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Maunder E, King A, Rothschild JA, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Hedges CP, Merry TL, Kilding AE. Locally applied heat stress during exercise training may promote adaptations to mitochondrial enzyme activities in skeletal muscle. Pflugers Arch 2024:10.1007/s00424-024-02939-8. [PMID: 38446167 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-024-02939-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
There is some evidence for temperature-dependent stimulation of mitochondrial biogenesis; however, the role of elevated muscle temperature during exercise in mitochondrial adaptation to training has not been studied in humans in vivo. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of elevating muscle temperature during exercise in temperate conditions through the application of mild, local heat stress on mitochondrial adaptations to endurance training. Eight endurance-trained males undertook 3 weeks of supervised cycling training, during which mild (~ 40 °C) heat stress was applied locally to the upper-leg musculature of one leg during all training sessions (HEAT), with the contralateral leg serving as the non-heated, exercising control (CON). Vastus lateralis microbiopsies were obtained from both legs before and after the training period. Training-induced increases in complex I (fold-change, 1.24 ± 0.33 vs. 1.01 ± 0.49, P = 0.029) and II (fold-change, 1.24 ± 0.33 vs. 1.01 ± 0.49, P = 0.029) activities were significantly larger in HEAT than CON. No significant effects of training, or interactions between local heat stress application and training, were observed for complex I-V or HSP70 protein expressions. Our data provides partial evidence to support the hypothesis that elevating local muscle temperature during exercise augments training-induced adaptations to mitochondrial enzyme activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew King
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Christopher P Hedges
- Discipline of Nutrition, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Troy L Merry
- Discipline of Nutrition, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Stevenson JD, Kilding AE, Plews DJ, Maunder E. Prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:309-315. [PMID: 37495864 PMCID: PMC10786968 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05285-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To quantify the effects of prolonged cycling on the rate of ventilation ([Formula: see text]), frequency of respiration (FR), and tidal volume (VT) associated with the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition. METHODS Fourteen endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes (one female) completed an assessment of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, determined as the first ventilatory threshold (VT1), before (PRE) and after (POST) two hours of moderate-intensity cycling. The power output, [Formula: see text], FR, and VT associated with VT1 were determined PRE and POST. RESULTS As previously reported, power output at VT1 significantly decreased by ~ 10% from PRE to POST. The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was unchanged from PRE to POST (72 ± 12 vs. 69 ± 13 L.min-1, ∆ - 3 ± 5 L.min-1, ∆ - 4 ± 8%, P = 0.075), and relatively consistent (within-subject coefficient of variation, 5.4% [3.7, 8.0%]). The [Formula: see text] associated with VT1 was produced with increased FR (27.6 ± 5.8 vs. 31.9 ± 6.5 breaths.min-1, ∆ 4.3 ± 3.1 breaths.min-1, ∆ 16 ± 11%, P = 0.0002) and decreased VT (2.62 ± 0.43 vs. 2.19 ± 0.36 L.breath-1, ∆ - 0.44 ± 0.22 L.breath-1, ∆ - 16 ± 7%, P = 0.0002) in POST. CONCLUSION These data suggest prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, but [Formula: see text] remains stable. Real-time monitoring of [Formula: see text] may be a useful means of assessing proximity to the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise and is worthy of further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian D Stevenson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Scheffer JH, Dunshea-Mooij CAE, Armstrong S, MacManus C, Kilding AE. Prevalence of low energy availability in 25 New Zealand elite female rowers - A cross sectional study. J Sci Med Sport 2023; 26:640-645. [PMID: 37802760 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2023.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To quantify energy availability (EA) in elite female rowers, determine its association with bone mineral density (BMD), and examine the ability of the low energy availability in females-questionnaire (LEAF-Q) and brief eating disorder in athletes-questionnaire (BEDA-Q) to distinguish between low and normal EA. DESIGN Observational cross-sectional study. METHODS Twenty-five elite female rowers participated in the study. EA was calculated by means of a 4-day food intake diary and analysis of training load. Low energy availability (LEA) was defined as EA <30 kCal * kg-1 * FFM-1 * day-1. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) was used to assess fat free mass (FFM) and BMD Z-scores. LEA risk was assessed using the LEAF-Q and BEDA-Q. RESULTS The mean EA was 23.2 ± 12.2 kCal * kg-1 * FFM-1 * day-1. Prevalence of LEA was 64 %. The mean BMD Z-score was 1.6 ± 0.6 (range: 0.7 to 2.9). Athletes with LEA had a significantly higher BEDA-Q score than the group with normal EA (mean 0.30 ± 0.17 vs. 0.09 ± 0.11, P < 0.05), but LEAF-Q score was not different between groups (mean 10.4 ± 4.6, 8.2 ± 4.5, P = 0.29). CONCLUSION Low energy availability is common amongst elite female rowers in New Zealand and is positively correlated with higher scores on the BEDA-Q. Bone mineral density was normal irrespective of EA status.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stuart Armstrong
- Rowing New Zealand/High Performance Sport New Zealand, New Zealand
| | | | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand, School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology/High Performance Sport New Zealand, New Zealand
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Charoensap T, Kilding AE, Maunder E. Carbohydrate, but not fat, oxidation is reduced during moderate-intensity exercise performed in 33 vs. 18 °C at matched heart rates. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:2073-2085. [PMID: 37199760 PMCID: PMC10193330 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05225-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Exposure to environmental heat stress increases carbohydrate oxidation and extracellular heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) concentrations during endurance exercise at matched absolute, external work rates. However, a reduction in absolute work rate typically occurs when unacclimated endurance athletes train and/or compete in hot environments. We sought to determine the effect of environmental heat stress on carbohydrate oxidation rates and plasma HSP70 expression during exercise at matched heart rates (HR). METHODS Ten endurance-trained, male cyclists performed two experimental trials in an acute, randomised, counterbalanced cross-over design. Each trial involved a 90-min bout of cycling exercise at 95% of the HR associated with the first ventilatory threshold in either 18 (TEMP) or 33 °C (HEAT), with ~ 60% relative humidity. RESULTS Mean power output (17 ± 11%, P < 0.001) and whole-body energy expenditure (14 ± 8%, P < 0.001) were significantly lower in HEAT. Whole-body carbohydrate oxidation rates were significantly lower in HEAT (19 ± 11%, P = 0.002), while fat oxidation rates were not different between-trials. The heat stress-induced reduction in carbohydrate oxidation was associated with the observed reduction in power output (r = 0.64, 95% CI, 0.01, 0.91, P = 0.05) and augmented sweat rates (r = 0.85, 95% CI, 0.49, 0.96, P = 0.002). Plasma HSP70 and adrenaline concentrations were not increased with exercise in either environment. CONCLUSION These data contribute to our understanding of how moderate environmental heat stress is likely to influence substrate oxidation and plasma HSP70 expression in an ecologically-valid model of endurance exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanchanok Charoensap
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Ramonas A, Laursen PB, Williden M, Kilding AE. The effect of acute manipulation of carbohydrate availability on high intensity running performance, running economy, critical speed, and substrate metabolism in trained Male runners. Eur J Sport Sci 2023; 23:1961-1971. [PMID: 36168815 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2130097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Completing selected training sessions with reduced glycogen availability is associated with greater signalling and improved muscle oxidative capacity, although it may impact the overall quality of the session. We examined the effects of low carbohydrate availability on high intensity exercise performance, running economy, critical speed, and substrate metabolism. On two occasions, nine male runners (V̇O2peak 60.3 ± 3.3 mL.kg-1.min-1) completed a glycogen depletion protocol involving 90-min at 75%vV̇O2peak followed by 10 × 1-min at 110% vV̇O2peak. This was followed either by high (HIGH) or low (LOW) carbohydrate intake (>6 g.kg-1.day-1 and <50 g.day-1, respectively) until completion of a performance protocol on day 2 consisting of a series of time-trials (TT) (50m to 3000m) and physiological assessments. There were no differences between LOW and HIGH for any TT distance (mean TT performance times for LOW and HIGH were: 3000m TT 651.7 ± 52.8s and 646.4 ± 52.5s, 1500 m TT 304.0 ± 20.2s and 304.2 ± 22.1s, 400 m TT 67.64 ± 4.2s and 67.3 ± 3.8s, 50 m TT 7.27 ± 0.44s and 7.25 ± 0.45s, respectively, P > 0.05), though some athletes performed better in LOW (n = 5). While fat oxidation in LOW was significantly greater than HIGH (Δ0.32 ± 0.14 g.min-1; P < 0.001 at 14 km.h-1 and Δ0.34 ± 0.12 g.min-1 at 16 km.h-1; P < 0.01), running economy did not differ between trials (P > 0.05). Acute manipulation of carbohydrate availability showed immediate effects on substrate metabolism evidenced by greater fat oxidation without changes in RE. Acute low carbohydrate availability did not affect high intensity running performance across a range of distances.Highlights Acute manipulation of muscle glycogen availability using an exercise and dietary manipulation protocol did not affect subsequent high intensity running performance across a range of running distances.Reduced muscle glycogen resulted in a marked increase in fat oxidation in low glycogen condition but no changes in running economy or critical speed.Individual factors should be considered when prescribing high intensity sessions with restricted carbohydrate availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrius Ramonas
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute NZ, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute NZ, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Micalla Williden
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute NZ, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute NZ, Auckland, New Zealand
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Maunder E, Rothschild JA, Fritzen AM, Jordy AB, Kiens B, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Chang WL, Kilding AE. Skeletal muscle proteins involved in fatty acid transport influence fatty acid oxidation rates observed during exercise. Pflugers Arch 2023; 475:1061-1072. [PMID: 37464190 PMCID: PMC10409849 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-023-02843-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Several proteins are implicated in transmembrane fatty acid transport. The purpose of this study was to quantify the variation in fatty acid oxidation rates during exercise explained by skeletal muscle proteins involved in fatty acid transport. Seventeen endurance-trained males underwent a (i) fasted, incremental cycling test to estimate peak whole-body fatty acid oxidation rate (PFO), (ii) resting vastus lateralis microbiopsy, and (iii) 2 h of fed-state, moderate-intensity cycling to estimate whole-body fatty acid oxidation during fed-state exercise (FO). Bivariate correlations and stepwise linear regression models of PFO and FO during 0-30 min (early FO) and 90-120 min (late FO) of continuous cycling were constructed using muscle data. To assess the causal role of transmembrane fatty acid transport in fatty acid oxidation rates during exercise, we measured fatty acid oxidation during in vivo exercise and ex vivo contractions in wild-type and CD36 knock-out mice. We observed a novel, positive association between vastus lateralis FATP1 and PFO and replicated work reporting a positive association between FABPpm and PFO. The stepwise linear regression model of PFO retained CD36, FATP1, FATP4, and FABPpm, explaining ~87% of the variation. Models of early and late FO explained ~61 and ~65% of the variation, respectively. FATP1 and FATP4 emerged as contributors to models of PFO and FO. Mice lacking CD36 had impaired whole-body and muscle fatty acid oxidation during exercise and muscle contractions, respectively. These data suggest that substantial variation in fatty acid oxidation rates during exercise can be explained by skeletal muscle proteins involved in fatty acid transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andreas M Fritzen
- The August Krogh Section for Molecular Physiology, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Andreas B Jordy
- The August Krogh Section for Molecular Physiology, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bente Kiens
- The August Krogh Section for Molecular Physiology, Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Wee-Leong Chang
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Ramonas A, Laursen PB, Williden M, Chang WL, Kilding AE. Carbohydrate intake before and during high intensity exercise with reduced muscle glycogen availability affects the speed of muscle reoxygenation and performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023:10.1007/s00421-023-05162-y. [PMID: 36897400 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05162-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Muscle glycogen state and carbohydrate (CHO) supplementation before and during exercise may impact responses to high-intensity interval training (HIIT). This study determined cardiorespiratory, substrate metabolism, muscle oxygenation, and performance when completing HIIT with or without CHO supplementation in a muscle glycogen depleted state. On two occasions, in a cross-over design, eight male cyclists performed a glycogen depletion protocol prior to HIIT during which either a 6% CHO drink (60 g.hr-1) or placebo (%CHO, PLA) was consumed. HIIT consisted of 5 × 2 min at 80% peak power output (PPO), 3 × 10-min bouts of steady-state (SS) cycling (50, 55, 60% PPO), and a time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test. There was no difference in SS [Formula: see text], HR, substrate oxidation and gross efficiency (GE %) between CHO and PLA conditions. A faster rate of muscle reoxygenation (%. s-1) existed in PLA after the 1st (Δ - 0.23 ± 0.22, d = 0.58, P < 0.05) and 3rd HIIT intervals (Δ - 0.34 ± 0.25, d = 1.02, P < 0.05). TTE was greater in CHO (7.1 ± 5.4 min) than PLA (2.5 ± 2.3 min, d = 0.98, P < 0.05). CHO consumption before and during exercise under reduced muscle glycogen conditions did not suppress fat oxidation, suggesting a strong regulatory role of muscle glycogen on substrate metabolism. However, CHO ingestion provided a performance benefit under intense exercise conditions commenced with reduced muscle glycogen. More research is needed to understand the significance of altered muscle oxygenation patterns during exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrius Ramonas
- School of Sports and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, PO Box 92006, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand.
| | - Paul B Laursen
- School of Sports and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, PO Box 92006, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | - Micalla Williden
- School of Sports and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, PO Box 92006, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
| | | | - Andrew E Kilding
- School of Sports and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, PO Box 92006, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand
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Till K, Hendricks S, Scantlebury S, Dalton-Barron N, Gill N, den Hollander S, Kemp S, Kilding AE, Lambert M, Mackreth P, O'Reilly J, Owen C, Spencer K, Stokes K, Tee J, Tucker R, Vaz L, Weaving D, Jones B. A global perspective on collision and non-collision match characteristics in male rugby union: Comparisons by age and playing standard. Eur J Sport Sci 2023:1-15. [PMID: 36803563 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2160938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
Abstract
This study quantified and compared the collision and non-collision match characteristics across age categories (i.e. U12, U14, U16, U18, Senior) for both amateur and elite playing standards from Tier 1 rugby union nations (i.e. England, South Africa, New Zealand). Two-hundred and one male matches (5911 min ball-in-play) were coded using computerised notational analysis, including 193,708 match characteristics (e.g. 83,688 collisions, 33,052 tackles, 13,299 rucks, 1006 mauls, 2681 scrums, 2923 lineouts, 44,879 passes, 5568 kicks). Generalised linear mixed models with post-hoc comparisons and cluster analysis compared the match characteristics by age category and playing standard. Overall significant differences (p < 0.001) between age category and playing standard were found for the frequency of match characteristics, and tackle and ruck activity. The frequency of characteristics increased with age category and playing standard except for scrums and tries that were the lowest at the senior level. For the tackle, the percentage of successful tackles, frequency of active shoulder, sequential and simultaneous tackles increased with age and playing standard. For ruck activity, the number of attackers and defenders were lower in U18 and senior than younger age categories. Cluster analysis demonstrated clear differences in all and collision match characteristics and activity by age category and playing standard. These findings provide the most comprehensive quantification and comparison of collision and non-collision activity in rugby union demonstrating increased frequency and type of collision activity with increasing age and playing standard. These findings have implications for policy to ensure the safe development of rugby union players throughout the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Till
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club, Leeds, UK
| | - Sharief Hendricks
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sean Scantlebury
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,England Performance Unit, Rugby Football League, Red Hall, Leeds, UK
| | - Nick Dalton-Barron
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,Football Association, London, UK
| | - Nicholas Gill
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing & Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato, Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - Steve den Hollander
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Simon Kemp
- Rugby Football Union, London, UK.,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Mike Lambert
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Peter Mackreth
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - John O'Reilly
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Cameron Owen
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,England Performance Unit, Rugby Football League, Red Hall, Leeds, UK.,British Swimming, Loughborough, UK
| | - Kirsten Spencer
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Keith Stokes
- Rugby Football Union, London, UK.,Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Jason Tee
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | | | - Luis Vaz
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Dan Weaving
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
| | - Ben Jones
- Carnegie Applied Rugby Research Centre, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK.,Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club, Leeds, UK.,Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,England Performance Unit, Rugby Football League, Red Hall, Leeds, UK.,Research and Rugby Development, Premier Rugby Ltd, Twickenham, UK
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Maunder E, Rothschild JA, Ramonas A, Delcourt M, Kilding AE. A three-minute all-out test performed in a remote setting does not provide a valid estimate of the maximum metabolic steady state. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:2385-2392. [PMID: 35948835 PMCID: PMC9560921 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05020-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The three-minute all-out test (3MT), when performed on a laboratory ergometer in a linear mode, can be used to estimate the heavy-severe-intensity transition, or maximum metabolic steady state (MMSS), using the end-test power output. As the 3MT only requires accurate measurement of power output and time, it is possible the 3MT could be used in remote settings using personal equipment without supervision for quantification of MMSS. METHODS The aim of the present investigation was to determine the reliability and validity of remotely performed 3MTs (3MTR) for estimation of MMSS. Accordingly, 53 trained cyclists and triathletes were recruited to perform one familiarisation and two experimental 3MTR trials to determine its reliability. A sub-group (N = 10) was recruited to perform three-to-five 30 min laboratory-based constant-work rate trials following completion of one familiarisation and two experimental 3MTR trials. Expired gases were collected throughout constant-work rate trials and blood lactate concentration was measured at 10 and 30 min to determine the highest power output at which steady-state [Formula: see text] (MMSS-[Formula: see text]) and blood lactate (MMSS-[La-]) were achieved. RESULTS The 3MTR end-test power (EPremote) was reliable (coefficient of variation, 4.5% [95% confidence limits, 3.7, 5.5%]), but overestimated MMSS (EPremote, 283 ± 51 W; MMSS-[Formula: see text], 241 ± 46 W, P = 0.0003; MMSS-[La-], 237 ± 47 W, P = 0.0003). This may have been due to failure to deplete the finite work capacity above MMSS during the 3MTR. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the 3MTR should not be used to estimate MMSS in endurance-trained cyclists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jeffrey A. Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrius Ramonas
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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10
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Shaw DM, Dulson DK. Upper respiratory tract symptom risk in elite field hockey players during a dry run for the Tokyo Olympics. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:1827-1835. [PMID: 34873991 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.2009041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTThe primary aim of this study was to examine if biomarker and/or self-reported data could predict upper respiratory tract symptom (URTS) risk in elite field hockey players. The secondary aim was to investigate the effect of the additional stressor 'repeated heat exposure' on measures of thermoregulation and immunity. A prospective cohort repeated measures study design was used to collect URTS, household illness, self-reported wellness, biomarker and thermoregulatory data from elite male field hockey players (n = 19), during an 8-week training and competition period that simulated the preparatory and competition phases of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Heat response testing (HRT) was performed at the beginning of the study period, following heat acclimation (HA) and following an intensified competition period (ICP) played in hot and humid conditions (27-37°C and 53-80% relative humidity). Univariate frailty analysis demonstrated that illness in players' households (Hazard ratio (HR: 4.90; p < 0.001)) and self-reported stress (HR: 0.63; p = 0.043) predicted players' risk for URTS. Additionally, low baseline resting salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) concentration predicted players' "potential" URTS risk (p = 0.021). The additional stressor "repeated heat exposure" was found to facilitate partial thermoregulatory adaptation without attenuating resting immune functions. In conclusion, lifestyle and behavioural factors (i.e. household illness and stress) influenced players risk for URTS more so than sport-related stressors. Furthermore, repeated heat exposure did not appear to compromise players resting immunity. To assess athletes' risk for URTS, baseline screening of SIgA concentration and regular monitoring of self-reported lifestyle and behavioural data are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C Keaney
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,AUT-Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David M Shaw
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Deborah K Dulson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Biomedical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK
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11
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Rothschild JA, Islam H, Bishop DJ, Kilding AE, Stewart T, Plews DJ. Factors Influencing AMPK Activation During Cycling Exercise: A Pooled Analysis and Meta-Regression. Sports Med 2021; 52:1273-1294. [PMID: 34878641 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01610-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The 5' adenosine monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a cellular energy sensor that is activated by increases in the cellular AMP/adenosine diphosphate:adenosine triphosphate (ADP:ATP) ratios and plays a key role in metabolic adaptations to endurance training. The degree of AMPK activation during exercise can be influenced by many factors that impact on cellular energetics, including exercise intensity, exercise duration, muscle glycogen, fitness level, and nutrient availability. However, the relative importance of these factors for inducing AMPK activation remains unclear, and robust relationships between exercise-related variables and indices of AMPK activation have not been established. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this analysis was to (1) investigate correlations between factors influencing AMPK activation and the magnitude of change in AMPK activity during cycling exercise, (2) investigate correlations between commonly reported measures of AMPK activation (AMPK-α2 activity, phosphorylated (p)-AMPK, and p-acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase (p-ACC), and (3) formulate linear regression models to determine the most important factors for AMPK activation during exercise. METHODS Data were pooled from 89 studies, including 982 participants (93.8% male, maximal oxygen consumption [[Formula: see text]] 51.9 ± 7.8 mL kg-1 min-1). Pearson's correlation analysis was performed to determine relationships between effect sizes for each of the primary outcome markers (AMPK-α2 activity, p-AMPK, p-ACC) and factors purported to influence AMPK signaling (muscle glycogen, carbohydrate ingestion, exercise duration and intensity, fitness level, and muscle metabolites). General linear mixed-effect models were used to examine which factors influenced AMPK activation. RESULTS Significant correlations (r = 0.19-0.55, p < .05) with AMPK activity were found between end-exercise muscle glycogen, exercise intensity, and muscle metabolites phosphocreatine, creatine, and free ADP. All markers of AMPK activation were significantly correlated, with the strongest relationship between AMPK-α2 activity and p-AMPK (r = 0.56, p < 0.001). The most important predictors of AMPK activation were the muscle metabolites and exercise intensity. CONCLUSION Muscle glycogen, fitness level, exercise intensity, and exercise duration each influence AMPK activity during exercise when all other factors are held constant. However, disrupting cellular energy charge is the most influential factor for AMPK activation during endurance exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Hashim Islam
- School of Health and Exercise Sciences, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada
| | - David J Bishop
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tom Stewart
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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12
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Maunder E, Plews DJ, Wallis GA, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Chang WL, Stewart T, Watkins CM, Kilding AE. Peak fat oxidation is positively associated with vastus lateralis CD36 content, fed-state exercise fat oxidation, and endurance performance in trained males. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 122:93-102. [PMID: 34562114 PMCID: PMC8475903 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04820-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Whole-body fat oxidation during exercise can be measured non-invasively during athlete profiling. Gaps in understanding exist in the relationships between fat oxidation during incremental fasted exercise and skeletal muscle parameters, endurance performance, and fat oxidation during prolonged fed-state exercise. METHODS Seventeen endurance-trained males underwent a (i) fasted, incremental cycling test to assess peak whole-body fat oxidation (PFO), (ii) resting vastus lateralis microbiopsy, and (iii) 30-min maximal-effort cycling time-trial preceded by 2-h of fed-state moderate-intensity cycling to assess endurance performance and fed-state metabolism on separate occasions within one week. RESULTS PFO (0.58 ± 0.28 g.min-1) was associated with vastus lateralis citrate synthase activity (69.2 ± 26.0 μmol.min-1.g-1 muscle protein, r = 0.84, 95% CI 0.58, 0.95, P < 0.001), CD36 abundance (16.8 ± 12.6 μg.g-1 muscle protein, rs = 0.68, 95% CI 0.31, 1.10, P = 0.01), pre-loaded 30-min time-trial performance (251 ± 51 W, r = 0.76, 95% CI 0.40, 0.91, P = 0.001; 3.2 ± 0.6 W.kg-1, r = 0.62, 95% CI 0.16, 0.86, P = 0.01), and fat oxidation during prolonged fed-state cycling (r = 0.83, 95% CI 0.57, 0.94, P < 0.001). Addition of PFO to a traditional model of endurance (peak oxygen uptake, power at 4 mmol.L-1 blood lactate concentration, and gross efficiency) explained an additional ~ 2.6% of variation in 30-min time-trial performance (adjusted R2 = 0.903 vs. 0.877). CONCLUSION These associations suggest non-invasive measures of whole-body fat oxidation during exercise may be useful in the physiological profiling of endurance athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Gareth A Wallis
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Wee-Leong Chang
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Tom Stewart
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,Human Potential Centre, School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Casey M Watkins
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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13
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Maunder E, Plews DJ, Wallis GA, Brick MJ, Leigh WB, Chang WL, Watkins CM, Kilding AE. Temperate performance and metabolic adaptations following endurance training performed under environmental heat stress. Physiol Rep 2021; 9:e14849. [PMID: 33977674 PMCID: PMC8114151 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Endurance athletes are frequently exposed to environmental heat stress during training. We investigated whether exposure to 33°C during training would improve endurance performance in temperate conditions and stimulate mitochondrial adaptations. Seventeen endurance-trained males were randomly assigned to perform a 3-week training intervention in 18°C (TEMP) or 33°C (HEAT). An incremental test and 30-min time-trial preceded by 2-h low-intensity cycling were performed in 18°C pre- and post-intervention, along with a resting vastus lateralis microbiopsy. Training was matched for relative cardiovascular demand using heart rates measured at the first and second ventilatory thresholds, along with a weekly "best-effort" interval session. Perceived training load was similar between-groups, despite lower power outputs during training in HEAT versus TEMP (p < .05). Time-trial performance improved to a greater extent in HEAT than TEMP (30 ± 13 vs. 16 ± 5 W, N = 7 vs. N = 6, p = .04), and citrate synthase activity increased in HEAT (fold-change, 1.25 ± 0.25, p = .03, N = 9) but not TEMP (1.10 ± 0.22, p = .22, N = 7). Training-induced changes in time-trial performance and citrate synthase activity were related (r = .51, p = .04). A group × time interaction for peak fat oxidation was observed (Δ 0.05 ± 0.14 vs. -0.09 ± 0.12 g·min-1 in TEMP and HEAT, N = 9 vs. N = 8, p = .05). Our data suggest exposure to moderate environmental heat stress during endurance training may be useful for inducing adaptations relevant to performance in temperate conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Gareth A Wallis
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - Matthew J Brick
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Warren B Leigh
- Orthosports North Harbour, AUT Millennium, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Wee-Leong Chang
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Casey M Watkins
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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14
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Broome SC, Stewart T, Cronin JB, Plews DJ. Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate or Protein Ingestion Influences Substrate Oxidation but Not Performance or Hunger Compared with Cycling in the Fasted State. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13041291. [PMID: 33919779 PMCID: PMC8070691 DOI: 10.3390/nu13041291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Nutritional intake can influence exercise metabolism and performance, but there is a lack of research comparing protein-rich pre-exercise meals with endurance exercise performed both in the fasted state and following a carbohydrate-rich breakfast. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of three pre-exercise nutrition strategies on metabolism and exercise capacity during cycling. On three occasions, seventeen trained male cyclists (VO2peak 62.2 ± 5.8 mL·kg−1·min−1, 31.2 ± 12.4 years, 74.8 ± 9.6 kg) performed twenty minutes of submaximal cycling (4 × 5 min stages at 60%, 80%, and 100% of ventilatory threshold (VT), and 20% of the difference between power at the VT and peak power), followed by 3 × 3 min intervals at 80% peak aerobic power and 3 × 3 min intervals at maximal effort, 30 min after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal (CARB; 1 g/kg CHO), a protein-rich meal (PROTEIN; 0.45 g/kg protein + 0.24 g/kg fat), or water (FASTED), in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Fat oxidation was lower for CARB compared with FASTED at and below the VT, and compared with PROTEIN at 60% VT. There were no differences between trials for average power during high-intensity intervals (367 ± 51 W, p = 0.516). Oxidative stress (F2-Isoprostanes), perceived exertion, and hunger were not different between trials. Overall, exercising in the overnight-fasted state increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise compared with exercise following a CHO-rich breakfast, and pre-exercise protein ingestion allowed similarly high levels of fat oxidation. There were no differences in perceived exertion, hunger, or performance, and we provide novel data showing no influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on exercise-induced oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A. Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
| | - Sophie C. Broome
- Discipline of Nutrition, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland 1023, New Zealand;
| | - Tom Stewart
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
- Human Potential Centre, School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - John B. Cronin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
| | - Daniel J. Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0632, New Zealand; (A.E.K.); (T.S.); (J.B.C.); (D.J.P.)
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15
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Shaw DM, Borotkanics RJ, Cupples B, Dulson DK. Predictors of upper respiratory tract symptom risk: Differences between elite rugby union and league players. J Sports Sci 2021; 39:1594-1601. [PMID: 33629651 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2021.1888430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examined possible predictors of upper respiratory tract symptom (URTS) episodes in elite rugby union and league players (n = 51) during intensive pre-season training. Baseline saliva and blood samples were collected in the first week of pre-season training for analysis of salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and cytomegalovirus. Thereafter, SIgA, URTS, internal training load and self-reported wellness data were repeatedly measured throughout a 10-week pre-season training period. Univariate frailty model analysis, which included 502 observations, was performed for each rugby code for the following independent predictor variables: SIgA concentration, internal training load, total wellness, sleep quantity, sleep quality and stress. Rugby union and league players experienced a similar number of URTS episodes; however, predictors of URTS episodes differed between the codes. No biomarkers or self-reported measures significantly predicted URTS risk in rugby union players, while reductions in self-reported total wellness (HR: 0.731, p = 0.004) and sleep quality (HR: 0.345, p = 0.001) predicted increased URTS risk in rugby league players. The findings from this study highlight that factors influencing URTS risk are perhaps sport specific and this may be attributed to different sporting demands and/or different management of players by team-practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Catherine Keaney
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,AUT-Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David M Shaw
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Robert J Borotkanics
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Balin Cupples
- Faculty of Education and Social Work, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Deborah K Dulson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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16
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Dolci F, Kilding AE, Spiteri T, Chivers P, Piggott B, Maiorana A, Hart N. High-intensity Interval Training Shock Microcycle Improves Running Performance but not Economy in Female Soccer Players. Int J Sports Med 2020; 42:740-748. [PMID: 33307555 DOI: 10.1055/a-1302-8002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the effect of high-intensity interval training shock microcycles (HIITSM) on endurance, running economy and change of direction economy in female soccer players. Nineteen sub-elite female soccer players were randomised to two groups: HIITSM (10 HIIT sessions over 13 days) or HIITTRAD (4 HIIT sessions over 13 days) interventions. Endurance performance was evaluated through the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (30-15IFT); running economy over a 5-min treadmill run; and change of direction economy over two conditions: (1) 5-min 20m shuttle run, and (2) 5-min 10m shuttle run. HIITSM significantly improved 30-15IFT scores compared to baseline (+4.4%, p=0.009; d=0.96) and 30-15IFT scores relative to HIITTRAD (p=0.002; d=2.01). There was no significant interaction (group×time) for running economy and change of direction economy. Pre- to post- intervention there was a significant main time effect for blood lactate over 20m and 10m shuttle runs (p<0.001 and p=0.037, respectively), with large (d=0.93) and moderate (d=0.53) changes observed for the HIITSM over the two distances, respectively. HIITSM may be more effective than HIITTRAD to improve 30-15IFT over shorter training periods but may not affect running economy and change of direction economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Dolci
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Division of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, Newzealand
| | - Tania Spiteri
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
| | - Paola Chivers
- Exercise Medicine Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.,Institute for Health Research, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Perth, Australia
| | - Benjamin Piggott
- School of Health Sciences, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia
| | - Andrew Maiorana
- School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
| | - Nicolas Hart
- Exercise Medicine Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.,Institute for Health Research, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Perth, Australia.,Institute for Health and Biomedical Innovation, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
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17
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Shaw DM, Borotkanics R, Dulson DK. Household illness is the strongest predictor of upper respiratory tract symptom risk in elite rugby union players. J Sci Med Sport 2020; 24:430-434. [PMID: 33262041 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To identify periods of increased risk for upper respiratory tract symptom (URTS) episodes, and examine whether biomarkers and/or self-reported lifestyle and wellness data can predict URTS risk in elite rugby union players. DESIGN Prospective, longitudinal and repeated-measures study. METHODS Salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), salivary cortisol, URTS, internal training load and self-reported lifestyle and wellness data including household illness, stress, mood, fatigue, muscle soreness and sleep quality were repeatedly measured in elite Southern hemisphere rugby union players (n=28) throughout a season. Univariate frailty model analysis, which included 495 observations, was used to determine predictors of URTS risk. RESULTS Surprisingly, the highest incidence of URTS occurred after rest weeks, namely the Christmas break and bye weeks (i.e., no scheduled trainings or matches); whereas URTS risk was reduced during weeks involving international travel (Hazard ratio (HR): 0.43, p<0.001)). Household illness was the strongest predictor of URTS risk; players were almost three-fold more at risk for an URTS episode when illness in the household was present (HR: 2.90, p=0.002). A non-significant, but potentially important trend for an inverse association between SIgA concentration and URTS incidence was also observed (HR: 0.99, p=0.070). CONCLUSIONS Rest weeks were identified as periods of increased risk for URTS; while international travel did not appear to increase players risk for URTS. Incidence of household illness and SIgA concentration independently predicted URTS risk, with household illness being the strongest predictor. These findings can assist practitioners monitoring and management of athletes to potentially reduce URTS risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C Keaney
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand; AUT-Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - David M Shaw
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
| | - Robert Borotkanics
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
| | - Deborah K Dulson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
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18
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Rothschild JA, Kilding AE, Plews DJ. What Should I Eat before Exercise? Pre-Exercise Nutrition and the Response to Endurance Exercise: Current Prospective and Future Directions. Nutrients 2020; 12:nu12113473. [PMID: 33198277 PMCID: PMC7696145 DOI: 10.3390/nu12113473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary variables influencing the adaptive response to a bout of endurance training are exercise duration and exercise intensity. However, altering the availability of nutrients before and during exercise can also impact the training response by modulating the exercise stimulus and/or the physiological and molecular responses to the exercise-induced perturbations. The purpose of this review is to highlight the current knowledge of the influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on the metabolic, physiological, and performance responses to endurance training and suggest directions for future research. Acutely, carbohydrate ingestion reduces fat oxidation, but there is little evidence showing enhanced fat burning capacity following long-term fasted-state training. Performance is improved following pre-exercise carbohydrate ingestion for longer but not shorter duration exercise, while training-induced performance improvements following nutrition strategies that modulate carbohydrate availability vary based on the type of nutrition protocol used. Contrasting findings related to the influence of acute carbohydrate ingestion on mitochondrial signaling may be related to the amount of carbohydrate consumed and the intensity of exercise. This review can help to guide athletes, coaches, and nutritionists in personalizing pre-exercise nutrition strategies, and for designing research studies to further elucidate the role of nutrition in endurance training adaptations.
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19
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Abstract
Aasgaard, M and Kilding, AE. Does man marking influence running outputs and intensity during small-sided soccer games? J Strength Cond Res 34(11): 3266-3274, 2020-Small-sided games (SSGs) are considered an effective training tool for physical development in soccer. Small-sided games can be modified in several ways to manipulate the physical demands to best match the game demands, player characteristics, and session objectives. The aim of this study was to compare the physiological, perceptual, and Global Positioning System (GPS)-derived time-motion characteristics of man marking (MM) vs. non-man marking (NMM) in 2v2, 3v3, and 4v4 SSGs. In an acute crossover design, 8 amateur soccer players (mean age ± SD: 23.6 ± 3.3 years) played 2v2, 3v3, and 4v4 SSGs consisting of 4 × 4-minute bouts, with 2-minute passive recovery. During all SSGs, players wore a heart rate (HR) monitor and GPS unit and reported their rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Average percent HR (%HRave) induced small to moderate effects with MM compared with NMM (%Δ = 1-2.7%; effect size [ES] = 0.22-0.65). Comparisons between MM formats indicated a decrease in %HRave with increased player numbers (%Δ = 1.6-3.5%; ES = 0.39-0.86). Perceptual load increased with MM compared with NMM (%Δ = 6.7-17.6%; ES = 0.66-2.09), whereas increases in player numbers (MM only) reduced RPE output (%Δ = 9.4-24.3%; ES = 1.14-3.61). Time-motion characteristics revealed substantially greater total distance covered in MM irrespective of player number (%Δ = 6.8-14.7%; ES = 1.34-2.82). There were very likely increases in distances covered at striding (13.1-17.8 km·h) (%Δ: 23.4-33.2; ES = 2.42-4.35) and high-intensity running (HIR) (17.9-21 km·h) (%Δ: 47.3-104; ES = 0.91-1.68) for MM compared with NMM irrespective of player number. In conclusion, MM substantially elevated perceptual load and distances from striding to HIR regardless of player number, whereas differences between NMM and MM for internal load remain unclear. Use of MM may allow coaches to condition for particularly demanding phases of the game and prescription of larger SSG formats to increase distance covered at higher velocities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mats Aasgaard
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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20
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Dolci F, Kilding AE, Chivers P, Piggott B, Hart NH. High-Intensity Interval Training Shock Microcycle for Enhancing Sport Performance: A Brief Review. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 34:1188-1196. [PMID: 31904712 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Dolci, F, Kilding, AE, Chivers, P, Piggott, B, and Hart, NH. High-intensity interval training shock microcycle for enhancing sport performance: A brief review. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 1188-1196, 2020-High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is a powerful strategy to develop athletes' fitness and enhance endurance performance. Traditional HIIT interventions involve multiple microcycles (7-10 days long) of 2-3 HIIT sessions each, which have been commonly supported to improve athletic performance after a minimum period of 6 weeks training. Regardless of the efficacy of such an approach, in recent years, a higher frequency of HIIT sessions within a unique microcycle, commonly referred to as an HIIT shock microcycle, has been proposed as an alternative HIIT periodization strategy to induce greater and more efficient endurance adaptation in athletes. This review article provides an insight into this new HIIT periodization strategy by discussing (1) HIIT shock microcycle format and design; (2) the sustainability of this training strategy; (3) effects on performance and physiological parameters of endurance; and (4) potential mechanisms for improvements. Evidence advocates the sustainability and effectiveness of HIIT shock microcycle in different athletes to improve intermittent and continuous running/cycling performance and suggests mitochondria biogenesis as the main acute physiological adaptation following this intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Dolci
- School of Health Science, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paola Chivers
- Institute for Health Research, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia.,Exercise Medicine Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia; and
| | - Ben Piggott
- School of Health Science, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia
| | - Nicolas H Hart
- School of Health Science, The University of Notre Dame Australia, Fremantle, Australia.,Exercise Medicine Research Institute, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia; and.,School of Medical and Health Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
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21
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to determine the self-reported beliefs and practices relating to pre-exercise nutrition intake among endurance athletes of varying ages and competitive levels and examine differences based on sex, competitive level, and habitual dietary pattern. METHOD An anonymous online survey was circulated internationally in English and completed by 1950 athletes of varying competitive levels (51.0% female, mean age 40.9 years [range 18:78]). Survey questions included training background, determinants of pre-exercise nutrition intake and composition, and timing relative to exercise. RESULTS Prior to morning exercise, 36.4%, 36.0%, and 27.6% of athletes consumed carbohydrate-containing food/drinks before almost every workout, some of the time, and never/rarely, respectively, with significant effects of sex (p < 0.001, Cramer's V (ϕc) = 0.15) and competitive level (p < 0.001, ϕc = 0.09). Nutritional intake before exercise varied based on workout duration for 47.6% of athletes, with significant effects of sex (ϕc = 0.15) and habitual diet (ϕc = 0.19), and based on workout intensity for 39.1% of athletes, with significant effects of sex (ϕc = 0.13) and habitual diet (ϕc = 0.17, all p < 0.001). Additionally, 89.0% of athletes reported using at least some type of dietary supplement (including caffeine from coffee/tea) within 1 hour before exercise. CONCLUSIONS Overall, nearly all factors measured relating to pre-exercise nutrition intake varied by sex, competitive level, habitual dietary pattern, and/or intensity/duration of the training session and suggest a large number of athletes may not be following current recommendations for optimizing endurance training adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A Rothschild
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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22
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Casadio JR, Wiseman D, Kilding AE, Cotter JD, Laursen PB. Heat Training Improves Cardiovascular Responses And Briefly Blunts Sprint Performance In Elite Sprint Track Cyclists. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020. [DOI: 10.1249/01.mss.0000679640.15724.fc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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24
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Maunder E, Kilding AE, Stevens CJ, Plews DJ. Heat Stress Training Camps for Endurance Sport: A Descriptive Case Study of Successful Monitoring in 2 Ironman Triathletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:146-150. [PMID: 31034306 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A common practice among endurance athletes is to purposefully train in hot environments during a "heat stress camp." However, combined exercise-heat stress poses threats to athlete well-being, and therefore, heat stress training has the potential to induce maladaptation. This case study describes the monitoring strategies used in a successful 3-week heat stress camp undertaken by 2 elite Ironman triathletes, namely resting heart rate variability, self-report well-being, and careful prescription of training based on previously collected physiological data. Despite the added heat stress, training volume very likely increased in both athletes, and training load very likely increased in one of the athletes, while resting heart rate variability and self-report well-being were maintained. There was also some evidence of favorable metabolic changes during routine laboratory testing following the camp. The authors therefore recommend that practitioners working with endurance athletes embarking on a heat stress training camp consider using the simple strategies employed in the present case study to reduce the risk of maladaptation and nonfunctional overreaching.
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25
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Weatherwax RM, Harris NK, Kilding AE, Dalleck LC. Incidence of V˙O2max Responders to Personalized versus Standardized Exercise Prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2019; 51:681-691. [PMID: 30673687 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000001842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite knowledge of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) training responders and nonresponders, it is not well understood how the exercise intensity prescription affects the incidence of response. The purpose of this study was to determine CRF training responsiveness based on cohort-specific technical error after 12 wk of standardized or individually prescribed exercise and the use of a verification protocol to confirm maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max). METHODS Sedentary adult participants (9 men, 30 women; 48.2 ± 12.2 yr) completed exercise training on 3 d·wk for 12 wk, with exercise intensity prescribed based on standardized methods using heart rate reserve or an individualized approach using ventilatory thresholds. A verification protocol was used at baseline and 12 wk to confirm the identification of a true V˙O2max and subsequent relative percent changes to quantify CRF training responsiveness. A cohort-specific technical error (4.7%) was used as a threshold to identify incidence of response. RESULTS Relative V˙O2max significantly increased (P < 0.05) from 24.3 ± 4.6 to 26.0 ± 4.2 and 29.2 ± 7.5 to 32.8 ± 8.6 mL·kg·min for the standardized and individualized groups, respectively. Absolute V˙O2max significantly increased (P < 0.05) from 2.0 ± 0.6 to 2.2 ± 0.6 and 2.4 ± 0.8 to 2.6 ± 0.9 L·min for the standardized and individualized groups, respectively. A significant difference in responsiveness was found between the individualized and standardized groups with 100% and 60% of participants categorized as responders, respectively. CONCLUSIONS A threshold model for exercise intensity prescription had a greater effect on the incidence of CRF training response compared with a standardized approach using heart rate reserve. The use of thresholds for intensity markers accounts for individual metabolic characteristics and should be considered as a viable and practical method to prescribe exercise intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Weatherwax
- Human Potential Centre, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, NEW ZEALAND.,Recreation, Exercise & Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, CO
| | - Nigel K Harris
- Human Potential Centre, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, NEW ZEALAND
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, NEW ZEALAND
| | - Lance C Dalleck
- Recreation, Exercise & Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, CO
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26
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Abstract
Hyperthermia stimulates endogenous carbohydrate metabolism during exercise; however, it is not known if exercise intensity impacts the metabolic effect of heat stress. In the first study of this two-part investigation, endurance-trained male cyclists performed incremental exercise assessments in 18 and 35°C (60% rH). The stimulatory effect of heat stress on carbohydrate oxidation rates was greater at high vs. moderate vs. low relative intensity (P < 0.05). In agreement, no effects of heat stress on carbohydrate oxidation rates were observed during 60-min of subsequent low-intensity cycling. In study two, endurance-trained male cyclists performed 20-min of moderate-intensity (power at the first ventilatory threshold) and 5-min of high-intensity (power at the second ventilatory threshold) cycling in 18, 28, 34, and 40°C (60% rH). At moderate-intensity, carbohydrate oxidation rates were significantly elevated by heat stress in 40°C (P < 0.05), whereas at high-intensity carbohydrate oxidation rates were significantly elevated by heat stress in 34 and 40°C (P < 0.05). This exercise intensity-mediated regulation of the effect of heat stress on carbohydrate oxidation may be partially attributable to observed plasma adrenaline responses. Our data suggest that under moderate environmental heat stress (34-35°C, 60% rH), heat stress-induced changes in CHO oxidation rates are unlikely to occur unless the relative exercise intensity is high (81 ± 8%⩒O2max), whereas under more extreme environmental heat stress (40°C, 60% rH), these changes occur at lower relative intensities (69 ± 8%⩒O2max). This provides indication of when heat stress-induced metabolic changes during exercise are likely to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Daniel J Plews
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- AUT-Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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27
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Barnes KR, Kilding AE, Blagrove RC, Howatson G, Hayes PR, Boone J, Bourgois J, Fletcher JR, MacIntosh BR, González-Mohíno F, Yustres I, Santos-García DJ, González-Ravé JM, Hopker JG, Coleman DA, Kerhervé HA, Solomon C, Malatesta D, Lanzi S, Fernandez-Menendez A, Borrani F, Sandford GN, Maunder E, McNulty CR, Robergs RA, Pavei G, de Oliveira Barreto T, de Lima Conceição MR, Souza DS, Tenan MS, Macfarlane D, Hackney AC, Adamic EM, Shei RJ, Freemas JA, Barenie M, Barton J, Yeager Z, Nowak M, Paris HL, Mickleborough TD. Commentaries on Viewpoint: Use aerobic energy expenditure instead of oxygen uptake to quantify exercise intensity and predict endurance performance. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 125:676-682. [PMID: 30138048 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00638.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Barnes
- Department of Movement Science, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Richard C Blagrove
- Faculty of Health, Education and Life Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom,Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Glyn Howatson
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom,Water Research Group, Northwest University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Philip R Hayes
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jan Boone
- Department of Movement and Sports Science, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jan Bourgois
- Department of Movement and Sports Science, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jared R Fletcher
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology. University of Calgary. Calgary, AB, Canada,W21C Research and Innovation Centre, O’Brien Institute of Public Health, Cumming School of Medicine. University of Calgary. Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Brian R MacIntosh
- Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology. University of Calgary. Calgary, AB, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | - James G Hopker
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Kent, Chatham Maritime, Kent, England
| | - Damian A Coleman
- School of Human and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, Kent, England
| | | | - Colin Solomon
- School of Health and Sport Sciences, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
| | - Davide Malatesta
- Institute of Sport Sciences (ISSUL), Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Stefano Lanzi
- Division of Angiology, Heart and Vessel Department, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland,Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aitor Fernandez-Menendez
- Institute of Sport Sciences (ISSUL), Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fabio Borrani
- Institute of Sport Sciences (ISSUL), Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gareth N Sandford
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | - Gaspare Pavei
- Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Tatiane de Oliveira Barreto
- Excitable Membranes Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Diego Santos Souza
- Laboratory of Heart Biophysics, Department of Physiology, Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Emily M Adamic
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Ren-Jay Shei
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama,Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Jessica A Freemas
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Matthew Barenie
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Jacob Barton
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Zane Yeager
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Madeleine Nowak
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Hunter L Paris
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
| | - Timothy D Mickleborough
- Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana
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Abstract
Spencer, KN, Paget, N, Farley, ORL, and Kilding, AE. Activity profile of elite netball umpires during match play. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2832-2839, 2020-The study aimed to determine activity profiles of officials in elite netball. Physical demands of Load·min (au) representing accumulated accelerations by triaxial accelerometers during matches and exercise-to-rest ratio were measured using global positioning systems (Catapult, MinimaxX S4). Physiological demands were quantified by estimated equivalent distance and heart rate (HR) (MeanHR, percentage HRpeak, and HRzones) and movement variables (frequency, mean time, and percentage of total time) were coded using Sportscode Elite (Version 10, Hudl, Lincoln, Nebraska). Differences were analyzed by periods (Q1-Q4). Load·min (au) (M = 407 ± 66) significantly varied with time (F [3, 55] = 3.42, p = 0.02) and the highest percentage of exercise-to-rest performed in Q1 (21 ± 5%). Estimated equivalent distance (3,839 ± 614 m) varied significantly with time (F [3, 56] = 3.18, p = 0.03), the umpires spent longest duration of time (35%) in HRzone 3 (75-85% of HRpeak). Mean HR significantly decreased with time (p < 0.01; Q1 [157 ± 13], quarter 2 [156 ± 12], and Q4 [153 ± 14]). Umpires spent 77% in rest-recovery ratio movements and 23% of time exercise-to-rest ratio. In summary, netball umpiring is characterized by intermittent, short, high-intensity activity (sprinting, sidestepping, and turn to change direction), with increasing periods of rest-recovery (walking and standing).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Spencer
- Performance Analysis Research Group.,Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ); and.,School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Natasha Paget
- School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Oliver R L Farley
- Performance Analysis Research Group.,Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ); and
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ); and.,School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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29
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Dulson DK, Gibson CA, Kilding AE, Lu J, Pook C. Does caffeine exert dose‐response effects on saliva secretory IgA following prolonged submaximal running? Transl Sports Med 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/tsm2.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Deborah K. Dulson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
| | - Chloe A. Gibson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
| | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
| | - Jun Lu
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Science Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Interprofessional Health Studies Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
- Institute of Biomedical Technology Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
- College of Life Sciences and Oceanography Shenzhen University Shenzhen, Guangdong Province China
| | - Chris Pook
- Faculty of Health and Environmental Sciences, School of Science Auckland University of Technology Auckland New Zealand
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30
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Weatherwax R, Harris N, Kilding AE, Dalleck L. Time Course Changes in Confirmed 'True' VO 2 max After Individualized and Standardized Training. Sports Med Int Open 2019; 3:E32-E39. [PMID: 31192297 PMCID: PMC6559817 DOI: 10.1055/a-0867-9415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This study sought to examine time course changes in maximal oxygen consumption (VO
2
max) confirmed with verification testing following 12 weeks of standardized vs. individualized exercise training. Participants (N=39) were randomly allocated to differing exercise intensity prescription groups: ventilatory threshold (individualized) or % heart rate reserve (standardized). At baseline, 4, 8, and 12 weeks, participants completed maximal exercise testing with a verification protocol to confirm ‘true VO
2
max.’ VO
2
max in the standardized group changed from 24.3±4.6 ml·kg
−1
·min
−1
at baseline to 24.7±4.6, 25.9±4.7, and 26.0±4.2 ml·kg
−1
·min
−1
at week 4, 8, and 12, respectively, with a significant difference (p<0.05) in VO
2
max at week 8 and 12 compared to baseline. The individualized group had increases in VO
2
max from
online 2
9.5±7.5 ml·kg
−1
·min
−1
at baseline to 30.6±8.4, 31.4±8.4, and 32.8±8.6 ml·kg
−1
·min
−1
at week 4, 8, and 12, respectively. In the individualized group, there were significant differences (p<0.05) in VO
2
max from baseline to week 8 and 12 and a significant increase in VO
2
max from week 8 to 1
online 2
. Although not statistically significant, our preliminary data demonstrates a more rapid and potent improvement in VO
2
max when exercise intensity is individualized. This is the first investigation to employ use of the verification procedure to confirm ‘true VO
2
max’ changes following exercise training using ventilatory thresholds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Weatherwax
- Human Potential Centre, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,Recreation, Exercise and Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, United States
| | - Nigel Harris
- Human Potential Centre, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lance Dalleck
- Human Potential Centre, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,Recreation, Exercise and Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, United States
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31
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Dulson DK. Keeping Athletes Healthy at the 2020 Tokyo Summer Games: Considerations and Illness Prevention Strategies. Front Physiol 2019; 10:426. [PMID: 31057419 PMCID: PMC6479135 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Keeping athletes healthy will be important for optimal athletic performance at the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games. Athletes will be exposed to several stressors during the preparatory and competition phases of the Summer Games that have the potential to depress immunity and increase illness risk. This mini-review provides an overview on effective and practical stressor-specific illness prevention strategies that can be implemented to maintain and protect the health of Olympic and Paralympic athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren C Keaney
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,AUT Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Deborah K Dulson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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32
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Keaney LC, Kilding AE, Merien F, Dulson DK. The impact of sport related stressors on immunity and illness risk in team-sport athletes. J Sci Med Sport 2018; 21:1192-1199. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2018.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Couture GA, Simperingham KD, Cronin JB, Lorimer AV, Kilding AE, Macadam P. Effects of upper and lower body wearable resistance on spatio-temporal and kinetic parameters during running. Sports Biomech 2018; 19:633-651. [PMID: 30325270 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1508490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Wearable resistance training involves added load attached directly to the body during sporting movements. The effects of load position during running are not yet fully established. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine spatio-temporal and kinetic characteristics during submaximal running using upper, lower and whole-body wearable resistance (1-10% body mass (BM)). Twelve trained male runners completed eight 2-min treadmill running bouts at 3.9 m/s with and without wearable resistance. The first and last bouts were unloaded, while the middle 6 were randomised wearable resistance conditions: upper body (UB) 5% BM, lower body (LB) 1%, 3%, 5% BM and whole body (WB) 5%, 10% BM. Wearable resistance of 1-10% BM resulted in a significant increase in heart rate (5.40-8.84%), but minimal impact on spatio-temporal variables. Loads of 5% BM and greater caused changes in vertical stiffness, vertical and horizontal force, and impulse. Functional and effective propulsive force (2.95%, 2.88%) and impulse (3.40%, 3.38%) were significantly (p < 0.05) greater with LB5% than UB5%. Wearable resistance may be used to increase muscular kinetics during running without negatively impacting spatio-temporal variables. The application of these findings will vary depending on athlete goals. Future longitudinal studies are required to validate training contentions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace A Couture
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Movement Science, Grand Valley State University , Allendale, MI, USA
| | - Kim D Simperingham
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
| | - John B Cronin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Exercise and Biomedical Health Science, Edith Cowan University , Perth, Australia
| | - Anna V Lorimer
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul Macadam
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology , Auckland, New Zealand
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34
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Abstract
As major sporting events are often held in hot environments, increased interest in ways of optimally heat acclimating athletes to maximise performance has emerged. Heat acclimation involves repeated exercise sessions in hot conditions that induce physiological and thermoregulatory adaptations that attenuate heat-induced performance impairments. Current evidence-based guidelines for heat acclimation are clear, but the application of these recommendations is not always aligned with the time commitments and training priorities of elite athletes. Alternative forms of heat acclimation investigated include hot water immersion and sauna bathing, yet uncertainty remains around the efficacy of these methods for reducing heat-induced performance impairments, as well as how this form of heat stress may add to an athlete's overall training load. An understanding of how to optimally prescribe and periodise heat acclimation based on the performance determinants of a given event is limited, as is knowledge of how heat acclimation may affect the quality of concurrent training sessions. Finally, differences in individual athlete responses to heat acclimation need to be considered. This article addresses alternative methods of heat acclimation and heat exposure, explores gaps in literature around understanding the real world application of heat acclimation for athletes, and highlights specific athlete considerations for practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R Casadio
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, PO Box 302 563, North Harbour, Auckland, 0751, New Zealand.
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - James D Cotter
- School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, PO Box 302 563, North Harbour, Auckland, 0751, New Zealand
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35
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Maunder E, Plews DJ, Kilding AE. Contextualising Maximal Fat Oxidation During Exercise: Determinants and Normative Values. Front Physiol 2018; 9:599. [PMID: 29875697 PMCID: PMC5974542 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a short-duration step protocol and continuous indirect calorimetry, whole-body rates of fat and carbohydrate oxidation can be estimated across a range of exercise workloads, along with the individual maximal rate of fat oxidation (MFO) and the exercise intensity at which MFO occurs (Fatmax). These variables appear to have implications both in sport and health contexts. After discussion of the key determinants of MFO and Fatmax that must be considered during laboratory measurement, the present review sought to synthesize existing data in order to contextualize individually measured fat oxidation values. Data collected in homogenous cohorts on cycle ergometers after an overnight fast was synthesized to produce normative values in given subject populations. These normative values might be used to contextualize individual measurements and define research cohorts according their capacity for fat oxidation during exercise. Pertinent directions for future research were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Maunder
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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36
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37
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Weatherwax RM, Harris NK, Kilding AE, Dalleck LC. Using a site-specific technical error to establish training responsiveness: a preliminary explorative study. Open Access J Sports Med 2018; 9:47-53. [PMID: 29563845 PMCID: PMC5848661 DOI: 10.2147/oajsm.s155440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Even though cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) training elicits numerous health benefits, not all individuals have positive training responses following a structured CRF intervention. It has been suggested that the technical error (TE), a combination of biological variability and measurement error, should be used to establish specific training responsiveness criteria to gain further insight on the effectiveness of the training program. To date, most training interventions use an absolute change or a TE from previous findings, which do not take into consideration the training site and equipment used to establish training outcomes or the specific cohort being evaluated. The purpose of this investigation was to retrospectively analyze training responsiveness of two CRF training interventions using two common criteria and a site-specific TE. METHODS Sixteen men and women completed two maximal graded exercise tests and verification bouts to identify maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and establish a site-specific TE. The TE was then used to retrospectively analyze training responsiveness in comparison to commonly used criteria: percent change of >0% and >+5.6% in VO2max. RESULTS The TE was found to be 7.7% for relative VO2 max. χ2 testing showed significant differences in all training criteria for each intervention and pooled data from both interventions, except between %Δ >0 and %Δ >+7.7% in one of the investigations. Training nonresponsiveness ranged from 11.5% to 34.6%. CONCLUSION Findings from the present study support the utility of site-specific TE criterion to quantify training responsiveness. A similar methodology of establishing a site-specific and even cohort specific TE should be considered to establish when true cardiorespiratory training adaptations occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Weatherwax
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Center, Auckland, New Zealand
- Western State Colorado University, Recreation and Exercise & Sport Science, Gunnison, CO, USA
| | - Nigel K Harris
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Center, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lance C Dalleck
- Western State Colorado University, Recreation and Exercise & Sport Science, Gunnison, CO, USA
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Bertuzzi R, Gáspari AF, Trojbicz LR, Silva-Cavalcante MD, Lima-Silva AE, Billaut F, Girard O, Millet GP, Bossi AH, Hopker J, Pandeló DR, Fulton TJ, Paris HL, Chapman RF, Grosicki GJ, Murach KA, Hureau TJ, Dufour SP, Favret F, Kruse NT, Nicolò A, Sacchetti M, Pedralli M, Pinheiro FA, Tricoli V, Brietzke C, Pires FO, Sandford GN, Pearson S, Kilding AE, Ross A, Laursen PB, da Silveira ALB, Olivares EL, de Azevedo Cruz Seara F, Miguel-dos-Santos R, Mesquita TRR, Nelatury S, Vagula M. Commentaries on Viewpoint: Resistance training and exercise tolerance during high-intensity exercise: moving beyond just running economy and muscle strength. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2018; 124:529-535. [PMID: 29480788 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01064.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Romulo Bertuzzi
- Endurance Performance Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Arthur F. Gáspari
- Endurance Performance Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas R. Trojbicz
- Endurance Performance Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marcos D. Silva-Cavalcante
- Endurance Performance Research Group (GEDAE-USP), University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - Adriano E. Lima-Silva
- Sport Science Research Group, Federal University of Pernambuco, Pernambuco, Brazil,Human Performance Research Group, Technological Federal University of Parana, Parana, Brazil
| | | | - Oliver Girard
- Qatar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - Grégoire P. Millet
- Faculty of Biology and Medicine, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Arthur Henrique Bossi
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences University of Kent, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent, England
| | - James Hopker
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences University of Kent, Chatham Maritime, Chatham, Kent, England
| | - Domingos R. Pandeló
- Federal University of São Paulo Centro de Alta Performance (High Performance Center)
| | | | | | | | - Gregory J. Grosicki
- Nutrition, Exercise Physiology and Sarcopenia Laboratory, Jean Mayer USDA Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging, Tufts University, Boston, MA
| | - Kevin A. Murach
- Department of Rehabilitation Sciences and Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY
| | - Thomas J. Hureau
- University of Strasbourg Faculty of Medicine, Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and Muscular Protection Laboratory, Strasbourg, France
| | - Stéphane P. Dufour
- University of Strasbourg Faculty of Medicine, Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and Muscular Protection Laboratory, Strasbourg, France
| | - Fabrice Favret
- University of Strasbourg Faculty of Medicine, Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and Muscular Protection Laboratory, Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicholas T. Kruse
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa
| | - Andrea Nicolò
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Massimo Sacchetti
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Rome, Italy
| | - Marinei Pedralli
- Department of Kinesiology & Health Education, Cardiovascular Aging Research Laboratory, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX
| | - Fabiano A. Pinheiro
- Laboratory of Adaptation to Strength Training, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil,Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Valmor Tricoli
- Laboratory of Adaptation to Strength Training, School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cayque Brietzke
- Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávio Oliveira Pires
- Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gareth N. Sandford
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand,High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand,Athletics New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Pearson
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand,Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, Australia
| | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Angus Ross
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand,Athletics New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul B. Laursen
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand,High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anderson Luiz B. da Silveira
- Laboratory of Physiology and Human Performance, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Emerson Lopes Olivares
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Physiology and Pharmacology, Department of Physiological Sciences, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernando de Azevedo Cruz Seara
- Laboratory of Cardiac Electrophysiology, Carlos Chagas Filho Department of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Casadio JR, Storey AG, Merien F, Kilding AE, Cotter JD, Laursen PB. Acute effects of heated resistance exercise in female and male power athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:1965-1976. [PMID: 28748371 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3671-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the effects of heated resistance exercise on thermal strain, neuromuscular function and hormonal responses in power athletes. METHODS Sixteen (n = 8 female; 8 male) highly trained power athletes completed a combined strength and power resistance exercise session in hot (HOT ~30 °C) and temperate (CON ~20 °C) conditions. Human growth hormone (hGH), cortisol and testosterone concentrations in plasma, peak power (counter-movement jump, CMJ) and peak force (isometric mid-thigh pull) were measured before and after each training session; thermoregulatory responses were monitored during training. RESULTS Skin temperature, thermal sensation and thermal discomfort were higher in HOT compared with CON. Sweat rate was higher in HOT for males only. Compared with CON, HOT had trivial effects on core temperature and heart rate. During HOT, there was a possible increase in upper-body power (medicine ball throw) in females [3.4% (90% CL -1.5, 8.6)] and males [(3.3% (-0.1, 6.9)], while lower-body power (vertical jump) was enhanced in males only [3.2% (-0.4, 6.9)]. Following HOT, CMJ peak power [4.4% (2.5; 6.3)] and strength [8.2% (3.1, 13.6)] were enhanced in female athletes, compared with CON, while effects in males were unclear. Plasma hGH concentration increased in females [83% (18; 183)] and males [107% (-21; 444)] in HOT compared with CON, whereas differential changes occurred for cortisol and testosterone. CONCLUSION Heated resistance exercise enhanced power and increased plasma hGH concentration in female and males power athletes. Further research is required to assess the ergogenic potential of resistance exercise in the heat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R Casadio
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand. .,High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand.
| | - Adam G Storey
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Fabrice Merien
- AUT-Roche Diagnostics Laboratory, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - James D Cotter
- School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
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40
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Lythe J, Kilding AE. The effect of substitution frequency on the physical and technical outputs of strikers during field hockey match play. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2013.11868693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John Lythe
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
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Kilding AE, Dobson BP, Ikeda E. Effects of Acutely Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure on Running Economy and Physical Performance in Basketball Players. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:2033-42. [PMID: 26677826 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Kilding, AE, Dobson, BP, and Ikeda, E. Effects of acutely intermittent hypoxic exposure on running economy and physical performance in basketball players. J Strength Cond Res 30(7): 2033-2042, 2016-The aim of this study was to determine the effect of short duration intermittent hypoxic exposure (IHE) on physical performance in basketball players. Using a single-blind placebo-controlled group design, 14 trained basketball players were subjected to 15 days of passive short duration IHE (n = 7), or normoxic control (CON, n = 7), using a biofeedback nitrogen dilution device. A range of physiological, performance, and hematological variables were measured at baseline, and 10 days after IHE. After intervention, the IHE group, relative to the CON group, exhibited improvements in the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery level 1 (+4.8 ± 1.6%; effect size [ES]: 1.0 ± 0.4) and repeated high-intensity exercise test performance (-3.5 ± 1.6%; ES: -0.4 ± 0.2). Changes in hematological parameters were minimal, although soluble transferrin receptor increased after IHE (+9.2 ± 10.1%; ES: 0.3 ± 0.3). Running economy at 11 km·h (-9.0 ± 9.7%; ES: -0.7 ± 0.7) and 13 km·h was improved (-8.2 ± 6.9%; ES: -0.7 ± 0.5), but changes to V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak, HRpeak, and lactate were unclear. In summary, acutely IHE resulted in worthwhile changes in physical performance tests among competitive basketball players. However, physiological measures explaining the performance enhancement were in most part unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Kilding
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
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42
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Weatherwax RM, Harris NK, Kilding AE, Dalleck LC. The incidence of training responsiveness to cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiometabolic measurements following individualized and standardized exercise prescription: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 2016; 17:601. [PMID: 27993169 PMCID: PMC5168814 DOI: 10.1186/s13063-016-1735-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is individual variability to cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) training, but the underlying cause is not well understood. Traditionally, a standardized approach to exercise prescription has utilized relative percentages of maximal heart rate, heart rate reserve (HRR), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), or VO2 reserve to establish exercise intensity. However, this model fails to take into consideration individual metabolic responses to exercise and may attribute to the variability in training responses. It has been proposed that an individualized approach would take into consideration metabolic responses to exercises to increase responsiveness to training. METHODS In this randomized control trial, participants will undergo a 12-week exercise intervention using individualized (ventilatory thresholds) and standardized (HRR) methods to prescribe CRF training intensity. Following the intervention, participants will be categorized as responders or non-responders based on changes in maximal aerobic abilities. Participants who are non-responders will complete a second 12-week intervention in a crossover design to determine whether they can become responders with a differing exercise prescription. There are four main research outcomes: (1) determine the cohort-specific technical error to use in the categorization of response rate; (2) determine if an individualized intensity prescription is superior to a standard approach in regards to VO2max and cardiometabolic risk factors; (3) investigate the time course changes throughout 12 weeks of CRF training between the two intervention groups; and (4) determine if non-responders can become responders if the exercise prescription is modified. DISCUSSION The findings from this research will provide evidence on the effectiveness of individualized exercise prescription related to training responsiveness of VO2max and cardiometabolic risk factors compared to a standardized approach and further our understanding of individual exercise responses. If the individualized approach proposed is deemed effective, it may change the way exercise specialists prescribe exercise intensity to enhance training responsiveness. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02868710 . Registered on 15 August 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M. Weatherwax
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Recreation, Exercise, and Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, CO USA
| | - Nigel K. Harris
- Auckland University of Technology, Human Potential Centre, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Andrew E. Kilding
- Auckland University of Technology, Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Lance C. Dalleck
- Department of Recreation, Exercise, and Sport Science, Western State Colorado University, Gunnison, CO USA
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Casadio JR, Kilding AE, Siegel R, Cotter JD, Laursen PB. Periodizing heat acclimation in elite Laser sailors preparing for a world championship event in hot conditions. Temperature (Austin) 2016; 3:437-443. [PMID: 28349083 PMCID: PMC5079264 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2016.1184367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the retention and re-acclimation responses during a periodized heat acclimation (HA) protocol in elite sailors preparing for the 2013 World Championships in Muscat, Oman (∼27–30°C, 40–60% RH). Methods: Two elite male Laser class sailors completed 5 consecutive days of HA (60 min per day in 35°C, 60% RH). Heat response tests (HRT) were performed on day 1 and 5 of HA, then 1 (decay 1, D1) and 2 (D2) weeks following HA. Participants were then re-acclimated (RA) for 2 days, within the next week, before a final HRT ∼72 h post-RA. Rectal temperature, plasma volume, heart rate, sweat rate, as well as thermal discomfort and rating of perceived exertion were measured during each HRT. Results: Rectal temperature decreased with HA (0.46 ± 0.05°C), while individual responses following D1, D2 and RA varied. Heart rate (14 ± 7 bpm), thermal discomfort (0.6 ± 0.1 AU) and rating of perceived exertion (1.8 ± 0.6 AU) decreased across HA, and adaptations were retained by D2. Plasma volume steadily increased over the decay period (D2 = 8.0 ± 1.3%) and after RA (15.5 ± 1.1%) compared with baseline. RA resulted in further thermoregulatory improvements in each Athlete, although individual adjustments varied. Conclusion: Heat strain was reduced in elite Laser sailors following HA and most thermoregulatory adaptations were retained for 2 weeks afterwards. RA may ‘top up’ adaptations after 2 weeks of HA decay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia R Casadio
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
| | | | | | - James D Cotter
- School of Physical Education, Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Otago , Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Paul B Laursen
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
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Abstract
Running economy (RE) represents a complex interplay of physiological and biomechanical factors that is typically defined as the energy demand for a given velocity of submaximal running and expressed as the submaximal oxygen uptake (VO2) at a given running velocity. This review considered a wide range of acute and chronic interventions that have been investigated with respect to improving economy by augmenting one or more components of the metabolic, cardiorespiratory, biomechanical or neuromuscular systems. Improvements in RE have traditionally been achieved through endurance training. Endurance training in runners leads to a wide range of physiological responses, and it is very likely that these characteristics of running training will influence RE. Training history and training volume have been suggested to be important factors in improving RE, while uphill and level-ground high-intensity interval training represent frequently prescribed forms of training that may elicit further enhancements in economy. More recently, research has demonstrated short-term resistance and plyometric training has resulted in enhanced RE. This improvement in RE has been hypothesized to be a result of enhanced neuromuscular characteristics. Altitude acclimatization results in both central and peripheral adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and utilization, mechanisms that potentially could improve RE. Other strategies, such as stretching should not be discounted as a training modality in order to prevent injuries; however, it appears that there is an optimal degree of flexibility and stiffness required to maximize RE. Several nutritional interventions have also received attention for their effects on reducing oxygen demand during exercise, most notably dietary nitrates and caffeine. It is clear that a range of training and passive interventions may improve RE, and researchers should concentrate their investigative efforts on more fully understanding the types and mechanisms that affect RE and the practicality and extent to which RE can be improved outside the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Barnes
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Level 2, AUT-Millennium Campus, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, New Zealand,
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Keogh JWL, Palmer BR, Taylor D, Kilding AE. ACE and UCP2 gene polymorphisms and their association with baseline and exercise-related changes in the functional performance of older adults. PeerJ 2015; 3:e980. [PMID: 26038734 PMCID: PMC4451023 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maintaining high levels of physical function is an important aspect of successful ageing. While muscle mass and strength contribute to functional performance in older adults, little is known about the possible genetic basis for the heterogeneity of physical function in older adults and in how older adults respond to exercise. Two genes that have possible roles in determining levels of muscle mass, strength and function in young and older adults are angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and mitochondrial uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2). This study examined whether polymorphisms in these two individual genes were associated with baseline functional performance levels and/or the training-related changes following exercise in previously untrained older adults. Five-eight Caucasian older adults (mean age 69.8 years) with no recent history of resistance training enrolled in a 12 week program of resistance, balance and cardiovascular exercises aimed at improving functional performance. Performance in 6 functional tasks was recorded at baseline and after 12 weeks. Genomic DNA was assayed for the ACE intron 16 insertion/deletion (I/D) and the UCP2 G-866A polymorphism. Baseline differences among genotype groups were tested using analysis of variance. Genotype differences in absolute and relative changes in physical function among the exercisers were tested using a general linear model, adjusting for age and gender. The genotype frequencies for each of the studied polymorphisms conformed to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The ACE I/D genotype was significantly associated with mean baseline measures of handgrip strength (II 30.9 ± 3.01 v. ID 31.7 ± 1.48 v. DD 29.3 ± 2.18 kg, p < 0.001), 8ft Up and Go time (II 6.45 ± 0.48 v. ID/DD 4.41 ± 0.19 s, p < 0.001) and 6 min walk distance (II 458 ± 28.7 v. ID/DD 546 ± 12.1m, p = 0.008). The UCP2 G-866A genotype was also associated with baseline 8ft Up and Go time (GG 5.45 ± 0.35 v. GA 4.47 ± 0.26 v. AA 3.89 ± 0.71 s, p = 0.045). After 12 weeks of training, a significant difference between UCP2 G-886A genotype groups for change in 8ft Up and Go time was detected (GG −0.68 ± 0.17 v. GA −0.10 ± 0.14 v. AA +0.05 ± 0.31 s, p = 0.023). While several interesting and possibly consistent associations with older adults’ baseline functional performance were found for the ACE and UCP2 polymorphisms, we found no strong evidence of genetic associations with exercise responses in this study. The relative equivalence of some of these training-response findings to the literature may have reflected the current study’s focus on physical function rather than just strength, the relatively high levels of baseline function for some genotype groups as well as the greater statistical power for detecting baseline differences than the training-related changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin W L Keogh
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University , Australia ; Human Potential Centre, AUT University , Auckland , New Zealand ; Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast , Australia
| | - Barry R Palmer
- Christchurch Heart Institute, Department of Medicine, University of Otago , Christchurch , New Zealand ; Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, College of Health, Massey University Wellington , New Zealand
| | - Denise Taylor
- Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, AUT University , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Andrew E Kilding
- Human Potential Centre, AUT University , Auckland , New Zealand ; School of Sport and Recreation, AUT University , Auckland , New Zealand
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Abstract
A variety of training approaches have been shown to improve running economy in well-trained athletes. However, there is a paucity of data exploring lower-body determinants that may affect running economy and account for differences that may exist between genders. Sixty-three male and female distance runners were assessed in the laboratory for a range of metabolic, biomechanical, and neuromuscular measures potentially related to running economy (ml·kg(-1)·min(-1)) at a range of running speeds. At all common test velocities, women were more economical than men (effect size [ES] = 0.40); however, when compared in terms of relative intensity, men had better running economy (ES = 2.41). Leg stiffness (r = -0.80) and moment arm length (r = 0.90) were large-extremely largely correlated with running economy and each other (r = -0.82). Correlations between running economy and kinetic measures (peak force, peak power, and time to peak force) for both genders were unclear. The relationship in stride rate (r = -0.27 to -0.31) was in the opposite direction to that of stride length (r = 0.32-0.49), and the relationship in contact time (r = -0.21 to -0.54) was opposite of that of flight time (r = 0.06-0.74). Although both leg stiffness and moment arm length are highly related to running economy, it seems that no single lower-body measure can completely explain differences in running economy between individuals or genders. Running economy is therefore likely determined from the sum of influences from multiple lower-body attributes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Barnes
- 1Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Department of Sport and Recreation, Auckland, New Zealand; and 2Department of Movement Science, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan
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Abstract
The pre-event warm-up or "priming" routine for optimising cycling performance is not well-defined or uniform to a specific event. We aimed to determine the effects of varying the intensity of priming on 3 km cycling performance. Ten endurance-trained male cyclists completed four 3 km time-trials (TT) on four separate occasions, each preceded by a different priming strategy including "self-selected" priming and three intermittent priming strategies incorporating 10 min of constant-load cycling followed by 5 × 10 s bouts of varying relative intensity (100% and 150% of peak aerobic power, Wpeak, and all-out priming). The self-selected priming trial (379 ± 44 W) resulted in similar mean power during the 3 km TT to intermittent priming at 100% (376 ± 45 W; -0.7%; unclear) and 150% (374 ± 48 W; -1.5%, unclear) of Wpeak, but significantly greater than all-out priming (357 ± 45 W; -5.8%, almost certainly harmful). Differences between intermittent and self-selected priming existed with regards to heart rate (6.2% to 11.5%), blood lactate (-22.9% to 125%) and VO2 kinetics (-22.9% to 8.2%), but these were not related to performance outcomes. In conclusion, prescribed intermittent priming strategies varying in intensity did not substantially improve 3 km TT performance compared to self-selected priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan P R McIntyre
- a Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand , AUT University , Auckland , New Zealand
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Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, Northuis ME, Kilding AE. Effects of resistance training on running economy and cross-country performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 45:2322-31. [PMID: 23698241 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0b013e31829af603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Heavy-resistance training and plyometric training offer distinct physiological and neuromuscular adaptations that could enhance running economy and, consequently, distance-running performance. To date, no studies have examined the effect of combining the two modes of training on running economy or performance. METHODS Fifty collegiate male and female cross-country runners performed a 5-km time trial and a series of laboratory-based tests to determine aerobic, anthropometric, biomechanical, and neuromuscular characteristics. Thereafter, each athlete participated in a season of six to eight collegiate cross-country races for 13 wk. After the first 4 wk, athletes were randomly assigned to either heavy-resistance or plyometric plus heavy-resistance training. Five days after completing their final competition, runners repeated the same set of laboratory tests. We also estimated the effects of the intervention on competition performance throughout the season using athletes of other teams as controls. RESULTS Heavy-resistance training produced small-moderate improvements in peak speed, running economy, and neuromuscular characteristics relative to plyometric resistance training, whereas changes in biomechanical measures favored plyometric resistance training. Men made less gains than women in most tests. Both treatments had possibly harmful effects on competition times in men (mean = 0.5%; 90% confidence interval = ±1.2%), but there may have been benefit for some individuals. Both treatments were likely beneficial for all women (-1.2%; ±1.3%), but heavy-resistance training was possibly better than plyometric resistance training. CONCLUSIONS The changes in laboratory-based parameters related to distance-running performance were consistent with the changes in competition times for women but only partly for men. Our data indicate that women should include heavy-resistance training in their programs, but men should be cautious about using it in season until more research establishes whether certain men are positive or negative responders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Barnes
- 1Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, NEW ZEALAND; and 2Department of Kinesiology, Hope College, Holland, MI
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Plews DJ, Laursen PB, Stanley J, Kilding AE, Buchheit M. Training adaptation and heart rate variability in elite endurance athletes: opening the door to effective monitoring. Sports Med 2014; 43:773-81. [PMID: 23852425 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0071-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 246] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) is often considered a convenient non-invasive assessment tool for monitoring individual adaptation to training. Decreases and increases in vagal-derived indices of HRV have been suggested to indicate negative and positive adaptations, respectively, to endurance training regimens. However, much of the research in this area has involved recreational and well-trained athletes, with the small number of studies conducted in elite athletes revealing equivocal outcomes. For example, in elite athletes, studies have revealed both increases and decreases in HRV to be associated with negative adaptation. Additionally, signs of positive adaptation, such as increases in cardiorespiratory fitness, have been observed with atypical concomitant decreases in HRV. As such, practical ways by which HRV can be used to monitor training status in elites are yet to be established. This article addresses the current literature that has assessed changes in HRV in response to training loads and the likely positive and negative adaptations shown. We reveal limitations with respect to how the measurement of HRV has been interpreted to assess positive and negative adaptation to endurance training regimens and subsequent physical performance. We offer solutions to some of the methodological issues associated with using HRV as a day-to-day monitoring tool. These include the use of appropriate averaging techniques, and the use of specific HRV indices to overcome the issue of HRV saturation in elite athletes (i.e., reductions in HRV despite decreases in resting heart rate). Finally, we provide examples in Olympic and World Champion athletes showing how these indices can be practically applied to assess training status and readiness to perform in the period leading up to a pinnacle event. The paper reveals how longitudinal HRV monitoring in elites is required to understand their unique individual HRV fingerprint. For the first time, we demonstrate how increases and decreases in HRV relate to changes in fitness and freshness, respectively, in elite athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Plews
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, AUT Millennium, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, 0632 Auckland, New Zealand.
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