responses differed considerably. These results indicate that a conventional continuous training method based on a fixed lactate threshold can lead to different individual responses, potentially resulting in various physiological impacts. Moreover, correlation analyses suggest that athletes with higher lactate threshold performance levels must choose their intensity in continuous training methods more conservatively (lower percentage intensity based on a fixed threshold) to avoid eliciting excessively strong metabolic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Fleckenstein
- Department of Endurance Sports, Institute for Applied Training Science, Marschnerstraße 29, 04109 Leipzig, Germany; (D.F.); (J.S.); (N.W.)
| | - Jannik Seelhöfer
- Department of Endurance Sports, Institute for Applied Training Science, Marschnerstraße 29, 04109 Leipzig, Germany; (D.F.); (J.S.); (N.W.)
| | - Nico Walter
- Department of Endurance Sports, Institute for Applied Training Science, Marschnerstraße 29, 04109 Leipzig, Germany; (D.F.); (J.S.); (N.W.)
| | - Olaf Ueberschär
- Department of Biomechanics, Institute for Applied Training Science, Marschnerstraße 29, 04109 Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Engineering and Industrial Design, Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, 39114 Magdeburg, Germany
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25
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Deguire S, Sandford GN, Bieuzen F. Anaerobic Speed Reserve and Performance Relationships Between International and World-Class Short-Track Speed Skating. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1196-1205. [PMID: 37536677 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Short-track speed skating race distances of 500, 1000, and 1500 m that last ∼40 seconds to ∼2.5 minutes and require a maximal intensity at speeds beyond maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Recently, the anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) has been applied by scientists and coaches in middle-distance sports to deepen understanding of 1- to 5-minute event performance where different physiological profiles (speed, hybrid, and endurance) can have success. METHODS World-class (women, n = 2; men, n = 3) and international-level (women, n = 4; men, n = 5) short-track speed skaters completed maximal aerobic speed and maximal skating speed tests. ASR characteristics were compared between profiles and associated with on-ice performance. RESULTS World-class athletes raced at a lower %ASR in the 1000- (3.1%; large; almost certainly) and 1500-m (1.8%; large; possibly) events than international athletes. Men's and women's speed profiles operated at a higher %ASR in the 500-m than hybrid and endurance profiles, whereas in the 1500-m, endurance profiles worked at a substantially lower %ASR than hybrid and speed profiles. Women's 500-m performance is very largely associated with maximal skating speed, while women's maximal aerobic speed appears to be a key determining factor in the 1000- and 1500-m performance. CONCLUSION World-class short-track speed skaters can be developed in speed, hybrid, and endurance profiles but achieve their performance differently by leveraging their strongest characteristics. These results show nuanced differences between men's and women's 500-, 1000- and 1500-m event performance across ASR profile that unlock new insights for individualizing athlete performance in these disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Deguire
- Institut National du Sport du Québec, Montréal, QC,Canada
- Speed Skating Canada, Montréal, QC,Canada
| | | | - François Bieuzen
- Institut National du Sport du Québec, Montréal, QC,Canada
- Speed Skating Canada, Montréal, QC,Canada
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26
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Jones AM. The fourth dimension: physiological resilience as an independent determinant of endurance exercise performance. J Physiol 2023. [PMID: 37606604 DOI: 10.1113/jp284205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Endurance exercise performance is known to be closely associated with the three physiological pillars of maximal O2 uptake (V ̇ O 2 max $\dot{V}_{{\rm O}_{2}{\rm max}}$ ), economy or efficiency during submaximal exercise, and the fractional utilisation ofV ̇ O 2 max $\dot{V}_{{\rm O}_{2}{\rm max}}$ (linked to metabolic/lactate threshold phenomena). However, while 'start line' values of these variables are collectively useful in predicting performance in endurance events such as the marathon, it is not widely appreciated that these variables are not static but are prone to significant deterioration as fatiguing endurance exercise proceeds. For example, the 'critical power' (CP), which is a composite of the highest achievable steady-state oxidative metabolic rate and efficiency (O2 cost per watt), may fall by an average of 10% following 2 h of heavy intensity cycle exercise. Even more striking is that the extent of this deterioration displays appreciable inter-individual variability, with changes in CP ranging from <1% to ∼32%. The mechanistic basis for such differences in fatigue resistance or 'physiological resilience' are not resolved. However, resilience may be important in explaining superlative endurance performance and it has implications for the physiological evaluation of athletes and the design of interventions to enhance performance. This article presents new information concerning the dynamic plasticity of the three 'traditional' physiological variables and argues that physiological resilience should be considered as an additional component, or fourth dimension, in models of endurance exercise performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Jones
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, University of Exeter Medical School, St Luke's Campus, Exeter, UK
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27
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Sandbakk Ø, Pyne DB, McGawley K, Foster C, Talsnes RK, Solli GS, Millet GP, Seiler S, Laursen PB, Haugen T, Tønnessen E, Wilber R, van Erp T, Stellingwerff T, Holmberg HC, Bucher Sandbakk S. The Evolution of World-Class Endurance Training: The Scientist's View on Current and Future Trends. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023:1-5. [PMID: 37369366 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Elite sport is continuously evolving. World records keep falling and athletes from a longer list of countries are involved. PURPOSE This commentary was designed to provide insights into present and future trends associated with world-class endurance training based on the perspectives, experience, and knowledge of an expert panel of 25 applied sport scientists. RESULTS The key drivers of development observed in the past 10-15 years were related to (1) more accessible scientific knowledge for coaches and athletes combined with (2) better integration of practical and scientific exchange across multidisciplinary perspectives within professionalized elite athlete support structures, as well as (3) utilization of new technological advances. Based on these perspectives, we discerned and exemplified the main trends in the practice of endurance sports into the following categories: better understanding of sport-specific demands; improved competition execution; larger, more specific, and more precise training loads; improved training quality; and a more professional and healthier lifestyle. The main areas expected to drive future improvements were associated with more extensive use of advanced technology for monitoring and prescribing training and recovery, more precise use of environmental and nutritional interventions, better understanding of athlete-equipment interactions, and greater emphasis on preventing injuries and illnesses. CONCLUSIONS These expert insights can serve as a platform and inspiration to develop new hypotheses and ideas, encourage future collaboration between researchers and sport practitioners, and, perhaps most important, stimulate curiosity and further collaborative studies about the training, physiology, and performance of endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Sandbakk
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,Norway
| | - David B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, ACT,Australia
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Center, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Carl Foster
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, WI,USA
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,Norway
| | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Trondheim,Norway
| | - Grégoire P Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Bodø,Switzerland
| | - Stephen Seiler
- Department of Sport Science and Physical Education, University of Agder, Kristiansand,Norway
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Sports Performance and Athlete Development Environments (SPADE), University of Agder, Kristiansand,Norway
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, Auckland,New Zealand
| | - Thomas Haugen
- School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo,Norway
| | - Espen Tønnessen
- School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo,Norway
| | - Randy Wilber
- United States Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, CO,USA
| | - Teun van Erp
- Division of Movement Science and Exercise Therapy (MSET), Department of Exercise, Sport and Lifestyle Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg,South Africa
| | | | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå,Sweden
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC,Canada
| | - Silvana Bucher Sandbakk
- Department of Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,Norway
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28
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Spragg J, Leo P, Swart J. The Relationship between Physiological Characteristics and Durability in Male Professional Cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:133-140. [PMID: 35977108 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to determine if durability can be predicted from laboratory measures in a professional cycling population. METHODS Data were collected from 10 professional cyclists (age = 19.2 ± 0.8 yr, body mass = 70.4 ± 5.5 kg, height = 182.9 ± 4.0 cm, body mass index = 21.0 ± 1.3 kg·m -2 , V̇O 2max = 74.4 ± 4.8 mL·kg -1 ·min -1 , critical power [CP] = 5.6 ± 0.6 W·kg -1 , W' = 23.7 ± 5.4 kJ). Participants completed a laboratory test and a CP test on two occasions. The second occasion was preceded by a novel fatiguing protocol, which consisted of five bouts of 8-min of exercise at 105%-110% of CP. CP in a fatigued state was expressed as a percentage of the fresh CP and coined delta CP (∆CP). The Pearson product correlation analysis was conducted to determine the relationship between laboratory-based measures and ∆CP. RESULTS Significant positive relationships were found between ∆CP and relative peak power output ( r = 0.891, P < 0.001), relative maximum oxygen uptake ( r = 0.835, P = 0.003), relative power output at the second ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.738, P = 0.015), power output at the first ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.748, P = 0.013) and relative power output at the first ventilatory threshold ( r = 0.826, P = 0.003), gross efficiency at 300 W ( r = 0.869, P = 0.001), and at 200 W ( r = 0.792, P = 0.006). Significant negative relationships were found between ∆CP and carbohydrate oxidation at 200 W ( r = -0.702, P = 0.024). A multiple linear regression demonstrated that ∆CP can be predicted from laboratory measures ( R2 = 0.96-0.98, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS These findings demonstrate the physiological determinants of durability in a professional cycling population.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Spragg
- HPALS, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA
| | - Peter Leo
- Department of Sport Science, Division of Performance Physiology and Prevention, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, AUSTRIA
| | - Jeroen Swart
- HPALS, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA
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Matomäki P, Heinonen OJ, Nummela A, Laukkanen J, Auvinen EP, Pirkola L, Kyröläinen H. Durability is improved by both low and high intensity endurance training. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1128111. [PMID: 36875044 PMCID: PMC9977827 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1128111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: This is one of the first intervention studies to examine how low- (LIT) and high-intensity endurance training (HIT) affect durability, defined as 'time of onset and magnitude of deterioration in physiological-profiling characteristics over time during prolonged exercise'. Methods: Sedentary and recreationally active men (n = 16) and women (n = 19) completed either LIT (average weekly training time 6.8 ± 0.7 h) or HIT (1.6 ± 0.2 h) cycling for 10 weeks. Durability was analyzed before and after the training period from three factors during 3-h cycling at 48% of pretraining maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max): 1) by the magnitude and 2) onset of drifts (i.e. gradual change in energy expenditure, heart rate, rate of perceived exertion, ventilation, left ventricular ejection time, and stroke volume), 3) by the 'physiological strain', defined to be the absolute responses of heart rate and its variability, lactate, and rate of perceived exertion. Results: When all three factors were averaged the durability was improved similarly (time x group p = 0.42) in both groups (LIT: p = 0.03, g = 0.49; HIT: p = 0.01, g = 0.62). In the LIT group, magnitude of average of drifts and their onset did not reach statistically significance level of p < 0.05 (magnitude: 7.7 ± 6.8% vs. 6.3 ± 6.0%, p = 0.09, g = 0.27; onset: 106 ± 57 min vs. 131 ± 59 min, p = 0.08, g = 0.58), while averaged physiological strain improved (p = 0.01, g = 0.60). In HIT, both magnitude and onset decreased (magnitude: 8.8 ± 7.9% vs. 5.4 ± 6.7%, p = 0.03, g = 0.49; onset: 108 ± 54 min vs. 137 ± 57 min, p = 0.03, g = 0.61), and physiological strain improved (p = 0.005, g = 0.78). VO2max increased only after HIT (time x group p < 0.001, g = 1.51). Conclusion: Durability improved similarly by both LIT and HIT based on reduced physiological drifts, their postponed onsets, and changes in physiological strain. Despite durability enhanced among untrained people, a 10-week intervention did not alter drifts and their onsets in a large amount, even though it attenuated physiological strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pekka Matomäki
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Paavo Nurmi Centre & Unit for Health and Physical Activity, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Olli J Heinonen
- Paavo Nurmi Centre & Unit for Health and Physical Activity, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Ari Nummela
- Finnish Institute of High Performance Sport KIHU, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jari Laukkanen
- Central Finland Healthcare District, Department of Medicine, Jyväskylä, Finland.,Department of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Eero-Pekka Auvinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Leena Pirkola
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Heikki Kyröläinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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30
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Influence of Torque and Cadence on Power Output Production in Cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:27-36. [PMID: 36470252 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/08/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE No information is available on the torque/cadence relationship in road cyclists. We aimed to establish whether this relationship differs between cyclists of different performance levels or team roles. METHODS Mean maximal power (MMP) output data from 177 riders were obtained from 2012 to 2021 from training and competitions. Cyclists were categorized according to their performance level (world-tour [WT, n = 68], procontinental [PC, n = 63], or under 23 [U23, n = 46]) and team role (time trialists [n = 12], all-rounders [n = 94], climbers [n = 64], or team leaders [n = 7]). RESULTS A significant interaction effect was found for absolute and relative MMP (P < .001), with higher values in PC than WT for short (5-60 s) efforts and the opposite trend for longer durations. MMP was also greater in PC than in U23 for short efforts (30-60 s), with WT and PC attaining higher MMP than U23 for longer bouts (5-60 min). A significant interaction effect was found for cadence (P = .007, but with no post hoc differences) and absolute (P = .010) and relative torque (P = .002), with PC and WT showing significantly higher torque (all P < .05) than U23 for 5- to 60-minute efforts, yet with no differences between the former 2 performance levels. No interaction effect between team roles was found for cadence (P = .185) or relative torque (P = .559), but a significant interaction effect was found for absolute torque (P < .001), with all-rounders attaining significantly higher values than climbers for 5-second to 5-minute efforts. CONCLUSIONS Differences in MMP between cycling performance levels and rider types are dependent on torque rather than cadence, which might support the role of torque development in performance.
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31
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Durability in Professional Cyclists: A Field Study. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:99-103. [PMID: 36521188 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess durability in professional cyclists, as well as potential associated indicators. METHODS Twelve male professional cyclists participated in the study (age: 26 [5] y, VO2max: 83.0 [3.6] mL·kg-1·min-1). They performed a 20-minute time trial (TT) on 2 different sessions separated by a 48-hour period: (1) with no previous fatigue (TTFresh) and (2) immediately after a long submaximal ride (approximately 4 h, 40 kJ/kg) (TTFatigue). We then assessed the decay (in percentage) in mean power output (PO) from TTFresh to TTFatigue and its association with different laboratory-based endurance indicators (ventilatory threshold, peak PO, and VO2max) determined through a previous maximal incremental cycling test, as well as with training loads during the 4 weeks preceding the TTs. RESULTS While no differences were noted in the average heart rate (177 [7] vs 176 [6] beats·min-1, P = .118), there was a significant decay in PO between TTFresh and TTFatigue (386 [29] W vs 375 [28] W [-2.9%], respectively; P = .007), albeit with signs of interindividual variability (range = -8.5% to 1.1%; coefficient of variation = 105%). No significant associations were found between the PO decay and any of the analyzed indicators (all P > .05). CONCLUSIONS Performance is significantly impaired after a certain amount of work completed (approximately 40 kJ·kg-1) in professional cyclists, and the magnitude of this impairment seems to be not related to "traditional" laboratory-based endurance indicators or to markers of training load. These findings might support the need for specifically assessing durability in cyclists and confirming potential determinants of this parameter.
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Quittmann OJ, Foitschik T, Vafa R, Freitag FJ, Sparmann N, Nolte S, Abel T. Is Maximal Lactate Accumulation Rate Promising for Improving 5000-m
Prediction in Running? Int J Sports Med 2022; 44:268-279. [PMID: 36529130 PMCID: PMC10072929 DOI: 10.1055/a-1958-3876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEndurance running performance can be predicted by maximal oxygen uptake
(V̇O2max), the fractional utilisation of oxygen uptake
(%V̇O2max) and running economy at lactate
threshold (REOBLA). This study aims to assess maximal lactate
accumulation rate (ċLamax) in terms of improving running
performance prediction in trained athletes. Forty-four competitive female and
male runners/triathletes performed an incremental step test, a 100-m
sprint test and a ramp test to determine their metabolic profile. Stepwise
linear regression was used to predict 5000-m time trial performance. Split times
were recorded every 200-m to examine the ‘finishing kick’.
Females had a slower t5k and a lower V̇O2max,
ċLamax, ‘finishing kick’ and
REOBLA. Augmenting Joyner’s model by means of
ċLamax explained an additional 4.4% of variance
in performance. When performing the same analysis exclusively for males,
ċLamax was not included. ċLamax
significantly correlated with %V̇O2max
(r=-0.439, p=0.003) and the ‘finishing kick’
(r=0.389, p=0.010). ċLamax allows for
significant (yet minor) improvements in 5000-m performance prediction in a
mixed-sex group. This margin of improvement might differ in middle-distance
events. Due to the relationship to the ‘finishing kick’,
ċLamax might be related to individual pacing strategies,
which should be assessed in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Jan Quittmann
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Research Group in Disability Sport (ERGiDS)
| | - Tina Foitschik
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Ramin Vafa
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Finn Jannis Freitag
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Nordin Sparmann
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Simon Nolte
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Abel
- Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University
Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Research Group in Disability Sport (ERGiDS)
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Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Seiler S, Tønnessen E. The Training Characteristics of World-Class Distance Runners: An Integration of Scientific Literature and Results-Proven Practice. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:46. [PMID: 35362850 PMCID: PMC8975965 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.
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Talsnes RK, Nordgården S, Kocbach J, Solli GS. One Long Versus 2 Short Sessions? Physiological and Perceptual Responses to Low-Intensity Training at Self-Selected Speeds in Cross-Country Skiers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:1590-1598. [PMID: 35995424 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare self-selected speeds and corresponding physiological responses and perceived training stress between 1 long session versus 2 shorter sessions of low-intensity training (LIT) in 1 day among cross-country skiers. METHODS Thirteen national-level skiers performed 2 different LIT types during classical roller-skiing matched for the same distance in a counterbalanced order. The training consisted of either 1 long (approximately 3 h) session (1LIT) or 2 shorter (approximately 1.5 h each) sessions (2LIT) with 7 hours of recovery in between. Speed, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and blood lactate concentrations were measured, and perceived training stress (1-10) was assessed after sessions. RESULTS 2LIT was performed at mean (SD) 1.9% (2.0%) higher speeds versus 1LIT (P ≤ .01). Higher speeds were also found in the second versus first session of 2LIT and the second versus first part of 1LIT (1.9% [3.2%] and 3.2% [3.6%], respectively, both P ≤ .01). There were no significant differences between LIT types in heart rate, although rating of perceived exertion increased in the second versus first part of 1LIT (0.9 [0.8] point, P ≤ .01). Blood lactate concentration was reduced in the second versus first session/part of both LIT types (approximately 0.16 [0.20] mmol·L-1, P ≤ .05). There were no differences in perceived training stress between LIT types 7 and 23 hours after training, although higher perceived muscular exertion (2.0 [1.1] points, P ≤ .01) was found directly after 1LIT. CONCLUSIONS Compared with a distance-matched long session, skiers perform 2LIT at slightly higher self-selected speeds with the same physiological responses elicited, although minor differences in perceived training stress were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer,Norway
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø,Norway
| | - Sigrid Nordgården
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø,Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Center for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,Norway
| | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø,Norway
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Center for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim,Norway
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NUUTTILA OLLIPEKKA, NUMMELA ARI, KORHONEN ELISA, HÄKKINEN KEIJO, KYRÖLÄINEN HEIKKI. Individualized Endurance Training Based on Recovery and Training Status in Recreational Runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2022; 54:1690-1701. [PMID: 35975912 PMCID: PMC9473708 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Long-term development of endurance performance requires a proper balance between strain and recovery. Because responses and adaptations to training are highly individual, this study examined whether individually adjusted endurance training based on recovery and training status would lead to greater adaptations compared with a predefined program. METHODS Recreational runners were divided into predefined (PD; n = 14) or individualized (IND; n = 16) training groups. In IND, the training load was decreased, maintained, or increased twice a week based on nocturnal heart rate variability, perceived recovery, and heart rate-running speed index. Both groups performed 3-wk preparatory, 6-wk volume, and 6-wk interval periods. Incremental treadmill tests and 10-km running tests were performed before the preparatory period ( T0 ) and after the preparatory ( T1 ), volume ( T2 ), and interval ( T3 ) periods. The magnitude of training adaptations was defined based on the coefficient of variation between T0 and T1 tests (high >2×, low <0.5×). RESULTS Both groups improved ( P < 0.01) their maximal treadmill speed and 10-km time from T1 to T3 . The change in the 10-km time was greater in IND compared with PD (-6.2% ± 2.8% vs -2.9% ± 2.4%, P = 0.002). In addition, IND had more high responders (50% vs 29%) and fewer low responders (0% vs 21%) compared with PD in the change of maximal treadmill speed and 10-km performance (81% vs 23% and 13% vs 23%), respectively. CONCLUSIONS PD and IND induced positive training adaptations, but the individualized training seemed more beneficial in endurance performance. Moreover, IND increased the likelihood of high response and decreased the occurrence of low response to endurance training.
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Affiliation(s)
- OLLI-PEKKA NUUTTILA
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - ARI NUMMELA
- Finnish Institute of High Performance Sport KIHU, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - ELISA KORHONEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - KEIJO HÄKKINEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - HEIKKI KYRÖLÄINEN
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
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Rogers B, Schaffarczyk M, Gronwald T. Estimation of Respiratory Frequency in Women and Men by Kubios HRV Software Using the Polar H10 or Movesense Medical ECG Sensor during an Exercise Ramp. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:7156. [PMID: 36236256 PMCID: PMC9573071 DOI: 10.3390/s22197156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring of the physiologic metric, respiratory frequency (RF), has been shown to be of value in health, disease, and exercise science. Both heart rate (HR) and variability (HRV), as represented by variation in RR interval timing, as well as analysis of ECG waveform variability, have shown potential in its measurement. Validation of RF accuracy using newer consumer hardware and software applications have been sparse. The intent of this report is to assess the precision of the RF derived using Kubios HRV Premium software version 3.5 with the Movesense Medical sensor single-channel ECG (MS ECG) and the Polar H10 (H10) HR monitor. Gas exchange data (GE), RR intervals (H10), and continuous ECG (MS ECG) were recorded from 21 participants performing an incremental cycling ramp to failure. Results showed high correlations between the reference GE and both the H10 (r = 0.85, SEE = 4.2) and MS ECG (r = 0.95, SEE = 2.6). Although median values were statistically different via Wilcoxon testing, adjusted median differences were clinically small for the H10 (RF about 1 breaths/min) and trivial for the MS ECG (RF about 0.1 breaths/min). ECG based measurement with the MS ECG showed reduced bias, limits of agreement (maximal bias, -2.0 breaths/min, maximal LoA, 6.1 to -10.0 breaths/min) compared to the H10 (maximal bias, -3.9 breaths/min, maximal LoA, 8.2 to -16.0 breaths/min). In conclusion, RF derived from the combination of the MS ECG sensor with Kubios HRV Premium software, tracked closely to the reference device through an exercise ramp, illustrates the potential for this system to be of practical usage during endurance exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Rogers
- College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, 6850 Lake Nona Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32827-7408, USA
| | - Marcelle Schaffarczyk
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, University of Applied Sciences and Medical University, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Gronwald
- Interdisciplinary Institute of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, University of Applied Sciences and Medical University, Am Kaiserkai 1, 20457 Hamburg, Germany
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Prolonged cycling reduces power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:2673-2682. [PMID: 36127418 PMCID: PMC9488873 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05036-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To determine the effect of prolonged exercise on moderate-to-heavy intensity transition power output and heart rate. Methods Fourteen endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes took part in the present investigation (13 males, 1 female, V·O2peak 59.9 ± 6.8 mL.kg−1.min−1). Following a characterisation trial, participants undertook a five-stage incremental step test to determine the power output and heart rate at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition before and after two hours of cycling at 90% of the estimated power output at first ventilatory threshold (VT1). Results Power output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition significantly decreased following acute prolonged exercise when determined using expired gases (VT1, 217 ± 42 W vs. 196 ± 42 W, P < 0.0001) and blood lactate concentrations (LoglogLT, 212 ± 47 W vs. 190 ± 47 W, P = 0.004). This was attributable to loss of efficiency (VT1, -8 ± 10 W; LoglogLT, − 7 ± 9 W) and rates of metabolic energy expenditure at the transition (VT1, − 14 ± 11 W; LoglogLT, − 15 ± 22 W). The heart rate associated with the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition increased following acute prolonged exercise (VT1, 142 ± 9 beats.min−1 vs. 151 ± 12 beats.min−1, P < 0.001; LoglogLT, 140 ± 13 beats.min−1 vs. 150 ± 15 beats.min−1, P = 0.006). Conclusion These results demonstrate the external work output at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition decreases during prolonged exercise due to decreased efficiency and rates of metabolic energy expenditure, but the associated heart rate increases. Therefore, individual assessments of athlete ‘durability’ are warranted. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00421-022-05036-9.
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Leo P, Simon D, Hovorka M, Lawley J, Mujika I. Elite versus non-elite cyclist - Stepping up to the international/elite ranks from U23 cycling. J Sports Sci 2022; 40:1874-1884. [PMID: 36040014 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2022.2117394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the physiological, performance and training characteristics of U23 cyclists and assessed the requirements of stepping up to the elite/international ranks. Twenty highly trained U23 cyclists (age, 22.1 ± 0.8 years; body mass, 69.1 ± 6.8 kg; VO2max, 76.1 ± 3.9 ml·kg-1·min-1) participated in this study. The cyclists were a posteriori divided into two groups based on whether or not they stepped up to elite/international level cycling (U23ELITE vs. U23NON-ELITE). Physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics were determined and compared between groups. U23ELITE demonstrated higher absolute peak power output (p = .016), 2 min (p = .026) 5 min (p = .042) and 12 min (p ≤ .001) power output as well as higher absolute critical power (p = .002). Further, U23ELITE recorded more accumulated hours (p ≤ .001), covered distance (p ≤ .001), climbing metres (p ≤ .001), total sessions (p ≤ .001), total work (p ≤ .001) and scored more UCI points (p ≤ .001). These findings indicate that U23ELITE substantially differed from U23NON-ELITE regarding physiological, performance and training and racing characteristics derived from laboratory and field. These variables should be considered by practitioners supporting young cyclists throughout their development towards the elite/international ranks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Leo
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department Sports Science, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dieter Simon
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Matthias Hovorka
- Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria.,Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, Austria.,Doctoral School of Pharmaceutical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, University of Vienna, Austria
| | - Justin Lawley
- Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, Department Sports Science, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Iñigo Mujika
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain.,Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Finis Terrae, Santiago, Chile
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Maunder E, Rothschild JA, Ramonas A, Delcourt M, Kilding AE. A three-minute all-out test performed in a remote setting does not provide a valid estimate of the maximum metabolic steady state. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:2385-2392. [PMID: 35948835 PMCID: PMC9560921 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05020-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The three-minute all-out test (3MT), when performed on a laboratory ergometer in a linear mode, can be used to estimate the heavy-severe-intensity transition, or maximum metabolic steady state (MMSS), using the end-test power output. As the 3MT only requires accurate measurement of power output and time, it is possible the 3MT could be used in remote settings using personal equipment without supervision for quantification of MMSS. METHODS The aim of the present investigation was to determine the reliability and validity of remotely performed 3MTs (3MTR) for estimation of MMSS. Accordingly, 53 trained cyclists and triathletes were recruited to perform one familiarisation and two experimental 3MTR trials to determine its reliability. A sub-group (N = 10) was recruited to perform three-to-five 30 min laboratory-based constant-work rate trials following completion of one familiarisation and two experimental 3MTR trials. Expired gases were collected throughout constant-work rate trials and blood lactate concentration was measured at 10 and 30 min to determine the highest power output at which steady-state [Formula: see text] (MMSS-[Formula: see text]) and blood lactate (MMSS-[La-]) were achieved. RESULTS The 3MTR end-test power (EPremote) was reliable (coefficient of variation, 4.5% [95% confidence limits, 3.7, 5.5%]), but overestimated MMSS (EPremote, 283 ± 51 W; MMSS-[Formula: see text], 241 ± 46 W, P = 0.0003; MMSS-[La-], 237 ± 47 W, P = 0.0003). This may have been due to failure to deplete the finite work capacity above MMSS during the 3MTR. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the 3MTR should not be used to estimate MMSS in endurance-trained cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeffrey A. Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrius Ramonas
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Quittmann OJ, Lenatz B, Bartsch P, Lenatz F, Foitschik T, Abel T. Case Report: Training Monitoring and Performance Development of a Triathlete With Spinal Cord Injury and Chronic Myeloid Leukemia During a Paralympic Cycle. FRONTIERS IN REHABILITATION SCIENCES 2022; 3:867089. [PMID: 36188916 PMCID: PMC9487515 DOI: 10.3389/fresc.2022.867089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Paratriathlon allows competition for athletes with various physical impairments. The wheelchair category stands out from other paratriathlon categories, since competing in swimming, handcycling, and wheelchair racing entails substantial demands on the upper extremity. Therefore, knowledge about exercise testing and training is needed to improve performance and avoid overuse injuries. We described the training monitoring and performance development throughout a Paralympic cycle of an elite triathlete with spinal cord injury (SCI) and a recent diagnosis of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Case Presentation/Methods A 30-year-old wheelchair athlete with 10-years experience in wheelchair basketball contacted us for guidance regarding testing and training in paratriathlon. Laboratory and field tests were modified from protocols used for testing non-disabled athletes to examine their physical abilities. In handcycling, incremental tests were used to monitor performance development by means of lactate threshold (POBLA) and define heart rate-based training zones. All-out sprint tests were applied to calculate maximal lactate accumulation rate (V˙Lamax) as a measure of glycolytic capabilities in all disciplines. From 2017 to 2020, training was monitored to quantify training load (TL) and training intensity distribution (TID). Results From 2016 to 2019, the athlete was ranked within the top ten at the European and World Championships. From 2017 to 2019, annual TL increased from 414 to 604 h and demonstrated a shift in TID from 77-17-6% to 88-8-4%. In this period, POBLA increased from 101 to 158 W and V˙Lamax decreased from 0.56 to 0.36 mmol·l−1·s−1. TL was highest during training camps. In 2020, after he received his CML diagnosis, TL, TID, and POBLA were 317 h, 94-5-1%, and 108 W, respectively. Discussion TL and TID demonstrated similar values when compared with previous studies in para-swimming and long-distance paratriathlon, respectively. In contrast, relative TL during training camps exceeded those described in the literature and was accompanied by physical stress. Increased volumes at low intensity are assumed to increase POBLA and decrease V˙Lamax over time. CML treatment and side effects drastically decreased TL, intensity, and performance, which ultimately hindered a qualification for Tokyo 2020/21. In conclusion, there is a need for careful training prescription and monitoring in wheelchair triathletes to improve performance and avoid non-functional overreaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver J. Quittmann
- Department IV: Movement Rehabilitation, Neuromechanics and Paralympic Sport, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Research Group in Disability Sport (ERGiDS), Bonn, Germany
- *Correspondence: Oliver J. Quittmann
| | - Benjamin Lenatz
- Department IV: Movement Rehabilitation, Neuromechanics and Paralympic Sport, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Frauke Lenatz
- Department IV: Movement Rehabilitation, Neuromechanics and Paralympic Sport, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Tina Foitschik
- Department IV: Movement Rehabilitation, Neuromechanics and Paralympic Sport, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Abel
- Department IV: Movement Rehabilitation, Neuromechanics and Paralympic Sport, Institute of Movement and Neurosciences, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- European Research Group in Disability Sport (ERGiDS), Bonn, Germany
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Impact of prior accumulated work and intensity on power output in elite/international level road cyclists—a pilot study. GERMAN JOURNAL OF EXERCISE AND SPORT RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12662-022-00818-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
This study aimed to investigate the impact of the intensity of prior accumulated work on the decline in power output in elite/international level road cyclists, comparing the effects of prior continuous moderate intensity versus intermittent high intensity cycling.
Methods
Nine elite/international level road cyclists (age 26.2 ± 4.0 years; body mass: 66.6 ± 5.5 kg; height: 176 ± 0.4 cm) conducted a 12-min field test (12 minfresh) during two consecutive training camps. Participants then performed both a 150-min moderate intensity continuous (MIC) work bout or a 150-min high intensity intermittent (HII) race simulation in randomized order, cross-over design. After each condition a 12-min field test (12 minfatigue) was completed.
Results
Absolute and relative 12 minfresh power output were not significantly different between training camps (p > 0.05). The 12 minfatigue power after HII was significantly lower than 12 minfatigue after MIC (∆ = 14 W; p = 0.014). Participants recorded more percentage time (%Time) in heart rate (HR) zone 3 (∆ = 9.2%; p = 0.003) and power output band between 5.0–7.9 W $$\cdot$$
∙
kg−1 (∆ = 8.9%; p = 0.002) as well as higher total work (∆ = 237 kJ; p ≤ 0.001) during HII.
Conclusion
These findings reveal that the decline in power output is higher after HII compared to MIC cycling work bouts. This suggests that the quantification of total work and intensity should be used in conjunction to predict a distinctive decline in power output. Future research is required to better understand the mechanisms of endurance “durability” in elite/international level road cyclists.
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Rogers B, Gronwald T. Fractal Correlation Properties of Heart Rate Variability as a Biomarker for Intensity Distribution and Training Prescription in Endurance Exercise: An Update. Front Physiol 2022; 13:879071. [PMID: 35615679 PMCID: PMC9124938 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.879071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
While established methods for determining physiologic exercise thresholds and intensity distribution such as gas exchange or lactate testing are appropriate for the laboratory setting, they are not easily obtainable for most participants. Data over the past two years has indicated that the short-term scaling exponent alpha1 of Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA a1), a heart rate variability (HRV) index representing the degree of fractal correlation properties of the cardiac beat sequence, shows promise as an alternative for exercise load assessment. Unlike conventional HRV indexes, it possesses a dynamic range throughout all intensity zones and does not require prior calibration with an incremental exercise test. A DFA a1 value of 0.75, reflecting values midway between well correlated fractal patterns and uncorrelated behavior, has been shown to be associated with the aerobic threshold in elite, recreational and cardiac disease populations and termed the heart rate variability threshold (HRVT). Further loss of fractal correlation properties indicative of random beat patterns, signifying an autonomic state of unsustainability (DFA a1 of 0.5), may be associated with that of the anaerobic threshold. There is minimal bias in DFA a1 induced by common artifact correction methods at levels below 3% and negligible change in HRVT even at levels of 6%. DFA a1 has also shown value for exercise load management in situations where standard intensity targets can be skewed such as eccentric cycling. Currently, several web sites and smartphone apps have been developed to track DFA a1 in retrospect or in real-time, making field assessment of physiologic exercise thresholds and internal load assessment practical. Although of value when viewed in isolation, DFA a1 tracking in combination with non-autonomic markers such as power/pace, open intriguing possibilities regarding athlete durability, identification of endurance exercise fatigue and optimization of daily training guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Rogers
- College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Bruce Rogers,
| | - Thomas Gronwald
- Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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Smyth B, Maunder E, Meyler S, Hunter B, Muniz-Pumares D. Decoupling of Internal and External Workload During a Marathon: An Analysis of Durability in 82,303 Recreational Runners. Sports Med 2022; 52:2283-2295. [PMID: 35511416 PMCID: PMC9388405 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01680-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aim This study characterised the decoupling of internal-to-external workload in marathon running and investigated whether decoupling magnitude and onset could improve predictions of marathon performance. Methods The decoupling of internal-to-external workload was calculated in 82,303 marathon runners (13,125 female). Internal workload was determined as a percentage of maximum heart rate, and external workload as speed relative to estimated critical speed (CS). Decoupling magnitude (i.e., decoupling in the 35–40 km segment relative to the 5–10 km segment) was classified as low (< 1.1), moderate (≥ 1.1 but < 1.2) or high (≥ 1.2). Decoupling onset was calculated when decoupling exceeded 1.025. Results The overall internal-to-external workload decoupling experienced was 1.16 ± 0.22, first detected 25.2 ± 9.9 km into marathon running. The low decoupling group (34.5% of runners) completed the marathon at a faster relative speed (88 ± 6% CS), had better marathon performance (217.3 ± 33.1 min), and first experienced decoupling later in the marathon (33.4 ± 9.0 km) compared to those in the moderate (32.7% of runners, 86 ± 6% CS, 224.9 ± 31.7 min, and 22.6 ± 7.7 km), and high decoupling groups (32.8% runners, 82 ± 7% CS, 238.5 ± 30.7 min, and 19.1 ± 6.8 km; all p < 0.01). Compared to females, males’ decoupling magnitude was greater (1.17 ± 0.22 vs. 1.12 ± 0.16; p < 0.01) and occurred earlier (25.0 ± 9.8 vs. 26.3 ± 10.6 km; p < 0.01). Marathon performance was associated with the magnitude and onset of decoupling, and when included in marathon performance models utilising CS and the curvature constant, prediction error was reduced from 6.45 to 5.16%. Conclusion Durability characteristics, assessed as internal-to-external workload ratio, show considerable inter-individual variability, and both its magnitude and onset are associated with marathon performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Smyth
- Insight Centre for Data Analytics, School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Samuel Meyler
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Ben Hunter
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Daniel Muniz-Pumares
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, AL10 9AB, UK
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Kayser B, Mariani B. Exceptional Performance in Competitive Ski Mountaineering: An Inertial Sensor Case Study. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:854614. [PMID: 35469245 PMCID: PMC9033938 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.854614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Organized biannually in the Swiss Alps since 1984, the “Patrouille des Glaciers” (PDG) is one of the most challenging long-distance ski mountaineering (skimo) team competitions in the world. The race begins in Zermatt (1,616 m) and ends in Verbier (1,520 m), covering a total distance of 53 km with a cumulated 4,386 m of ascent and 4,482 m of descent. About 4,800 athletes take part in this competition, in teams of three. We hereby present the performance analysis of the uphill parts of this race of a member (#1) of the winning team in 2018, setting a new race record at 5 h and 35 min, in comparison with two amateur athletes. The athletes were equipped with the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) antenna, a heart rate monitor, and a dedicated multisensor inertial measurement unit (IMU) attached to a ski, which recorded spatial-temporal gait parameters and transition events. The athletes' GNSS and heart rate data were synchronized with the IMU data. Athlete #1 had a baseline VO2 max of 80 ml/min/kg, a maximum heart rate of 205 bpm, weighed 69 kg, and had a body mass index (BMI) of 21.3 kg/m2. During the race, he carried 6 kg of gear and kept his heart rate constant around 85% of max. Spatiotemporal parameters analysis highlighted his ability to sustain higher power, higher pace, and, thus, higher vertical velocity than the other athletes. He made longer steps by gliding longer at each step and performed less kick turns in a shorter time. He spent only a cumulative 5 min and 30 s during skins on and off transitions. Skimo performance, thus, requires a high aerobic power of which a high fraction can be maintained for a prolonged time. Our results further confirm earlier observations that speed of ascent during endurance skimo competitions is a function of body weight and race gear and vertical energy cost of locomotion, with the latter function of climbing gradient. It is also the first study to provide some reference benchmarks for spatiotemporal parameters of elite and amateur skimo athletes during climbing using real-world data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bengt Kayser
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Bengt Kayser ; orcid.org/0000-0002-9776-7501
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Crosby S, Butcher A, McDonald K, Berger N, Bekker PJ, Best R. Menthol Mouth Rinsing Maintains Relative Power Production during Three-Minute Maximal Cycling Performance in the Heat Compared to Cold Water and Placebo Rinsing. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19063527. [PMID: 35329209 PMCID: PMC8949398 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previous menthol studies have demonstrated ergogenic effects in endurance-based activity. However, there is a need for research in sports whose physiological requirements exceed maximal aerobic capacity. This study assessed the effects of 0.1% menthol mouth-rinsing upon a modified three-minute maximal test in the heat (33.0 ± 3.0 °C; RH 46.0 ± 5.0%). In a randomised crossover single blind placebo-controlled study, 11 participants completed three modified maximal tests, where each trial included a different mouth rinse: either menthol (MEN), cold water (WAT) or placebo (PLA). Participants were asked to rate their thermal comfort (TC), thermal sensation (TS) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) throughout the test. Heart rate, core temperature, oxygen uptake (VO2), ventilation (VE) and respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were monitored continuously throughout the test, alongside cycling power variables (W; W/kg). A blood lactate (BLa) level was taken pre- and post- test. Small to moderate effects (Cohen's d and accompanying 90% confidence intervals) between solutions MEN, WAT and PLA were observed towards the end of the test in relation to relative power. Specifically, from 75-105 s between solutions MEN and WAT (ES: 0.795; 90% CI: 0.204 to 1.352) and MEN and PLA (ES: 1.059; 90% CI: 0.412 to 1.666), this continued between MEN and WAT (ES: 0.729; 90% CI: 0.152 to 1.276) and MEN and PLA (ES: 0.791; 90% CI: 0.202 to 1.348) from 105-135 s. Between 135-165 s there was a moderate difference between solutions MEN and WAT (ES: 1.058; 90% CI: 0.411 to 1.665). This indicates participants produced higher relative power for longer durations with the addition of the menthol mouth rinse, compared to cold water or placebo. The use of menthol (0.1%) as a mouth rinse showed small performance benefits for short duration high intensity exercise in the heat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seana Crosby
- Centre for Sport Science & Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand; (S.C.); (A.B.); (K.M.); (P.J.B.)
| | - Anna Butcher
- Centre for Sport Science & Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand; (S.C.); (A.B.); (K.M.); (P.J.B.)
| | - Kerin McDonald
- Centre for Sport Science & Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand; (S.C.); (A.B.); (K.M.); (P.J.B.)
| | - Nicolas Berger
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough TS1 3BX, UK;
| | - Petrus J. Bekker
- Centre for Sport Science & Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand; (S.C.); (A.B.); (K.M.); (P.J.B.)
| | - Russ Best
- Centre for Sport Science & Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton 3200, New Zealand; (S.C.); (A.B.); (K.M.); (P.J.B.)
- Correspondence:
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Spragg J, Leo P, Swart J. The relationship between training characteristics and durability in professional cyclists across a competitive season. Eur J Sport Sci 2022; 23:489-498. [PMID: 35239466 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2049886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
RESULTS Absolute 5MMPfatigue, 12MMPfatigue and relative 12MMPfatigue were significantly lower in late-season compared with early- and mid-season (p < 0.05). The difference in absolute 12MMPfresh and 12MMPfatigue was significantly greater in late than in early- and mid-season.A significant relationship was found between training time below the first ventilatory threshold (Time < VT1) and improvements in absolute and relative 2MMPfatigue (r = 0.43 p = 0.018 and r = 0.376 p = 0.04 respectively); and between a shift towards a polarised training intensity distribution and improvements in absolute and relative 12MMPfatigue (r = 0.414p = 0.023 for both) between subsequent periods. CONCLUSION There is greater variability in the fatigue power profile across a competitive season than the fresh power profile.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Spragg
- HPALS, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town
| | - Peter Leo
- Department of Sport Science, Division of Performance Physiology & Prevention, University of Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Jeroen Swart
- HPALS, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town
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The Record Power Profile of Male Professional Cyclists: Fatigue Matters. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:926-931. [PMID: 35240578 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present study aimed to determine the influence of fatigue on the record power profile of professional male cyclists. We also assessed whether fatigue could differently affect cyclists of 2 competition categories. METHODS We analyzed the record power profile in 112 professional cyclists (n = 46 and n = 66 in the ProTeam [PT] and WorldTour [WT] category, respectively; age 29 [6] y, 8 [5] y experience in the professional category) during 2013-2021 (8 [5] seasons/cyclist). We analyzed their mean maximal power (MMP) values for efforts lasting 10 seconds to 120 minutes with no fatigue (after 0 kJ·kg-1) and with increasing levels of fatigue (after 15, 25, 35, and 45 kJ·kg-1). RESULTS A significant (P < .001) and progressive deterioration of all MMP values was observed from the lowest levels of fatigue assessed (ie, -1.6% to -3.0% decline after 15 kJ·kg-1, and -6.0% to -9.7% after 45 kJ·kg-1). Compared with WT, PT cyclists showed a greater decay of MMP values under fatigue conditions (P < .001), and these differences increased with accumulating levels of fatigue (decay of -1.8 to -2.9% [WT] with reference to 0 kJ·kg-1 vs -1.1% to -4.4% [PT] after 15 kJ·kg-1 and of -4.7% to -8.8% [WT] vs -7.6% to -11.6% [PT] after 45 kJ·kg-1). No consistent differences were found between WT and PT cyclists in MMP values assessed in nonfatigue conditions (after 0 kJ·kg-1), but WT cyclists attained significantly higher MMP values with accumulating levels of fatigue, particularly for long-duration efforts (≥5 min). CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the importance of considering fatigue when assessing the record power profile of endurance athletes and support the ability to attenuate fatigue-induced decline in MMP values as a determinant of endurance performance.
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Muriel X, Mateo-March M, Valenzuela PL, Zabala M, Lucia A, Pallares JG, Barranco-Gil D. Durability and repeatability of professional cyclists during a Grand Tour. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1797-1804. [PMID: 34586952 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1987528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Durability and repeatability (i.e. the ability to sustain high power output values under fatigue and to endure repeated high-intensity efforts, respectively) are emerging as cycling performance determinants. We aimed to analyze whether these markers differ between professional cyclists of two competition levels (WorldTour [WT] and Proteam [PT]) during a Grand Tour. We studied 8 WT and 7 PT cyclists who competed in "La Vuelta 2020". Durability was assessed with the mean maximal power (MMP) values attained between 5 sec-30 min after different levels of mechanical work done (0-35 kJ·kg-1). Repeatability was assessed as the ability to repeat efforts >95% MMP. Although no differences were found for durability during the whole race (p = 0.209), a significant interaction effect was found in separate analyses by week (p = 0.011). Thus, during the first week and in the "fresh" state (0 kJ·kg-1), WT cyclists solely attained significantly higher MMP values for 30-min efforts. However, these differences enlarged with accumulating levels of fatigue (e.g. significantly higher MMP values in WT cyclists for 30-sec, 1-min, 5-min, 20-min and 30-min efforts after 35 kJ·kg-1). On the other hand, no between-group differences were found in repeatability for the whole race (p = 0.777) or in separate analyses by week (p = 0.808). In summary, the present results support the role of durability (but not of repeatability) as a performance indicator during professional cycling races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xabier Muriel
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain.,Caja Rural-Seguros RGA Professional Cycling Team, Pamplona, Spain
| | | | | | - Mikel Zabala
- Department of Physical Education & Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lucia
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Hospital 12 de Octubre (imas12), Grupo de Investigación en Actividad Física y Salud (PaHerg), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jesús G Pallares
- Human Performance and Sports Science Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain
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Inoue A, Lattari E, do Carmo EC, Rodrigues GM, de Oliveira BRR, Santos TM. Correlation between economy/efficiency and mountain biking cross-country race performance. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1641-1648. [PMID: 34429029 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1968504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the correlation between cycling economy (CE) and gross efficiency (GE) in Olympic cross-country mountain biking (XCO-MTB) race performance. Also was examined the correlation between CE, GE, and peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak). Sixteen male XCO-MTB athletes (30.9 ± 5.2 years, 68.7 ± 5.6 kg, 175.0 ± 5.7 cm, and VO2peak: 65.4 ± 4.9 mL·kg-1 min-1) completed two experimental sessions. On the first, anthropometric assessments and a maximal incremental test were performed. The maximal incremental test was performed in the cycle ergometer to determine VO2peak, CE, and GE. A week later, an XCO-MTB race was performed in the second visit, where the official race time was used as a performance indicator. An inverse, significant moderate correlation was found between race time (8318.3 ± 459.0 s) and both CE (r = -0.53; CI95% = -0.84 to -0.10; p = 0.0008), and GE (r = -0.67; CI95% = -0.89 to -0.22; p = 0.0001). However, the moderate correlation between CE and race time showed low power. No significant correlation was found between VO2peak and either CE (r = -0.45; CI95% = -0.77-0.06; p = 0.08) or GE (r = -0.47; CI95% = -0.78-0.04; p = 0.07). In conclusion, gross efficiency is an important component of XCO-MTB race performance. The VO2peak was not related to CE and GE. The evaluation of GE may be a useful addition to the battery of physiological tests in mountain bikers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan Inoue
- Exercise and Sport Sciences Postgraduate Program, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Research Group on Exercise and Health Science, Rio de Janeiro State University, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Exercise Sciences Research Laboratory, Physical Education Center Admiral Adalberto Nunes (CEFAN), Brazilian Navy, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Lattari
- Laboratory of Physical Activity Neuroscience, Physical Activity Sciences Postgraduate Program, Salgado de Oliveira University, Niterói, Brazil
| | | | - Guilherme Moraes Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Physical Activity Neuroscience, Physical Activity Sciences Postgraduate Program, Salgado de Oliveira University, Niterói, Brazil
| | | | - Tony Meireles Santos
- Department of Physical Education, Pernambuco Federal University, Pernambuco, Brazil
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Næss S, Sollie O, Gløersen ØN, Losnegard T. Exercise Intensity and Pacing Pattern During a Cross-Country Olympic Mountain Bike Race. Front Physiol 2021; 12:702415. [PMID: 34349670 PMCID: PMC8326908 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.702415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To examine the power profiles and pacing patterns in relation to critical power (CP) and maximal aerobic power (MAP) output during a cross-country Olympic (XCO) mountain bike race. Methods: Five male and two female national competitive XCO cyclists completed a UCI Cat. 1 XCO race. The races were 19 km and 23 km and contained five (female) and six (male) laps, respectively. Power output (PO) during the race was measured with the cyclists’ personal power meters. On two laboratory tests using their own bikes and power meters, CP and work capacity above CP (W') were calculated using three time trials of 12, 7, and 3 min, while MAP was established based on a 3-step submaximal test and the maximal oxygen uptake from the 7-min time trial. Results: Mean PO over the race duration (96 ± 7 min) corresponded to 76 ± 9% of CP and 63 ± 4% of MAP. 40 ± 8% of race time was spent with PO > CP, and the mean duration and magnitude of the bouts >CP was ~8 s and ~120% of CP. From the first to last lap, time >CP and accumulated W' per lap decreased with 9 ± 6% and 45 ± 17%, respectively. For single >CP bouts, mean magnitude and mean W' expended decreased by 25 ± 8% and 38 ± 15% from the first to the last lap, respectively. Number and duration of bouts did not change significantly between laps. Conclusion: The highly variable pacing pattern in XCO implies the need for rapid changes in metabolic power output, as a result of numerous separate short-lived >CP actions which decrease in magnitude in later laps, but with little lap-to-lap variation in number and duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffan Næss
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ove Sollie
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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