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Chamarro A, Díaz-Moreno A, Bonilla I, Cladellas R, Griffiths MD, Gómez-Romero MJ, Limonero JT. Stress and suicide risk among adolescents: the role of problematic internet use, gaming disorder and emotional regulation. BMC Public Health 2024; 24:326. [PMID: 38291407 PMCID: PMC10826210 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-024-17860-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have associated videogame playing and social media use with suicidal behaviors together with lower stress coping or poor emotion regulation strategies. Due to the inconclusive evidence regarding the factors associated with suicidal behavior, the present study aimed to overcome the limitations of previous research and explored the relationship between adolescent stress, problematic internet use (PIU), gaming disorder (GD), and emotional regulation (ER) in a cross-section design. It was hypothesized that stress would have a direct effect on suicide risk (SR) as well as being mediated by PIU, GD, and ER. METHODS The participants comprised 430 adolescents (58.4% male) aged between 16 and 19 years. They completed an online survey including the Mobile-Related Experiences Questionnaire, Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form, Meta-Mood Trait Repair Scale, and Spanish version of the Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire. RESULTS A total of 34.2% of the adolescents (N = 147) were at risk for SR. Results also indicated that 30,7% had experienced suicidal ideation at some point in their life, 12.1% had at least one plan to die by suicide, and 5.1% had attempted suicide. Results of path analysis confirmed that stress appeared to be a risk factor for suicide, but that its effects were not mediated by PIU. However, ER and GD mediated the effect of stress on SR. The results suggest that stress is a main risk factor for suicide, especially among adolescents with poor emotional regulation or problematic gaming. CONCLUSIONS Considering the prevalence of suicide among adolescents, the results of the present study suggest that suicide prevention programs should include emotional regulation strategies, stress coping, and videogaming management skills in the early stages of high school. Providing these protective resources to adolescents will help them face the stressful and changing situations typical of adolescence and will help them to attain greater well-being and satisfaction with life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Chamarro
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Adrian Díaz-Moreno
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivan Bonilla
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ramon Cladellas
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Unit, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, England
| | - Maria José Gómez-Romero
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain
- Psychology Unit, Egarsat, Mutua Colaboradora con la Seguridad Social nº 276, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joaquín T Limonero
- Stress & Health Research Group. Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain.
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Cui J, Wang Y, Liu D, Yang H. Depression and stress are associated with latent profiles of problematic social media use among college students. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1306152. [PMID: 38098636 PMCID: PMC10720731 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1306152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The previous literature has demonstrated that depression, anxiety, and stress are significant predictors of problematic social media use. However, the manifestation of problematic social media use varies, and the predictive relationship between depression, anxiety, and stress with different subgroups of problematic social media use remains unclear. The aim of this research was to evaluate latent subgroups of problematic social media use among college students and to investigate the impact of depression, anxiety, and stress on these latent subgroups. Methods A survey was carried out among college students in China using a cross-sectional approach. A total of 955 participants were included, with a mean age of 19.50 ± 1.22 years. Participants completed questionnaires containing the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS) and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21). The study employed latent profile analysis (LPA) to investigate latent subgroups of Chinese college students with problematic social media use, and a robust three-step approach was used to develop predictive regression mixed models of depression, anxiety, and stress on latent subgroups. Results Problematic social media use of Chinese college students can be categorized into four latent subgroups, namely, the high-risk group, the moderate-risk with pleasure group, the moderate-risk with compulsion group, and the low-risk group. The regression model showed that there was a significant difference between the high-risk group and the low-risk group on the stress scale. There was a significant difference between the moderate-risk with pleasure group and the moderate-risk with compulsion group on the depression scale. Conclusion Problematic social media use is heterogeneous, with depression and stress being potentially key factors influencing problematic social media use. Depression would make college students more likely to be moderate-risk with compulsion problematic social media users than moderate-risk with pleasure problematic social media users, and stress would make college students more likely to be high-risk problematic social media users than low-risk problematic social media users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Cui
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Faculty of Teacher Education, Zunyi Normal University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Dongyu Liu
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
| | - Haibo Yang
- Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Social Science Laboratory of Students’ Mental Development and Learning, Tianjin, China
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Brandtner A, Verduyn P, Behrens S, Spada MM, Antons S. License to look? The role of permissive beliefs, desire thinking, and self-control in predicting the use of social networking sites. Addict Behav 2023; 139:107573. [PMID: 36608591 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Permissive beliefs are considered the most proximal predictor of actual behavior. Whereas they have frequently been researched in substance-use disorders, the field of social networking sites (SNS) use is missing the investigation as to how relevant permissive beliefs might be in this context, what might be causal precursors of permissive beliefs (i.e., desire thinking), and which processes might influence the effect that permissive beliefs have on actual behavior (i.e., self-control). To answer these questions, 116 people who use SNS participated in an online survey that contained an experimental manipulation of desire thinking and questionnaires measuring permissive beliefs, self-control, and severity of problematic SNS use. In a one-week follow-up, 85 participants reported their SNS usage times. Results showed that the association between permissive beliefs and tendencies to use SNS problematically was not significant. The experimental manipulation led to a decrease in permissive beliefs in the control condition, but did not increase permissive beliefs in the desire thinking condition. Permissive beliefs predicted SNS use in the follow-up assessment, which was not moderated by self-control. The results suggest that permissive beliefs seem to be unrelated to addictive tendencies of SNS use, but are nevertheless associated with daily use. Desire thinking does not appear to activate permissive beliefs in this study, possibly because the use of social networks is less often experienced as conflicting. Due to its ubiquitous availability, the use of social networks itself might quickly resolve the conflict between desires and possible regulatory attempts, making good reasons for use unnecessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Brandtner
- University of Duisburg-Essen, Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), Duisburg, Germany.
| | - Philippe Verduyn
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Sofie Behrens
- University of Duisburg-Essen, Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), Duisburg, Germany.
| | | | - Stephanie Antons
- University of Duisburg-Essen, Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), Duisburg, Germany; Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany.
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Cervigón-Carrasco V, Schulze-Steinen L, Ballester-Arnal R, Billieux J, Juliá BG, Giménez-Garcia C, Castro-Calvo J. Attentional inhibitory control interference related to videogames, pornography, and TV series exposure: An experimental study in three independent samples. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Turan S, Çıray RO, Tunçtürk M, Halac E, Bilgic B, Ağaç N, Ermiş Ç. Social Information Processing and Executive Functions in Male Children and Adolescents with Internet Gaming Disorder. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 2022:10.1007/s10578-022-01468-8. [PMID: 36441375 DOI: 10.1007/s10578-022-01468-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, in addition to its clinical importance, interest in the social-cognitive aspect of internet gaming disorder (IGD) has increased. This study aimed to investigate autistic traits, executive functions, and self-regulation abilities of patients with IGD. Eighty-seven male patients with IGD and eighty-three male healthy controls (HC) were included in the study. All patients were diagnosed with IGD as per the diagnostic criteria of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5. Healthy controls without any comorbid psychiatric diagnosis were recruited from the community. The Brief Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) and the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) were implemented to evaluate autistic traits, executive functions, and self-regulation skills. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Disorders and Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form were used to evaluate psychopathology. The effect size of the impairments in executive functions and self-regulation skills was large (Cohen's d = 1.0-2.0). IGD groups had higher levels of autistic traits compared to healthy controls (d = 1.0-1.4). The differences in BDI and BRIEF scores remained significant in logistic regression analysis. Age at illness-onset, total severity of anxiety, and autistic traits were found as significant correlates of deficits in executive functions among patients with IGD. The results of this study supported the higher autistic traits and poorer executive function skills of patients with IGD. Deficits in executive functions were associated with autistic traits and younger age-onset of the illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serkan Turan
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Bursa Uludag University Medical School, Bursa, Turkey.
| | | | - Mustafa Tunçtürk
- Neurology and Neurosurgery, Mazhar Osman Research and Training Hospital for Psychiatry, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Eren Halac
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Dokuz Eylul University Medical School, Izmir, Turkey
| | | | - Nilay Ağaç
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Dokuz Eylul University Medical School, Izmir, Turkey
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Schmidt LD, Wegmann E, Bischof A, Klein L, Zhou C, Rozgonjuk D, Kannen C, Borgwardt S, Brand M, Montag C, Rumpf HJ. Implicit Cognitions, Use Expectancies and Gratification in Social-Networks-Use Disorder and Tobacco Use Disorder. SUCHT 2022. [DOI: 10.1024/0939-5911/a000782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Abstract: Aims: The problematic use of social networks is discussed as a further specific type of Internet-use disorders. Our project aims to clarify whether social-networks-use disorder (SNUD) is marked by characteristics of addictive behaviors by tracking behavior and investigating the relevance of 1) implicit cognitions, 2) the experiences of gratification and compensation and 3) use expectancies in SNUD compared to tobacco-use disorder. Methodology: Four groups will be examined: individuals with 1) SNUD without tobacco use, 2) risky use patterns with regard to social networks without tobacco use, 3) tobacco use disorder and 4) healthy controls. All participants first complete a laboratory examination including the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Approach-Avoidance task (AAT). We will use smartphone-based data tracking for 14 days following laboratory testing to record smoking and social-networks-use patterns. During this period, we further measure use expectancies and the experience of gratification and compensation by means of a smartphone-based experience sampling method (ESM). Conclusions: This is the first study to examine relevant characteristics of addictive behaviors in individuals with SNUD compared to individuals with tobacco use, using a combination of experimental psychological methods and smartphone-based measurements. We expect that this investigative approach will contribute to a deeper understanding of the processes involved in SNUD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elisa Wegmann
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Anja Bischof
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Lena Klein
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Chang Zhou
- Department of Molecular Psychology, University of Ulm, Germany
| | - Dmitri Rozgonjuk
- Department of Molecular Psychology, University of Ulm, Germany
- Institute of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Stefan Borgwardt
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Matthias Brand
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | | | - Hans-Jürgen Rumpf
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Lübeck, Germany
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Castro-Calvo J, Flayelle M, Perales JC, Brand M, Potenza MN, Billieux J. Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder should not be classified by solely relying on component/symptomatic features •. J Behav Addict 2022; 11:210-215. [PMID: 35895452 PMCID: PMC9295252 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2022.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The paper by Sassover and Weinstein (2022) contributes to a timely and complex debate related to the classification of Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder (CSBD). The recent inclusion of CSBD as an impulse-control disorder in the ICD-11 has generated debate since a competitive view is that CSBD should rather be classified as an addictive disorder. Sassover and Weinstein (2022) reviewed existing evidence and concluded it does not support the conceptualization of CSBD as an addictive disorder. Although we agree regarding the relevance and timely nature of considering the classification of CSBD, we respectfully disagree with the position that relying on the components model of addiction (Griffiths, 2005) is the optimal approach for determining whether or not CSBD is an addictive disorder. In this commentary, we discuss potential pitfalls of relying on the components model to conceptualize CSBD as an addictive disorder and argue that considering a process-based approach is important for advancing this timely debate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Castro-Calvo
- Department of Personality, Assessment, and Psychological Treatments, University of Valencia, Spain
- Corresponding authors. E-mail: ,
| | - Maèva Flayelle
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - José C. Perales
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), Universidad de Granada, Spain
| | - Matthias Brand
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
| | - Marc N. Potenza
- Department of Psychiatry and the Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Department of Neuroscience and the Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
- Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA
- The Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling, Wethersfield, CT 06109, USA
| | - Joël Billieux
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre for Excessive Gambling, Addiction Medicine, Lausanne University Hospitals (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Corresponding authors. E-mail: ,
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Brand M, Potenza MN, Stark R. Theoretical models of types of problematic usage of the Internet: when theorists meet therapists. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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T’ng ST, Ho KH, Pau K. Need Frustration, Gaming Motives, and Internet Gaming Disorder in Mobile Multiplayer Online Battle Arena (MOBA) Games: Through the Lens of Self-Determination Theory. Int J Ment Health Addict 2022; 21:1-21. [PMID: 35497075 PMCID: PMC9037055 DOI: 10.1007/s11469-022-00825-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Playing mobile MOBA games has become a popular leisure activity among Malaysian youth. However, MOBA games are highly addictive and have negative impacts on adult development. Inadequate local studies investigated the risk factors of excessive MOBA gameplay. The present study examined the (1) predictive role of need frustration on Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and (2) mediating effect of gaming motives. A total of 398 mobile MOBA gamers aged 18 to 29 participated in this cross-sectional online survey study. The findings showed that need frustration positively predicted IGD. Social, escape, competition, coping, and skill motives were significant mediators for the association between need frustration and IGD. However, fantasy and recreation motives were not significant mediators. MOBA players who were frustrated while fulfilling their basic needs may succumb to uncontrollable gaming behavior. Therefore, future prevention and intervention programs should cultivate positive mental strength for youth while meeting their basic needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo Ting T’ng
- Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science (FAS), Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900 Kampar, Perak Malaysia
| | - Khee Hoong Ho
- Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Arts and Social Science (FAS), Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Jalan Universiti, Bandar Barat, 31900 Kampar, Perak Malaysia
| | - Kee Pau
- Department of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Human Development, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, 35900 Tanjung Malim, Perak Malaysia
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The roles of implicit approach motivation and explicit reward in excessive and problematic use of social networking sites. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264738. [PMID: 35294452 PMCID: PMC8926255 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite growing concerns about the addictive potential of social networking sites (SNSs), little is known about the precise neural, cognitive, and emotional processes underpinning compulsive SNS behaviours, such as excessive checking of SNSs. Recent evidence points to the important role of reward in SNS behaviours and one avenue to examine reward processes related to SNSs is the use of behavioural paradigms that allow for the measurement of implicit motivational responses, such as the approach avoidance task (AAT). The AAT has been successfully utilised to capture changes in unconscious reward processes in substance use disorders and other behavioural addictions, with faster approach reactions to addiction-related stimuli reflecting increased wanting/urges to have/consume the reward. In the present study 411 young adults completed an online Visual Approach/Avoidance by the Self Task (VAAST) with social media and control logos as well as other subjective (explicit) measures of reward experience related to SNSs. Our results showed that across participants SNS logos elicited strong approach reactions (compared to control stimuli) and that stronger SNS approach tendencies predicted more frequent SNS checking. Importantly, increased approach motivation was not associated with more problematic use. However, both checking frequency and problematic use were related to alterations of explicit reward processing, including the subjective experience of SNS urges or wanting. We conclude that changes in automatic approach motivation towards SNS stimuli are common in most SNS users, which suggests that implicit imbuement of social media with reward has become pervasive among young adults. Problematic SNS use however may be more reliably indicated by changes in explicit reward processing, such as subjective wanting.
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Wang J, Chen Y, Zhang H. Electrophysiological evidence of enhanced early attentional bias toward sexual images in individuals with tendencies toward cybersex addiction. J Behav Addict 2021; 10:1036-1047. [PMID: 34817398 PMCID: PMC8987427 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2021.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Attentional bias is a key factor in addictive behavior maintenance. However, whether attentional bias has a similar effect on cybersex addiction is unclear. We investigated differences in the attentional processing of sexually explicit images between individuals with high tendencies toward cybersex addiction (TCA) versus low tendencies using behavioral and electrophysiological indices. METHODS Twenty-eight individuals with high TCA and 29 with low TCA performed an addiction Stroop task comprising sexual and neutral images in colored frames. Participants were asked to respond to the frame color and not the image contents, and behavioral and event-related potentials were recorded. RESULTS Behaviorally, an addiction Stroop interference effect was found in the high TCA group, as shown by the longer reaction times to judge the frame colors of sexual images. Electrophysiologically, a P200 (150-220 ms) enhancement was present in response to sexual images compared with neutral ones, which was absent in the low TCA group. The event-related potential correlates with the addiction Stroop interference effect, indicating that the attentional bias underlying the addiction Stroop interference operates at an automatic level. A general, sexually related bias was found in the late positive potential (300-700 ms) amplitude, although between-group differences were insignificant. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that sexual stimuli grab the attentional resources of individuals with high TCA at early automatic stages of attentional processing. Increased cue reactivity to sexual stimuli may contribute to pornographic consumption and play a crucial role in sustaining problematic excessive use of online pornography.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Hui Zhang
- School of Psychology, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, 610500, China
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Abstract
This special issue addresses the affective and cognitive processes and their interactions potentially reflecting mechanisms underlying the development, maintenance of, or recovery from behavioral addictions. Various specific types of behavioral addictions will be considered, including those already in ICD-11 (gambling disorder, gaming disorder), but also new phenomena that are not yet classified (e.g., buying-shopping disorder, social-network-disorder) and phenomena potentially belonging to behavioral addictions although they are currently classified elsewhere (e.g., compulsive sexual behavior disorder). The articles included in this special issue directly investigate affective processes (e.g., cue-reactivity, craving, mood, stress, social interactions) and/or cognitive processes (e.g., executive functions, attention, memory). The studies involve experimental paradigms, neuropsychological tasks, psychophysiological measures, and neuroimaging techniques. Specific articles also deal with the relationship between affective and cognitive processes. The special issue is complemented by articles covering current debates and reviewing current empirical findings in the field.
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Castro-Calvo J, Cervigón-Carrasco V, Ballester-Arnal R, Giménez-García C. Cognitive processes related to problematic pornography use (PPU): A systematic review of experimental studies. Addict Behav Rep 2021; 13:100345. [PMID: 33948482 PMCID: PMC8080450 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Some people experience symptoms and negative outcomes derived from their persistent, excessive, and problematic engagement in pornography viewing (i.e., Problematic Pornography Use, PPU). Recent theoretical models have turned to different cognitive processes (e.g., inhibitory control, decision making, attentional bias, etc.) to explain the development and maintenance of PPU, but empirical evidence derived from experimental studies is still limited. In this context, the present systematic review aimed to review and compile the evidence around cognitive processes related to PPU. METHODS A systematic review was performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines to compile evidence regarding cognitive processes related to PPU. We retained and analyzed 21 experimental studies addressing this topic. RESULTS Studies were focused on four cognitive processes: attentional bias, inhibitory control, working memory, and decision making. In brief, PPU is related to (a) attentional biases toward sexual stimuli, (b) deficient inhibitory control (in particular, to problems with motor response inhibition and to shift attention away from irrelevant stimuli), (c) worse performance in tasks assessing working memory, and (d) decision making impairments (in particular, to preferences for short-term small gains rather than long-term large gains, more impulsive choice patterns than non-erotica users, approach tendencies toward sexual stimuli, and inaccuracies when judging the probability and magnitude of potential outcomes under ambiguity). CONCLUSION This systematic review offers a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the cognitive features related to PPU, and points out new areas that warrants further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Castro-Calvo
- Department of Personality, Assessment, and Psychological Treatments, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | - V. Cervigón-Carrasco
- Department of Basic and Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
| | - R. Ballester-Arnal
- Department of Basic and Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
| | - C. Giménez-García
- Department of Basic and Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
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Wegmann E, Brandtner A, Brand M. Perceived Strain Due to COVID-19-Related Restrictions Mediates the Effect of Social Needs and Fear of Missing Out on the Risk of a Problematic Use of Social Networks. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:623099. [PMID: 33967850 PMCID: PMC8102741 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.623099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The occurrence of the COVID-19-virus led to drastic short-term measures to reduce its spread and influence. Regulations such as "physical distancing," mentioned as "social distancing," and the closure of public facilities during the lockdown could be perceived as burdensome especially by individuals who feel a strong need for social exchange and belonging. These components such as need to belong and the fear of missing out also play a major role in the development and maintenance of a problematic use of social networks. Researchers have argued recently that an increase of addictive (online) behaviors may be a likely consequence of subjectively experienced restrictions in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. The current study investigates the interplay of perceived strain due to COVID-19-related restrictions and the fear of missing out (FoMO) as well as of symptoms of problematic social-networks use. We hypothesized that perceived strain due to COVID-19-related restrictions mediates the effect of specific predisposing variables related to social needs on the symptom severity of a problematic use. To assess the perceived strain due to COVID-19-related restrictions, we developed a specific questionnaire asking for perceived COVID-19-related strain in several domains of everyday-life. An exploratory factor analysis identified five factors: perceived strain related to restrictions of (1) social contacts, (2) travel, (3) childcare, (4) work, and (5) own health. In a sample of 719 German participants and data collection during the first COVID-19 lockdown (March 30th until April 3rd 2020), a structural equation model was calculated showing that higher levels of need to belong and FoMO increase perceived COVID-19-related strain, which is related to symptoms of a problematic social-networks use. The effect of need to belong on problematic social-networks use is mediated by experienced COVID-19-related strain and FoMO-online. Even if the use of social networks is not pathological per se, it may be associated with suffering for a vulnerable part of users. We conclude that specific needs and fear-associated predisposing variables contribute to experiencing physical distance and other pandemic-related restrictions as more stressful, which may increase problematic social-networks use and potentially other addictive behaviors as well in the context of the COVID-19-related lockdown.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Wegmann
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Annika Brandtner
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Brand
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
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15
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Müller SM, Wegmann E, García Arias M, Bernabéu Brotóns E, Marchena Giráldez C, Brand M. Deficits in executive functions but not in decision making under risk in individuals with problematic social-network use. Compr Psychiatry 2021; 106:152228. [PMID: 33581450 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2021.152228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The tendency to strive for immediate gratification by neglecting potential negative long-term outcomes characterizes addictive behaviors, such as substance use or gaming disorder. Problematic social-network use is currently discussed as another potential addictive behavior, which is considered to result from an imbalance between affective and cognitive processes, indicated by traits such as increased impulsivity and/or decreased executive functions and decision-making abilities. METHODS This study investigates the respective functions in social-network users by use of the Cards and Lottery Task (CLT) - a decision-making task under risk conditions in which options contain conflicting immediate and long-term outcomes at the same time. A sample of German and Spanish participants (N = 290) performed the CLT as well as the Modified Card Sorting Test (MCST), Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS), the short Internet Addiction Test specified for social-networking (sIAT-SNS), and screeners on other potentially problematic behaviors. RESULTS Comparing extreme groups based on sIAT-SNS scores (1SD above/below mean), individuals with problematic social-network use (n = 56), as compared to those with non-problematic social-network use (n = 50), showed increased attentional impulsivity and reduced executive functions. No differences were observed in decision-making performance. CONCLUSION The findings indicate that problematic social-network use is related to attentional rather than general decision-making deficits. Furthermore, problematic social-network use is likely to co-occur with other problematic Internet-use behaviors, particularly gaming or shopping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke M Müller
- Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany; Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
| | - Elisa Wegmann
- Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - María García Arias
- Faculty of Education and Psychology, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Matthias Brand
- Department of General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany; Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany.
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16
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Problematische Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke. PSYCHOTHERAPEUT 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00278-020-00489-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung
Hintergrund
Die Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke ist ein zentraler Bestandteil des Alltags. Neben vielen Vorteilen wird jedoch zunehmend von subjektiven Beeinträchtigungen und negativen Konsequenzen aufgrund einer exzessiven, unkontrollierten Nutzung berichtet. Parallelen zu anderen internetbezogenen Verhaltenssüchten und substanzgebundenen Störungen lassen vermuten, dass Konstrukte wie Impulsivität, das Erleben von Craving und eine beeinträchtige Inhibitionskontrolle ebenfalls Risikofaktoren bei der Entwicklung und Aufrechterhaltung einer problematischen Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke darstellen.
Material und Methode
In der vorliegenden Experimentalstudie mit 64 Teilnehmenden im Alter von 18 bis 59 Jahren wurden ein auditives „Cue-reactivity“-Paradigma sowie eine modifizierte Version der Stopp-Signal-Aufgabe zur Erfassung von Reizreaktivität und Inhibitionskontrolle eingesetzt. Zur Erhebung von Craving, Impulsivität und der Symptomschwere einer problematischen Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke wurden Fragebogen verwendet.
Ergebnisse
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Tendenz einer problematischen Nutzung mit einer höheren Impulsivität und Craving einhergeht. Die Inhibitionskontrolle sowie die Interaktion zwischen den verschiedenen Konstrukten konnten keine weitere Beiträge zur Varianzaufklärung der Symptomschwere leisten.
Schlussfolgerung
Die Ergebnisse illustrieren die Bedeutsamkeit von Impulsivität und Craving bei der Entwicklung und Aufrechterhaltung einer problematischen Nutzung sozialer Netzwerke. Darüber hinaus gilt es, die Spezifität der einzelnen Reize hinsichtlich des möglichen Konfliktpotenzials und Aufforderungscharakters sowie die damit einhergehende Relevanz spezifischer kognitiver Komponenten in weiteren Studien zu prüfen.
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Throuvala MA, Pontes HM, Tsaousis I, Griffiths MD, Rennoldson M, Kuss DJ. Exploring the Dimensions of Smartphone Distraction: Development, Validation, Measurement Invariance, and Latent Mean Differences of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS). Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:642634. [PMID: 33762981 PMCID: PMC7982468 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.642634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Distraction is a functional emotion regulation strategy utilized to relieve emotional distress. Within the attention economy perspective, distraction is increasingly associated with digital technology use, performance impairments and interference with higher-order cognitive processes. Research on smartphone distraction and its association with problematic smartphone use is still scarce and there is no available psychometric assessment tool to assess this cognitive and emotive process parsimoniously. Method: The present study reports the development and evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Smartphone Distraction Scale (SDS) through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, construct validity, gender invariance, and latent mean differences. The study was conducted in a sample of British university students (N = 1,001; M = 21.10 years, SD = 2.77). Results: The 16-item SDS was best conceptualized in a four-factor model solution comprising attention impulsiveness, online vigilance, emotion regulation, and multitasking. Construct validity was established using relevant psychosocial and mental health measures, with SDS scores being moderately associated with deficient self-regulation and problematic social media use. Gender measurement invariance was achieved at the configural, metric, and scalar levels, and latent mean differences indicated that females had significantly higher means than males across all four SDS latent factors. Discussion: The SDS presents with several strengths, including its theoretical grounding, relatively short length, and sound psychometric properties. The SDS enables the assessment of distraction, which appears to be one of the pathways to problematic smartphone use facilitating overuse and overreliance on smartphones for emotion regulation processes. The assessment of distraction in relation to problematic use in vulnerable populations may facilitate interventions that could encourage metacognition and benefit these groups by allowing sustained productivity in an increasingly disrupted work and social environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melina A Throuvala
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Halley M Pontes
- Department of Organizational Psychology, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ioannis Tsaousis
- Department of Psychology, University of Crete, Rethymnon, Greece
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Mike Rennoldson
- Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Daria J Kuss
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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Chamarro A, Oberst U, Cladellas R, Fuster H. Effect of the Frustration of Psychological Needs on Addictive Behaviors in Mobile Videogamers-The Mediating Role of Use Expectancies and Time Spent Gaming. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17176429. [PMID: 32899364 PMCID: PMC7503624 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Casual videogames (CVGs), played on smartphones, are becoming increasingly popular, especially among females and adults. Whereas the addictive potential of online (computer) videogames is well-established, there is yet insufficient evidence for Internet gaming disorder (IGD) in mobile gamers and for the mediating role of some mechanisms involved. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of the frustration of psychological needs on mobile videogamers’ addictive behavior as well as the role of cognitions (game-use expectancies) and behaviors (time spent playing) through a hypothesized serial mediation model, while controlling for important correlates, such as game genre, age, gender and payment during play. A total of 471 mobile game users (211 males) with an average age of 21.73 replied to an online survey containing sociodemographic and game variables, the Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (NSFS), the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short Form (IGDS9-SF) and a slightly modified version of the Internet Use Expectancies Scale (IUES). The results corroborate the negative effects of need frustration on IGD among mobile gamers and clarify the role of time spent playing and game-use expectancies in the development of IGD, highlighting the important role of cognitions in this relationship. We conclude that both the time spent playing and game-use expectancies should be important targets for clinical interventions, even though they are not included in the diagnostic criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Chamarro
- Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain;
- Serra Hunter Programme, Generalitat de Catalunya, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Ursula Oberst
- Department of Psychology, Blanquerna School of Psychology, Education and Sport Sciences, Ramon Llull University, 08022 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - Ramón Cladellas
- Department of Basic, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain;
| | - Héctor Fuster
- School of New Interactive Technologies, University of Barcelona, 08007 Barcelona, Spain;
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19
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Throuvala MA, Griffiths MD, Rennoldson M, Kuss DJ. Mind over Matter: Testing the Efficacy of an Online Randomized Controlled Trial to Reduce Distraction from Smartphone Use. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E4842. [PMID: 32635650 PMCID: PMC7369880 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17134842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Evidence suggests a growing call for the prevention of excessive smartphone and social media use and the ensuing distraction that arises affecting academic achievement and productivity. A ten-day online randomized controlled trial with the use of smartphone apps, engaging participants in mindfulness exercises, self-monitoring and mood tracking, was implemented amongst UK university students (n = 143). Participants were asked to complete online pre- and post-intervention assessments. Results indicated high effect sizes in reduction of smartphone distraction and improvement scores on a number of self-reported secondary psychological outcomes. The intervention was not effective in reducing habitual behaviours, nomophobia, or time spent on social media. Mediation analyses demonstrated that: (i) emotional self-awareness but not mindful attention mediated the relationship between intervention effects and smartphone distraction, and (ii) online vigilance mediated the relationship between smartphone distraction and problematic social media use. The present study provides preliminary evidence of the efficacy of an intervention for decreased smartphone distraction and highlights psychological processes involved in this emergent phenomenon in the smartphone literature. Online interventions may serve as complementary strategies to reduce distraction levels and promote insight into online engagement. More research is required to elucidate the mechanisms of digital distraction and assess its implications in problematic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melina A. Throuvala
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK; (M.D.G.); (D.J.K.)
| | - Mark D. Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK; (M.D.G.); (D.J.K.)
| | - Mike Rennoldson
- Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK;
| | - Daria J. Kuss
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG1 4FQ, UK; (M.D.G.); (D.J.K.)
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20
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Brand M, Rumpf HJ, Demetrovics Z, Müller A, Stark R, King DL, Goudriaan AE, Mann K, Trotzke P, Fineberg NA, Chamberlain SR, Kraus SW, Wegmann E, Billieux J, Potenza MN. Which conditions should be considered as disorders in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) designation of "other specified disorders due to addictive behaviors"? J Behav Addict 2020; 11. [PMID: 32634114 PMCID: PMC9295220 DOI: 10.1556/2006.2020.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gambling and gaming disorders have been included as "disorders due to addictive behaviors" in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11). Other problematic behaviors may be considered as "other specified disorders due to addictive behaviors (6C5Y)." METHODS Narrative review, experts' opinions. RESULTS We suggest the following meta-level criteria for considering potential addictive behaviors as fulfilling the category of "other specified disorders due to addictive behaviors":1. Clinical relevance: Empirical evidence from multiple scientific studies demonstrates that the specific potential addictive behavior is clinically relevant and individuals experience negative consequences and functional impairments in daily life due to the problematic and potentially addictive behavior.2. Theoretical embedding: Current theories and theoretical models belonging to the field of research on addictive behaviors describe and explain most appropriately the candidate phenomenon of a potential addictive behavior.3. Empirical evidence: Data based on self-reports, clinical interviews, surveys, behavioral experiments, and, if available, biological investigations (neural, physiological, genetic) suggest that psychological (and neurobiological) mechanisms involved in other addictive behaviors are also valid for the candidate phenomenon. Varying degrees of support for problematic forms of pornography use, buying and shopping, and use of social networks are available. These conditions may fit the category of "other specified disorders due to addictive behaviors". CONCLUSION It is important not to over-pathologize everyday-life behavior while concurrently not trivializing conditions that are of clinical importance and that deserve public health considerations. The proposed meta-level-criteria may help guide both research efforts and clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Brand
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
| | - Hans-Jürgen Rumpf
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Research Group S:TEP (Substance Use and Related Disorders: Treatment, Epidemiology, and Prevention), University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Zsolt Demetrovics
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Astrid Müller
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rudolf Stark
- Department of Psychotherapy and Systems Neuroscience, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Bender Institute of Neuroimaging, Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Daniel L. King
- College of Education, Psychology, and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Anna E. Goudriaan
- Amsterdam University Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Arkin Mental Health Care, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Karl Mann
- Department of Addictive Behavior and Addiction Medicine, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Patrick Trotzke
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
| | - Naomi A. Fineberg
- Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, Hertfordshire, UK
- Centre for Health Services and Clinical Research, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
- School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Samuel R. Chamberlain
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Cambridge & Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Shane W. Kraus
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Department of Psychology, Las Vegas, NV, USA
| | - Elisa Wegmann
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
| | - JoËl Billieux
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Centre for Excessive Gambling, Lausanne University Hospitals (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marc N. Potenza
- Departments of Psychiatry, Neuroscience and Child Study, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
- Connecticut Council on Problem Gambling, Wethersfield, CT, USA
- Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA
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