E-waste it wisely: lessons from Africa

Assessment of direction changes in waste electrical and electronic equipment management in Poland

A growing amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) indicates the need to verify the effectiveness of its management both nationally and globally. An analysis of the WEEE economy in Poland conducted over 5 years confirmed a 16.64% increase in the mass of collected equipment. The maximum annual mass of electrical and electronic equipment introduced to the market during this period was 607,240 Mg, with the average value exceeding 500,000 Mg. The WEEE category with the largest collected mass was waste code 20 01 36, which exceeded 235,000 Mg, whilst the highest waste weight accumulation rate of 45.98 kg per capita was recorded in one of the smallest voivodeships in Poland. This result showed the diversity of WEEE accumulation on a national scale. Overall, a noticeable increase in the WEEE accumulation rate has occurred as Poland's gross domestic product has increased, despite a decreasing population. An analysis based on the waste accumulation indicators, including socioeconomic factors, confirmed the need to develop forms of WEEE recovery and recycling to transition to a circular economy and promote the synergy of activities amongst all players in WEEE management.

Social Hotspot analysis of the e-waste sector in Ghana and Nigeria

The transition towards a circular economy, which has emerged as a promising approach to achieving sustainable development and which involves the reuse of e-waste, may cause significant social impacts on vulnerable groups if it is not addressed in a proper manner. The European Union has established a clear circular economy plan with particular attention on e-waste treatment. However, a considerable amount of e-waste still ends up outside Europe, mainly in African Countries. Social Life Cycle Assessment (S-LCA) has been recognized as a valid methodology to assess the social impacts caused by products or services to stakeholders involved along the life cycle perspective. Most S-LCA studies are conducted in the formal sector; however, informal sectors constitute a crucial element of the economy in emerging and developing countries. In particular, formal waste management practices are complemented by the informal sector in Indonesia, African and Latin American countries. The informal sector represents an important support element. Few studies have been conducted on the social impacts of the e-waste sector and even fewer have been implemented following the guidelines of Social Life Cycle Assessment for Products and Organizations. However, we are still far from a complete overview of the social impacts in the e-waste sector, in particular for developing countries. Knowing that most e-waste through illegal exportation ends up in African countries, a social hotspot analysis has been conducted on the electronic sector in African countries, focusing on Nigeria and Ghana, which are the most affected. The study also identifies a set of indicators needed to assess the social performance of e-waste in Nigeria and Ghana.

Occurrence and ecotoxicological impacts of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in electronic waste (e-waste) in Africa: Options for sustainable and eco-friendly management strategies

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are persistent contaminants used as flame retardants in electronic products. PBDEs are contaminants of concern due to leaching and recalcitrance conferred by the stable and hydrophobic bromide residues. The near absence of legislatures and conscious initiatives to tackle the challenges of PBDEs in Africa has allowed for the indiscriminate use and consequent environmental degradation. Presently, the incidence, ecotoxicity, and remediation of PBDEs in Africa are poorly elucidated. Here, we present a position on the level of contamination, ecotoxicity, and management strategies for PBDEs with regard to Africa. Our review shows that Africa is inundated with PBDEs from the proliferation of e-waste due to factors like the increasing growth in the IT sector worsened by the procurement of second-hand gadgets. An evaluation of the fate of PBDEs in the African environment reveals that the environment is adequately contaminated, although reported in only a few countries like Nigeria and Ghana. Ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, and Soxhlet extraction coupled with specific chromatographic techniques are used in the detection and quantification of PBDEs. Enormous exposure pathways in humans were highlighted with health implications. In terms of the removal of PBDEs, we found a gap in efforts in this direction, as not much success has been reported in Africa. However, we outline eco-friendly methods used elsewhere, including microbial degradation, zerovalent iron, supercritical fluid, and reduce, reuse, recycle, and recovery methods. The need for Africa to make and implement legislatures against PBDEs holds the key to reduced effect on the continent.

Driving sustainable circular economy in electronics: A comprehensive review on environmental life cycle assessment of e-waste recycling

E-waste, encompassing discarded materials from outdated electronic equipment, often ends up intermixed with municipal solid waste, leading to improper disposal through burial and incineration. This improper handling releases hazardous substances into water, soil, and air, posing significant risks to ecosystems and human health, ultimately entering the food chain and water supply. Formal e-waste recycling, guided by circular economy models and zero-discharge principles, offers potential solutions to this critical challenge. However, implementing a circular economy for e-waste management due to chemical and energy consumption may cause environmental impacts. Consequently, advanced sustainability assessment tools, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), have been applied to investigate e-waste management strategies. While LCA is a standardized methodology, researchers have employed various routes for environmental assessment of different e-waste management methods. However, to the authors' knowledge, there lacks a comprehensive study focusing on LCA studies to discern the opportunities and limitations of this method in formal e-waste management strategies. Hence, this review aims to survey the existing literature on the LCA of e-waste management under a circular economy, shedding light on the current state of research, identifying research gaps, and proposing future research directions. It first explains various methods of managing e-waste in the circular economy. This review then evaluates and scrutinizes the LCA approach in implementing the circular bioeconomy for e-waste management. Finally, it proposes frameworks and procedures to enhance the applicability of the LCA method to future e-waste management research. The literature on the LCA of e-waste management reveals a wide variation in implementing LCA in formal e-waste management, resulting in diverse results and findings in this field. This paper underscores that LCA can pinpoint the environmental hotspots for various pathways of formal e-waste recycling, particularly focusing on metals. It can help address these concerns and achieve greater sustainability in e-waste recycling, especially in pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical pathways. The recovery of high-value metals is more environmentally justified compared to other metals. However, biometallurgical pathways remain limited in terms of environmental studies. Despite the potential for recycling e-waste into plastic or glass, there is a dearth of robust background in LCA studies within this sector. This review concludes that LCA can offer valuable insights for decision-making and policy processes on e-waste management, promoting environmentally sound e-waste recycling practices. However, the accuracy of LCA results in e-waste recycling, owing to data requirements, subjectivity, impact category weighting, and other factors, remains debatable, emphasizing the need for more uncertainty analysis in this field.

A review of heavy metal risks around e-waste sites and comparable municipal dumpsites in major African cities: Recommendations and future perspectives

In Africa, the effects of informal e-waste recycling on the environment are escalating. It is regularly transported from developed to developing nations, where it is disassembled informally in search of precious metals, thus increasing human exposure to harmful compounds. Africa has a serious problem with e-waste, as there are significant facilities in Ghana and Nigeria where imported e-waste is unsafely dismantled. however, because they are in high demand and less expensive than new ones, old electronic and electrical items are imported in large quantities, just like in many developing nations. After that, these objects are frequently scavenged to recover important metals through heating, burning, incubation in acids, and other techniques. Serious health hazards are associated with these activities for workers and individuals close to recycling plants. At e-waste sites in Africa, there have been documented instances of elevated concentrations of hazardous elements, persistent organic pollutants, and heavy metals in dust, soils, and vegetation, including plants consumed as food. Individuals who handle and dispose of e-waste are exposed to highly hazardous chemical substances. This paper examines heavy metal risks around e-waste sites and comparable municipal dumpsites in major African cities. Elevated concentrations of these heavy metals metal in downstream aquatic and marine habitats have resulted in additional environmental impacts. These effects have been associated with unfavourable outcomes in marine ecosystems, such as reduced fish stocks characterized by smaller sizes, increased susceptibility to illness, and decreased population densities. The evidence from the examined studies shows how much e-waste affects human health and the environment in Africa. Sub-Saharan African nations require a regulatory framework that includes specialized laws, facilities, and procedures for the safe recycling and disposal of e-waste.

Environmental Injustice and Electronic Waste in Ghana: Challenges and Recommendations

Electronic waste (e-waste) or discarded electronic devices that are unwanted, not working, or have reached their end of life pose significant threats to human and environmental health. This is a major concern in Africa, where the majority of e-waste is discarded. In the year 2021, an estimated 57.4 million metric tons of e-waste were generated worldwide. Globally, COVID-19 lockdowns have contributed to increased e-waste generation. Although Africa generates the least of this waste, the continent has been the dumping ground for e-waste from the developed world. The flow of hazardous waste from the prosperous 'Global North' to the impoverished 'Global South' is termed "toxic colonialism". Agbogbloshie, Ghana, an e-waste hub where about 39% of e-waste was treated, was listed among the top 10 most polluted places in the world. The discard of e-waste in Ghana presents an issue of environmental injustice, defined as the disproportionate exposure of communities of color and low-income communities to pollution, its associated health and environmental effects, and the unequal environmental protection provided through policies. Despite the economic benefits of e-waste, many civilians (low-income earners, settlers, children, and people with minimal education) are exposed to negative health effects due to poverty, lack of education, and weak regulations. We critically examine the existing literature to gather empirical information on e-waste and environmental injustice. Comprehensive policies and regulations are needed to manage e-waste locally and globally.

Informal E-waste recycling practices and environmental pollution in Africa: What is the way forward?

Globally, e-waste is the fastest growing and most valuable waste-stream. While countries worldwide are increasingly acknowledging the e-waste problem and introducing policies and regulations that deal with e-waste, large quantities of e-waste still go undocumented. Much of these global e-wastes are accumulating in open-dumpsites and landfills in African-countries where they are recycled informally resulting in significant environmental and public-health concerns. Although, there is a plethora of studies on e-waste management and disposal, only a few-studies have focused on African-countries who are major recipients of e-waste. Moreover, despite the attempts to mitigate the problem of e-waste in African-countries, e-waste has remained a major-concern and there are currently very limited workable solutions. This study examines informal e-waste recycling, environmental pollution and the extent of environmental and health impacts in major countries of concern including Ghana, Nigeria, Egypt, Kenya and South Africa. The global e-waste Waste Atlas Report, 2020 identified these countries as major recipients of e-waste. To achieve the aims of this research, previous studies from 2005 to 2022 are collected from various databases and analyzed. Accordingly, this study focuses on environmental pollution and public-health impacts resulting from e-waste dumping and informal recycling practices, illegal transboundary shipment of e-waste to the selected countries, and the interventions of governments and international organizations in reducing the impact of e-waste pollution and informal recycling practices in Africa. Based on the outcomes of this study, practical approaches on the way-forward are recommended. The findings of this study contribute to a growing-body of research on informal e-waste recycling practices in Africa to document that individuals working within e-waste sites and residents in nearby communities are exposed to a number of toxic-substances, some at potentially concerning levels.