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Oxygen levels are key to understanding "Anaerobic" protozoan pathogens with micro-aerophilic lifestyles. Adv Microb Physiol 2021; 79:163-240. [PMID: 34836611 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2021.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Publications abound on the physiology, biochemistry and molecular biology of "anaerobic" protozoal parasites as usually grown under "anaerobic" culture conditions. The media routinely used are poised at low redox potentials using techniques that remove O2 to "undetectable" levels in sealed containers. However there is growing understanding that these culture conditions do not faithfully resemble the O2 environments these organisms inhabit. Here we review for protists lacking oxidative energy metabolism, the oxygen cascade from atmospheric to intracellular concentrations and relevant methods of measurements of O2, some well-studied parasitic or symbiotic protozoan lifestyles, their homeodynamic metabolic and redox balances, organism-drug-oxygen interactions, and the present and future prospects for improved drugs and treatment regimes.
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Lloyd D, Williams CF. Avoid Excessive Oxygen Levels in Experiments with Organisms, Tissues and Cells. Adv Microb Physiol 2015; 67:293-314. [PMID: 26616520 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ampbs.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
O2 levels encountered in vivo in cells and tissues are almost always at least an order of magnitude less than atmospheric pO2 because of sensing, signalling and bioenergetic demand. Although deleterious reactions are minimized by protective mechanisms (residual toxic products scavenged and detoxified) ambient levels should be mimicked in experiments with whole organisms, their isolated organs, tissues or cells and also with cultures of cell lines. These are also important issues for microorganisms inhabiting low O2 niches within higher organisms and their cells. Here, we highlight the importance of optimization of micro-aerobic conditions for experimentation and the deleterious consequences of not doing so.
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Wang XD, Wolfbeis OS. Optical methods for sensing and imaging oxygen: materials, spectroscopies and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2014; 43:3666-761. [PMID: 24638858 DOI: 10.1039/c4cs00039k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 557] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
We review the current state of optical methods for sensing oxygen. These have become powerful alternatives to electrochemical detection and in the process of replacing the Clark electrode in many fields. The article (with 694 references) is divided into main sections on direct spectroscopic sensing of oxygen, on absorptiometric and luminescent probes, on polymeric matrices and supports, on additives and related materials, on spectroscopic schemes for read-out and imaging, and on sensing formats (such as waveguide sensing, sensor arrays, multiple sensors and nanosensors). We finally discuss future trends and applications and summarize the properties of the most often used indicator probes and polymers. The ESI† (with 385 references) gives a selection of specific applications of such sensors in medicine, biology, marine and geosciences, intracellular sensing, aerodynamics, industry and biotechnology, among others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu-dong Wang
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and Biosensors, University of Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany.
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Kavanagh E, Hill S. The automatic maintenance of low dissolved oxygen using a photobacterial oxygen sensor for the study of microaerobiosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1990.tb01546.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Degn H, Cox RP, Lloyd D. Continuous measurement of dissolved gases in biochemical systems with the quadrupole mass spectrometer. METHODS OF BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2006; 31:165-94. [PMID: 3927115 DOI: 10.1002/9780470110522.ch3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Bârzu O. Measurement of oxygen consumption by the spectrophotometric oxyhemoglobin method. METHODS OF BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2006; 30:227-67. [PMID: 6330496 DOI: 10.1002/9780470110515.ch5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Campbell AK, Hallett MB, Weeks I. Chemiluminescence as an analytical tool in cell biology and medicine. METHODS OF BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS 2006; 31:317-416. [PMID: 3894883 DOI: 10.1002/9780470110522.ch7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Lloyd D. Noninvasive methods for the investigation of organisms at low oxygen levels. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2003; 51:155-83. [PMID: 12236057 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(02)51005-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Lloyd
- School of Biosciences (Microbiology), Main Building, Cardiff University, P. O. Box 915, Cardiff CF10 3TL, Wales, United Kingdom
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Bourgois JJ, Sluse FE, Baguet F, Mallefet J. Kinetics of light emission and oxygen consumption by bioluminescent bacteria. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2001; 33:353-63. [PMID: 11710810 DOI: 10.1023/a:1010615508916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Oxygen plays a key role in bacterial bioluminescence. The simultaneous and continuous kinetics of oxygen consumption and light emission during a complete exhaustion of the exogenous oxygen present in a closed system has been investigated. The kinetics are performed with Vibrio fischeri, V. harveyi, and Photobacterium phosphoreum incubated on respiratory substrates chosen for their different reducing power. The general patterns of the luminescence time courses are different among species but not among substrates. During steady-state conditions, substrates, which are less reduced than glycerol, have, paradoxally, a better luminescence efficiency. Oxygen consumption by luciferase has been evaluated to be approximately 17% of the total respiration. Luciferase is a regulatory enzyme presenting a positive cooperative effect with oxygen and its affinity for this final electron acceptor is about 4-5 times higher than the one of cytochrome oxidase. The apparent Michaelis constant for luciferase has been evaluated to be in the range of 20 to 65 nM O2. When O2 concentrations are as low as 10 nM, luminescence can still be detected; this means that above this concentration, strict anaerobiosis does not exist. By n-butyl malonate titration, it was clearly shown that electrons enter the luciferase pathway only when the cytochrome pathway is saturated. It is suggested that, in bioluminescent bacteria, luciferase acts as a free-energy dissipating valve when anabolic processes (biomass production) are impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Bourgois
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Animale, Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium.
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Lloyd D, Thomas KL, Hayes A, Hill B, Hales BA, Edwards C, Saunders JR, Ritchie DA, Upton M. Micro-ecology of peat: minimally invasive analysis using confocal laser scanning microscopy, membrane inlet mass spectrometry and PCR amplification of methanogen-specific gene sequences. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 1998. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6941.1998.tb00471.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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Srinivasan N, Johnson R, Kasthurikrishnan N, Wong P, Cooks R. Membrane introduction mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(97)00212-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Thomas KL, Price D, Lloyd D. A comparison of different methods for the measurement of dissolved gas gradients in waterlogged peat cores. J Microbiol Methods 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7012(95)00070-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hurek T, Reinhold-Hurek B, Turner GL, Bergersen FJ. Augmented rates of respiration and efficient nitrogen fixation at nanomolar concentrations of dissolved O2 in hyperinduced Azoarcus sp. strain BH72. J Bacteriol 1994; 176:4726-33. [PMID: 8045903 PMCID: PMC196295 DOI: 10.1128/jb.176.15.4726-4733.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Azoarcus sp. strain BH72 is an aerobic diazotrophic bacterium that was originally found as an endophyte in Kallar grass. Anticipating that these bacteria are exposed to dissolved O2 concentrations (DOCs) in the nanomolar range during their life cycle, we studied the impact of increasing O2 deprivation on N2 fixation and respiration. Bacteria were grown in batch cultures, where they shifted into conditions of low pO2 upon depletion of O2 by respiration. During incubation, specific rates of respiration (qO2) and efficiencies of carbon source utilization for N2 reduction increased greatly, while the growth rate did not change significantly, a phenomenon that we called "hyperinduction." To evaluate this transition from high- to low-cost N2 fixation in terms of respiratory kinetics and nitrogenase activities at nanomolar DOC, bacteria which had shifted to different gas-phase pO2s in batch cultures were subjected to assays using leghemoglobin as the O2 carrier. As O2 deprivation in batch cultures proceeded, respiratory Km (O2) decreased and Vmax increased. Nitrogenase activity at nanomolar DOC increased to a specific rate of 180 nmol of C2H4 min-1 mg of protein-1 at 32 nM O2. Nitrogenase activity was proportional to respiration but not to DOC in the range of 12 to 86 nM O2. Respiration supported N2 fixation more efficiently at high than at low respiratory rates, the respiratory efficiency increasing from 0.14 to 0.47 mol of C2H4 mol of O2 consumed-1. We conclude that (i) during hyperinduction, strain BH72 used an increasing amount of energy generated by respiration for N2 fixation, and (ii) these bacteria have a high respiratory capacity, enabling them to develop ecological niches at very low pO2, in which they may respire actively and fix nitrogen efficiently at comparatively high rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Hurek
- CSIRO Division of Plant Industry, Canberra, Australia
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Ferdinandy-Van Vlerken MM, Jeronimus E, De Vries W, Stouthamer AH, Van Verseveld HW. Sensitive method for the determination of oxygen affinity in growing bacteria. METHODS IN MICROBIOLOGY 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7012(90)90051-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Colepicolo P, Camarero VC, Nicolas MT, Bassot JM, Karnovsky ML, Hastings JW. A sensitive and specific assay for superoxide anion released by neutrophils or macrophages based on bioluminescence of polynoidin. Anal Biochem 1990; 184:369-74. [PMID: 2158250 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(90)90695-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Using the luminescent protein polynoidin, present in the bioluminescent system isolated from the marine annelid Harmothoe lunulata, we have developed a new method to measure, specifically, superoxide anion (O2-) released by macrophages or neutrophils. A small quantity of an aqueous crude extract of polynoidin is used to detect O2- released by stimulated cells. Light emission is linearly dependent on the number of cells over a wide range (10(3) to 10(7) cells), and the assay is thus more sensitive than either luminol or ferricytochrome c reduction. Luminescence is enhanced 20% by mannitol, 80% by catalase, and is totally quenched by superoxide dismutase. For the same number of cells, neutrophils showed a threefold higher release of O2- and a twofold faster first-order light decay than stimulated macrophages, in accordance with data obtained by other methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Colepicolo
- Department of Cellular and Developmental Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
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Abstract
Oxygen can be either beneficial or detrimental for diazotrophy in organisms capable of an aerobic catabolism. It supports the production of a substrate for nitrogenase (ATP), but it can also inhibit the activity and repress the synthesis of this enzyme. Here, aspects of the relevant physiology are reviewed with particular emphasis on those relating to the mechanism of O2 regulation of nitrogenase synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Hill
- AFRC-IPSR Division of Nitrogen Fixation, University of Sussex, Brighton, U.K
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Abstract
This review discusses the properties of the bioluminescent bacterial system as well as the methods for immobilization of bacterial luciferases and for their co-immobilization with other enzymes. The analytical systems using immobilized bacterial luciferases and their applications in analytical biochemistry and biotechnology have been described.
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Affiliation(s)
- N N Ugarova
- Department of Chemistry, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, USSR
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Noll T, de Groot H, Wissemann P. A computer-supported oxystat system maintaining steady-state O2 partial pressures and simultaneously monitoring O2 uptake in biological systems. Biochem J 1986; 236:765-9. [PMID: 3024624 PMCID: PMC1146909 DOI: 10.1042/bj2360765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A feedback-controlled oxystat system is described maintaining steady-state O2 partial pressures (pO2) between 0.01 mmHg (14 nM-O2) and 150 mmHg (210 microM-O2) and simultaneously monitoring O2 uptake at rates between 0.1 and 120 microM-O2 X min-1 in suspensions of cells, in subcellular fractions and in solutions of enzymes. At pO2 values between 0.2 and 150 mmHg (0.28 and 210 microM-O2) a polarographic O2 sensor was used, and below a pO2 of 0.2 mmHg (0.28 microM-O2) the O2-dependent luminescence of the photobacterium Vibrio fischeri was utilized to monitor the actual pO2. At a selected pO2, O2 supply is maintained by injecting appropriate amounts of O2-saturated aqueous medium into the reaction chamber by using a motor-driven burette. The oxystat system is under control of a computer that reads the O2 sensors, interacts with the motor-driven burette, calculates the O2 uptake from the amounts of O2-saturated medium added, collects data from further measuring devices and provides the documentation of the results during incubation.
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de Groot H, Noll T. The crucial role of low steady state oxygen partial pressures in haloalkane free-radical-mediated lipid peroxidation. Possible implications in haloalkane liver injury. Biochem Pharmacol 1986; 35:15-9. [PMID: 3000385 DOI: 10.1016/0006-2952(86)90546-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Hastings JW, Potrikus CJ, Gupta SC, Kurfürst M, Makemson JC. Biochemistry and physiology of bioluminescent bacteria. Adv Microb Physiol 1985; 26:235-91. [PMID: 3913293 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2911(08)60398-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Edwards SW, Hallett MB, Campbell AK. Oxygen-radical production during inflammation may be limited by oxygen concentration. Biochem J 1984; 217:851-4. [PMID: 6712601 PMCID: PMC1153291 DOI: 10.1042/bj2170851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The relationship between oxygen-radical production by rat polymorphonuclear leucocytes and O2 concentration was established by the measurement of luminol-dependent chemiluminescence at defined O2 concentrations. The O2 concentration that gave 50% of the maximum stimulated oxygen-radical production was 31 +/- 9 microM for non-opsonized latex beads and 22 +/- 9 microM for chemotactic peptide. The O2 concentration in rheumatoid synovial fluid was approx. 30 microM. It is therefore proposed that radical production at an inflammatory site may be limited by O2 concentration.
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Direct measurement of dissolved gases in microbiological systems using membrane inlet mass spectrometry. J Microbiol Methods 1983. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7012(83)90008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Edwards SW, Hallett MB, Lloyd D, Campbell AK. Decrease in apparent Km for oxygen after stimulation of respiration of rat polymorphonuclear leukocytes. FEBS Lett 1983; 161:60-4. [PMID: 6884528 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(83)80730-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The respiratory burst of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, induced by the addition of chemotactic peptide (N-formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine) and cytochalasin B was found to consist of two phases. The first phase of very rapid oxygen uptake lasted 1-3 min. and was followed by a second more prolonged phase of lower magnitude. The apparent Km for oxygen of unstimulated cells was 9.6 +/- 0.67 microM, while that of the second phase of stimulation was 3.7 +/- 1.6 microM oxygen. The possibility that lowered oxygen concentrations may regulate polymorphonuclear leukocyte activity in some pathological conditions is discussed.
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Lloyd D, Mellor H, Williams JL. Oxygen affinity of the respiratory chain of Acanthamoeba castellanii. Biochem J 1983; 214:47-51. [PMID: 6615472 PMCID: PMC1152208 DOI: 10.1042/bj2140047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Apparent Km values for O2 for the soil amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii determined polarographically and by bioluminescence gave similar values (0.37 and 0.41 microM respectively). Mitochondria oxidizing succinate or NADH in the presence or absence of ADP gave values in the range 0.21-0.36 microM-O2. Oxidation of respiratory-chain components to 50% of the aerobic steady states in intact cells was observed at the following O2 concentrations: cytochrome aa3, 0.1-0.25 microM; cytochrome c, 0.3-0.6 microM; cytochrome b, 0.35-0.45 microM; flavoprotein, 2 microM. In isolated mitochondria corresponding values for a-, c- and b-type cytochromes were 0.007, 0.035-0.05 and 0.06-0.09 microM-O2. It is concluded that an O2 gradient exists between plasma membrane and mitochondria in A. castellanii.
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Scott RI, Williams TN, Lloyd D. Oxygen sensitivity of methanogenesis in rumen and anaerobic digester populations using mass spectrometry. Biotechnol Lett 1983. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00131275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Scott RI, Norman Williams T, Whitmore TN, Lloyd D. Direct measurement of methanogenesis in anaerobic digestors by membrane inlet mass spectrometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1983. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00501515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Lloyd D, Scott RI. Photochemical action spectra of CO-liganded terminal oxidases using a liquid dye laser. Anal Biochem 1983; 128:21-5. [PMID: 6846793 DOI: 10.1016/0003-2697(83)90338-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A method of obtaining photochemical action spectra for the relief of CO inhibition of respiration is described. Continuous readout from a membrane-covered oxygen electrode of dissolved oxygen in a stirred suspension of microorganisms under CO-oxygen gas mixtures in an open reactor enables measurement of increased respiration on illumination. Advantages presented by the use of a liquid dye laser include high intensity of emission and narrow spectral bandwidth; just two dyes (rhodamine 6G and rhodamine 110) are required to match the alpha-absorption maxima of the CO complexes of all known bacterial and mitochondrial terminal oxidases.
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Yarlett N, Lloyd D, Williams AG. Respiration of the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium Schuberg. Biochem J 1982; 206:259-66. [PMID: 6293462 PMCID: PMC1158581 DOI: 10.1042/bj2060259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The endogenous respiration of the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium maintained under an O2 tension of 2kPa (approximately 0.02 atm) was partially inhibited by KCN (40% inhibition) and NaN3 (58% inhibition). The organisms lack cytochromes, and sensitivity of respiration to KCN, NaN3, chloroquine and quercetin suggest that the operation of flavoprotein-iron-sulphur-mediated electron transport. As in Tritrichomonas foetus, hydrogenosomal respiration can be stimulated by the addition of CoA in the presence of 0.025% Triton X-100; stimulation by ADP was not detected. Stimulation of pyruvate-supported O2 uptake by Pi suggests that acetate is produced via acetyl phosphate.
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