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Ferrucci M, Limanaqi F, Ryskalin L, Biagioni F, Busceti CL, Fornai F. The Effects of Amphetamine and Methamphetamine on the Release of Norepinephrine, Dopamine and Acetylcholine From the Brainstem Reticular Formation. Front Neuroanat 2019; 13:48. [PMID: 31133823 PMCID: PMC6524618 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2019.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphetamine (AMPH) and methamphetamine (METH) are widely abused psychostimulants, which produce a variety of psychomotor, autonomic and neurotoxic effects. The behavioral and neurotoxic effects of both compounds (from now on defined as AMPHs) stem from a fair molecular and anatomical specificity for catecholamine-containing neurons, which are placed in the brainstem reticular formation (RF). In fact, the structural cross-affinity joined with the presence of shared molecular targets between AMPHs and catecholamine provides the basis for a quite selective recruitment of brainstem catecholamine neurons following AMPHs administration. A great amount of investigations, commentary manuscripts and books reported a pivotal role of mesencephalic dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in producing behavioral and neurotoxic effects of AMPHs. Instead, the present review article focuses on catecholamine reticular neurons of the low brainstem. In fact, these nuclei add on DA mesencephalic cells to mediate the effects of AMPHs. Among these, we also include two pontine cholinergic nuclei. Finally, we discuss the conundrum of a mixed neuronal population, which extends from the pons to the periaqueductal gray (PAG). In this way, a number of reticular nuclei beyond classic DA mesencephalic cells are considered to extend the scenario underlying the neurobiology of AMPHs abuse. The mechanistic approach followed here to describe the action of AMPHs within the RF is rooted on the fine anatomy of this region of the brainstem. This is exemplified by a few medullary catecholamine neurons, which play a pivotal role compared with the bulk of peripheral sympathetic neurons in sustaining most of the cardiovascular effects induced by AMPHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Ferrucci
- Human Anatomy, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Fiona Limanaqi
- Human Anatomy, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Larisa Ryskalin
- Human Anatomy, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Francesco Fornai
- Human Anatomy, Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
- IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
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2
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Scaplen KM, Kaun KR. Reward from bugs to bipeds: a comparative approach to understanding how reward circuits function. J Neurogenet 2017; 30:133-48. [PMID: 27328845 PMCID: PMC4926782 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2016.1180385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In a complex environment, animals learn from their responses to stimuli and events. Appropriate response to reward and punishment can promote survival, reproduction and increase evolutionary fitness. Interestingly, the neural processes underlying these responses are remarkably similar across phyla. In all species, dopamine is central to encoding reward and directing motivated behaviors, however, a comprehensive understanding of how circuits encode reward and direct motivated behaviors is still lacking. In part, this is a result of the sheer diversity of neurons, the heterogeneity of their responses and the complexity of neural circuits within which they are found. We argue that general features of reward circuitry are common across model organisms, and thus principles learned from invertebrate model organisms can inform research across species. In particular, we discuss circuit motifs that appear to be functionally equivalent from flies to primates. We argue that a comparative approach to studying and understanding reward circuit function provides a more comprehensive understanding of reward circuitry, and informs disorders that affect the brain’s reward circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin M Scaplen
- a Department of Neuroscience , Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
| | - Karla R Kaun
- a Department of Neuroscience , Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
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3
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Ikemoto S, Yang C, Tan A. Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: A review and enquiry. Behav Brain Res 2015; 290:17-31. [PMID: 25907747 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2015] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine neurons located in the midbrain play a role in motivation that regulates approach behavior (approach motivation). In addition, activation and inactivation of dopamine neurons regulate mood and induce reward and aversion, respectively. Accumulating evidence suggests that such motivational role of dopamine neurons is not limited to those located in the ventral tegmental area, but also in the substantia nigra. The present paper reviews previous rodent work concerning dopamine's role in approach motivation and the connectivity of dopamine neurons, and proposes two working models: One concerns the relationship between extracellular dopamine concentration and approach motivation. High, moderate and low concentrations of extracellular dopamine induce euphoric, seeking and aversive states, respectively. The other concerns circuit loops involving the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, thalamus, epithalamus, and midbrain through which dopaminergic activity alters approach motivation. These models should help to generate hypothesis-driven research and provide insights for understanding altered states associated with drugs of abuse and affective disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ikemoto
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Chen Yang
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Aaron Tan
- Behavioral Neuroscience Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Sejnowski TJ, Poizner H, Lynch G, Gepshtein S, Greenspan RJ. Prospective Optimization. PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE. INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS 2014; 102:10.1109/JPROC.2014.2314297. [PMID: 25328167 PMCID: PMC4201124 DOI: 10.1109/jproc.2014.2314297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Human performance approaches that of an ideal observer and optimal actor in some perceptual and motor tasks. These optimal abilities depend on the capacity of the cerebral cortex to store an immense amount of information and to flexibly make rapid decisions. However, behavior only approaches these limits after a long period of learning while the cerebral cortex interacts with the basal ganglia, an ancient part of the vertebrate brain that is responsible for learning sequences of actions directed toward achieving goals. Progress has been made in understanding the algorithms used by the brain during reinforcement learning, which is an online approximation of dynamic programming. Humans also make plans that depend on past experience by simulating different scenarios, which is called prospective optimization. The same brain structures in the cortex and basal ganglia that are active online during optimal behavior are also active offline during prospective optimization. The emergence of general principles and algorithms for goal-directed behavior has consequences for the development of autonomous devices in engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrence J Sejnowski
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA and the Division of Biological Studies, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093 USA )
| | - Howard Poizner
- Institute for Neural Computation, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0523 USA ( )
| | - Gary Lynch
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-4292 USA ( )
| | - Sergei Gepshtein
- Systems Neurobiology Laboratories, Salk Institute for University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037 USA ( )
| | - Ralph J Greenspan
- Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0126 USA ( )
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Park J, Bucher ES, Fontillas K, Owesson-White C, Ariansen JL, Carelli RM, Wightman RM. Opposing catecholamine changes in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis during intracranial self-stimulation and its extinction. Biol Psychiatry 2013; 74:69-76. [PMID: 23260335 PMCID: PMC3609919 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 10/24/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While studies suggest that both dopamine and norepinephrine neurotransmission support reinforcement learning, the role of dopamine has been emphasized. As a result, little is known about norepinephrine signaling during reward learning and extinction. Both dopamine and norepinephrine projections innervate distinct regions of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), a structure that mediates behavioral and autonomic responses to stress and anxiety. We investigated whether norepinephrine release in the ventral BNST (vBNST) and dopamine release in the dorsolateral BNST (dlBNT) correlate with reward learning during intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS). METHODS Using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry, norepinephrine concentration changes in the vBNST (n = 12 animals) during ICSS were compared with dopamine changes in the dlBNST (n = 7 animals) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) (n = 5 animals). Electrical stimulation was in the ventral tegmental area/substantia nigra region. RESULTS Whereas dopamine release was evoked by presentation of a cue predicting reward availability in both dlBNST and NAc, cue-evoked norepinephrine release did not occur in the vBNST. Release of both catecholamines was evoked by the electrical stimulation. Extracellular changes in norepinephrine were also studied during extinction of ICSS and compared with results obtained for dopamine. During extinction of ICSS, norepinephrine release in the vBNST occurred at the time where the stimulation was anticipated, whereas dopamine release transiently decreased. CONCLUSIONS The data demonstrate that norepinephrine release in the vBNST differs from dopamine release in the dlBNST and the NAc in that it signals the absence of reward rather than responding to reward predictive cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinwoo Park
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - Elizabeth S. Bucher
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - Khristy Fontillas
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - Catarina Owesson-White
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - Jennifer L. Ariansen
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - Regina M. Carelli
- Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
,Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
| | - R. Mark Wightman
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
,Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, USA
,Corresponding author: R. Mark Wightman, Ph.D., Department of Chemistry, CB # 3290, Venable Hall, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3290, USA, Tel : +1 (919) 962-1472, Fax : +1 (919) 962-2388,
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D'Souza MS, Markou A. Neural substrates of psychostimulant withdrawal-induced anhedonia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2010; 3:119-178. [PMID: 21161752 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2009_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Psychostimulant drugs have powerful reinforcing and hedonic properties and are frequently abused. Cessation of psychostimulant administration results in a withdrawal syndrome characterized by anhedonia (i.e., an inability to experience pleasure). In humans, psychostimulant withdrawal-induced anhedonia can be debilitating and has been hypothesized to play an important role in relapse to drug use. Hence, understanding the neural substrates involved in psychostimulant withdrawal-induced anhedonia is essential. In this review, we first summarize the theoretical perspectives of psychostimulant withdrawal-induced anhedonia. Experimental procedures and measures used to assess anhedonia in experimental animals are also discussed. The review then focuses on neural substrates hypothesized to play an important role in anhedonia experienced after termination of psychostimulant administration, such as with cocaine, amphetamine-like drugs, and nicotine. Both neural substrates that have been extensively investigated and some that need further evaluation with respect to psychostimulant withdrawal-induced anhedonia are reviewed. In the context of reviewing the various neurosubstrates of psychostimulant withdrawal, we also discuss pharmacological medications that have been used to treat psychostimulant withdrawal in humans. This literature review indicates that great progress has been made in understanding the neural substrates of anhedonia associated with psychostimulant withdrawal. These advances in our understanding of the neurobiology of anhedonia may also shed light on the neurobiology of nondrug-induced anhedonia, such as that seen as a core symptom of depression and a negative symptom of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoranjan S D'Souza
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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7
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Abstract
Fueled by anatomical, electrophysiological, and pharmacological analyses of endogenous brain reward systems, norepinephrine (NE) was identified as a key mediator of both natural and drug-induced reward in the late 1960s and early 1970s. However, reward experiments from the mid-1970s that could distinguish between the noradrenergic and dopaminergic systems resulted in the prevailing view that dopamine (DA) was the primary 'reward transmitter' (a belief holding some sway still today), thereby pushing NE into the background. Most damaging to the NE hypothesis of reward were studies demonstrating that NE receptor antagonists and NE reuptake inhibitors failed to impact drug self-administration. In recent years new tools, such as genetically engineered mice, and new experimental paradigms, such as reinstatement of drug seeking following withdrawal, have propelled NE back into the awareness of addiction researchers. Of particular interest is disulfiram, an inhibitor of the NE biosynthetic enzyme dopamine beta-hydroxylase, which has demonstrated promising efficacy in the treatment of cocaine dependence in preliminary clinical trials. The purpose of this review is to synthesize the new data linking NE to critical aspects of DA signaling and drug addiction, with a focus on psychostimulants (eg, cocaine), opiates (eg, morphine), and alcohol.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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8
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Waraczynski MA. The central extended amygdala network as a proposed circuit underlying reward valuation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2006; 30:472-96. [PMID: 16243397 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2005] [Accepted: 09/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The phenomenon of medial forebrain bundle self-stimulation offers a powerful model of reward-based behavior. In particular, it appears to activate a neural system whose natural function is to compute the survival value or utility of present stimuli and to help orchestrate responses toward those inputs. Although the anatomical identity of this system is as yet unknown, recent descriptions of anatomical macrosystems within the basal forebrain lead to the proposal that it may be largely contained within the central extended amygdala network. This paper reviews decades' worth of behavioral and neurophysiological investigations of brain stimulation reward that support or are at least consistent with this idea. The proposed network circuitry underlying self-stimulation is also placed into the larger context of basal forebrain function, specifically, the role of the ventral striatopallidum in linking motivation to behavior, the role of the amygdala in detecting motivationally significant inputs, and the role of the magnocellular complex in communicating reward information to cortical and hippocampal targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meg A Waraczynski
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI 53190, USA.
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9
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Rompré PP, Boye S. Localization of reward-relevant neurons in the pontine tegmentum: a moveable electrode mapping study. Brain Res 1989; 496:295-302. [PMID: 2804637 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(89)91076-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Monopolar moveable stimulation electrodes were implanted in male adult rats in order to map the reward substrate in the pontine tegmentum. Electrodes were implanted 6 mm below the surface of the skull and subsequently lowered by steps of 0.16 or 0.32 mm. Each bar press in a Skinner box delivered a train (0.4 s in duration) of cathodal rectangular pulses of fixed intensity (200 microA) and width (0.1 ms). Self-stimulation was recorded from zero to maximum performance by varying the number of pulses per train. The rewarding effectiveness of the stimulation at each positive site was inferred by determining the frequency threshold. Out of 476 sites that were sampled, 137 supported self-stimulation. Eighty-one percent of the positive sites (111 out of 137) were located within 1 mm of the midline. Of the 181 sites that were sampled in the region posterior to the caudal end of the dorsal raphe, only 9 sites (less than 5%) supported self-stimulation. These results suggest that the majority of neurons that constitute the brainstem reward substrate either originate from and/or terminate in the rostral pons.
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Affiliation(s)
- P P Rompré
- Department of Psychology, Concordia University, Montreal, Que., Canada
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10
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Buscher W, Schugens M, Wagner U, Huston JP. Interhemispheric relationship between lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation and the region of the nucleus tegmenti pedunculo-pontinus. Brain Res 1989; 487:321-34. [PMID: 2659140 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(89)90836-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Electrical self-stimulation in the lateral hypothalamus was recorded in both hemispheres of 20 rats before and after making a lesion either by unilateral radiofrequency stimulation or by injection of N-methyl-D,L-aspartate into the region of the peduncular-pontine nucleus. For the animals which received the radiofrequency lesion, a rate-intensity function was established for 3 stimulation intensities 3 days before and 5 days after the lesion. For the animals in which N-methyl-D,L-aspartate was injected, a reinforcement threshold was measured 3 days before and after the lesion using a psychophysical method-of-limits procedure. With the rate-intensity procedure a decrease in the rate of self-stimulation was observed at the highest stimulation intensity through the electrode situated contralateral to the side of the lesion. Similarly, with the reinforcement threshold method, a significant increase in threshold was found from the electrode placed in the hemisphere contralateral but not ipsilateral to the site of the lesion. These data suggest an involvement of primarily crossed pathways coursing to or from the peduncular-pontine nucleus as being involved in the control of lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Buscher
- Institute of Physiological Psychology, University of Düsseldorf, F.R.G
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11
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Oades RD. The role of noradrenaline in tuning and dopamine in switching between signals in the CNS. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1985; 9:261-82. [PMID: 3925395 DOI: 10.1016/0149-7634(85)90050-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 260] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal catecholaminergic activity modulates central nervous function. Specifically noradrenaline can exert a tuning or biassing function whereby the signal to noise ratio is altered. Dopamine activity may promote switching between inputs and outputs of information to specific brain regions. It has been ten years since evidence for a tuning function was advanced for noradrenaline and in the last 5 years the switching hypothesis for dopamine has been tentatively put forward. Recent studies are reviewed to show that while catecholamine activity contributes to neural interactions in separate brain regions that give rise to the organization of different functions, their working principles may be common between species and independent of the nucleus of origin. Behavioral examples are discussed and an attempt is made to integrate this with evidence from intracellular recording studies. It is suggested that the tuning principle in noradrenergic systems is particularly important for the formation of associations and neural plasticity (interference control) and that the switching principle of dopaminergic systems modulates the timing, time-sharing and initiation of responses (program-control).
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12
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Verleye M, Bernet F. A comparative study of the behavioral effects of the locus coeruleus and the dorsal noradrenergic bundle lesions in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1984; 21:357-63. [PMID: 6494207 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(84)80095-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The effects of bilateral lesions of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle (DB) or of the locus coeruleus (LC) on the rat's behavior in different anxiogenic behavioral situations have been studied. The DB rats defecate less but ambulate more than shams in the open-field (O.F.); these data suggest a decrease in the reactivity of these animals to novelty. Furthermore, the LC rats have a behavior identical to that of shams in the O.F. We note moreover that the DB rats do not habituate to a novel stimulus. During the Henderson test, the behavioral inhibition of all lesioned animals seems to be less important than that of shams. These results are discussed in relation to existing hypotheses of the DB function. The lesions of DB induce a decrease in the noradrenaline (NA) cortical level and in the catecholamines level in hypothalamus. The lesions of LC produce 30% loss of forebrain NA. These results reveal a discrepancy between the effects induced by the lesioning of DB fibers and those produced by lesions of LC, which originate in the DB. The presence of non-noradrenergic elements, fibers of passage, which do not travel with the DB fibers or terminals in the LC region may be elements for interpretation.
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13
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Abstract
Rats with bilateral lesions of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle (DB) or of the ventral noradrenergic bundle (VB) were studied in different behavioral test situations. All lesioned animals defecate less than sham operated animals in the open-field (OF) or in the conditioning apparatus described by Henderson [16]. These data suggest a decrease of emotional reactivity in lesioned animals. However, the DB rats' level of exploration was higher than that of VB rats. No effect on the amplitude of the startle response has been shown after lesioning. The lesions of the dorsal noradrenergic bundle induce a decrease in cortical noradrenaline hypothalamic catecholamines. The lesions of the ventral noradrenergic bundle induce a decrease in hypothalamic catecholamines without change in the cortex. These results do not support the postulation [22] that the dorsal bundle and the ventral bundle play an opposite role in behavior. Yet, a selective participation of each bundle is suggested in modulating responses to novel environments and anxiogenic situations.
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Ridley RM, Haystead TA, Baker HF, Crow TJ. A new approach to the role of noradrenaline in learning: problem-solving in the marmoset after alpha-noradrenergic receptor blockade. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1981; 14:849-55. [PMID: 6114497 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(81)90373-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Nine marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) were tested on a variety of visual discrimination learning tasks in a Wisconsin General Test Apparatus with or without alpha-noradrenergic receptor blockade achieved by the administration of aceperone. After aceperone, animals were found to be severely and consistently impaired at learning the first task of each test session and to be impaired on new and repeated reversal learning. They were, however, unimpaired on learning another similar task in each test session and on performance of a well-learnt task. Results were interpreted as evidence for defective association formation which can be compensated for by suitable priming or practice.
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16
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Kostowski W, Trzaskowska E, Jerlicz M, Bidzinski A, Hauptmann M. Effects of lesions of the ventral noradrenergic bundle on aggressive behavior in rats. Physiol Behav 1980; 24:429-33. [PMID: 7189597 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(80)90231-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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17
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Corbett D, Wise RA. Intracranial self-stimulation in relation to the ascending noradrenergic fiber systems of the pontine tegmentum and caudal midbrain: a moveable electrode mapping study. Brain Res 1979; 177:423-36. [PMID: 497844 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(79)90461-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chronically implanted moveable electrodes were used to map the pontine tegmentum and caudal midbrain for intracranial self-stimulation in relation to the ascending noradrenergic systems as revealed by fluorescence histochemistry. In no area tested was there a consistent correlation between the quality or the presence of self-stimulation and the degree of noradrenergic fiber density or cellular aggregation. Of particular importance was the failure to obtain self-stimulation from the locus coeruleus, despite repeated testing and extensive attempts at behavioral shaping. Those areas supporting self-stimulation included the dorsal raphe nucleus, the superior cerebellar peduncle and the mesencephalic and motor nuclei of the trigeminal nerve. These data appear to rule out activation of the ascending noradrenergic systems as an explanation of the rewarding effects of stimulation in these areas. A gustatory-visceral fiber system is suggested as an alternative possible substrate.
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19
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Kostowski W, Jerlicz M, Bidziński A, Hauptmann M. Evidence for existence of two opposite noradrenergic brain systems controlling behavior. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1978; 59:311-2. [PMID: 104337 DOI: 10.1007/bf00426641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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20
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Jerlicz M, Kostowski W, Bidzinski A, Hauptmann M. Effects of lesions in the ventral noradrenergic bundle on behavior and response to psychotropic drugs in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1978; 9:721-4. [PMID: 34172 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(78)90346-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Bilateral lesions of the ventral noradrenergic bundle (VB) decreased concentration of noradrenaline within the mesendiencephalon but not in the cortex. Lesioned rats showed increased activity measured in the open field test. Cataloptogenic effects of chlorpromazine and haloperidol were almost completely abolished in VB-lesioned animals. The stereotypy induced by both--amphetamine and apomorphine was, however, unchanged. It is supposed that lesions of the VB lead to increased activity in dopaminergic neurons in the brain.
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21
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22
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Katz RJ, Carroll BJ. Inhibition of phenylethanolamine-N-methyltransferase and brain-stimulated reward. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1978; 57:39-42. [PMID: 96467 DOI: 10.1007/bf00426955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The centrally active inhibitors of phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase (PNMT; E.C. 2.1.1.28), the terminal enzyme for epinephrine biosynthesis in the brain, produced dose-related decreases in rats of responding for rewarding brain stimulation in adult male rats. Decreases occurred at dosages that did not produce measurable neurologic impairment. This suggests a possible role for central epinephrine-containing neurons in the maintenance of reward-mediated behaviors.
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Stiglick A, White N. Effects of lesions of various medial forebrain bundle components on lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation. Brain Res 1977; 133:45-63. [PMID: 302729 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(77)90048-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Unilateral lesions of various medial forebrain bundle components were assessed for their effects on lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation. Damage of areas containig nigrostriatal dopaminergic or ascending noradrenergic neurons had negligible effects on bar pressing, tail moving and alley running for hypothalamic stimulation. Lesions which appeared to destroy most or all of the catecholaminergic fibers in the posterior medial forebrain bundle virtually eliminated reinforced bar pressing and tail moving, but only partially suppressed alley running. The results suggest that brain stimulation reinforcement of the bar press and tail movement tasks depends upon the integrity of neural tissue in the area of the catecholaminergic pathways of the medial forebrain bundle, but not upon specific dopaminergic or noradrenergic systems. The data further suggest that the reinforcement of alley running is at least partially mediated by different neural tissue (possibly non-catecholaminergic) at the level of the posterior medial forebrain bundle lesions.
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Ritter S, Ritter RC. Protection against stress-induced brain norepinephrine depletion after repeated 2-deoxy-D-glucose administration. Brain Res 1977; 127:179-84. [PMID: 861752 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(77)90391-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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25
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Katz RJ, Carroll BJ. Intracranial reward after Lilly 110140 (fluoxetine HCl): evidence for an inhibitory role for serotonin. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1977; 51:189-93. [PMID: 402672 DOI: 10.1007/bf00431739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) specific presynaptic reuptake inhibitor Lilly 110140 (fluoxetine hydroxhloride) was injected systemically in rats trained to bar-press for rewarding stimulation to the caudal portion of the medial forebrain bundle. Rates of self stimulation were reduced in proportion to drug dosage, and these reductions were partially reversible by methysergide. These findings are consistent with previous reports suggesting an inhibitory role for 5-HT in self stimulation.
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Abstract
A review of recent literature suggests that the brainstem may play a more fundamental role in the elaboration of adaptive behaviors than has often been assumed. This view is indicated by current reports documenting the substantial behavioral repertoire of decerebrate animals and by the recent findings that electrical stimulation of localized areas in all major levels of the brainstem can induce complex and coordinated behaviors, including eating, grooming and attack. Indeed, behaviors elicited from sites in the caudal brainstem evidence unexpected goal specificity and stimulus control over response topography. Additional neuroanatomical and behavioral data are reviewed which further implicate caudal brainstem networks in process of reward and aversion. From these and other findings it is argued that integrating mechanisms for the expression of many aspects of species-characteristic behaviors are intrinsic to the brainstem. In line with this view, rostral hypothalamic-limbic mechanisms, while perhaps contributing refinement to the integration of behaviors, may best be viewed as phylogenetically newer control mechanisms making the expression of species-characteristic behaviors subordinate to additional class of exteroceptive and interoceptive stimuli.
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Phillips AG, Carter DA, Fibiger HC. Differential effects of para-chlorophenylalanine on self-stimulation in caudate-putamen and lateral hypothalamus. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1976; 49:23-7. [PMID: 134387 DOI: 10.1007/bf00427466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Rats were prepared with chronic bipolar electrodes aimed at either the caudate-putamen or lateral hypothalamus and those displaying consistent self-stimulation were given additional training at half-maximal current intensities. All subjects received an intragastric injection of para-chlorophenylalanine (400 mg/kg) and self-stimulation tests continued until pre-injection rates were re-established. Responding in both brain areas was suppressed 24 h after drug treatment. The next day, self-stimulation rates in the hypothalamus increased to 115% of pre-drug levels reaching a level of 180% by the third day of post-drug testing. In contrast, self-stimulation of sites in the neostriatum continued to decline, with minimal levels reaching 48% of control on the fourth post-drug day. Self-stimulation rates in both groups had returned to control levels by post-drug day 6. These data indicate that the role of serotonergic mechanisms in brain stimulation is locus specific, and that the specific nature of this role may be determined by interaction with other neurochemical systems. The possible interaction between dopaminergic and serotinergic mechanisms in the neostriatum is discussed as a model of self-stimulation in this region of the brain.
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Clavier RM, Fibiger HC, Phillips AG. Evidence that self-stimulation of the region of the locus coeruleus in rats does not depend upon noradrenergic projections to telencephalon. Brain Res 1976; 113:71-81. [PMID: 953735 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90007-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Rats with intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) electrodes in the locus coeruleus and adjacent pontine tegmental structures received stereotaxically placed bilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (4 mug/2 mul) into the mesencephalic trajectory of the dorsal tegmental noradrenergic bundle. The consequent depletions of norepinephrine in the cerebral cortices and hippocampi (96.7%) did not result in significant changes in ICSS. Thus, diencephalic and telencephalic noradrenergic projections of the locus coeruleus do not appear to be critical for the occurrence of ICSS from that nucleus or its surrounding region. Nor do these projections appear to be crucially involved in the enhancement of this ICSS by D-amphetamine. Rats in this study showed two-fold increases in responding following injections of D-amphetamine sulfate (0.5 mg/kg) both before and after the lesions of the dorsal tegmental bundle. These results suggest that the ascending projections of the locus coeruleus are not critically involved in ICSS of the dorsal pontine tegmentum.
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German DC, Fetz EE. Responses of primate locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus neurons to stimulation at reinforcing brain sites and to natural reinforcers. Brain Res 1976; 109:497-514. [PMID: 819104 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90030-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
In alert rhesus monkeys the activity of 64-neurons was recorded in the locus coeruleus and subcoeruleus region, collectively referred to as coeruleus (C) neurons. C neurons were identified physiologically by antidromic activation from electrodes in the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) and medial septal nucleus which sustained intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) behavior, and/or anatomically by their proximity to microlesions at unit recording sites. The following results were obtained: (1) the current intensity that supported the highest rate of MFB and septal ICSS was similar to the current intensity for evoking antidromic responses in C neurons; (2) stimulation in the vicinity of the dopaminergic neurons of nucleus A10 did not activate C neurons; (3) C neurons were antidromically activated by ipsilateral and contralateral MFB shocks; (4) the C axons had slow estimated conduction velocities (1-5 m/sec), and a mean neural refractory period of 0.8 msec; (5) the behaviorally determined refractory period for MFB ICSS was also approximately 0.8 msec; and (6) mean firing rates while the monkey sat quietly were 15 +/- 2 Hz (S.D.) for subcoeruleus cells and 5 +/- 3 Hz for locus coeruleus cells, and activity of most cells changed negligibly during operant responding for apple-sauce reinforcement. These results suggest that the reinforcing effects of ICSS may be mediated by activation of coeruleus cells, but that these cells do not appear to be strongly involved in operant responding for natural reinforcers.
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Clavier RM, Routtenberg A. Fibers associated with brain stem self-stimulation: Fink-Heimer study. Brain Res 1976; 105:325-32. [PMID: 816422 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90428-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Liebman JM, Segal DS. Lithium differentially antagonises self-stimulation facilitated by morphine and (+)-amphetamine. Nature 1976; 260:161-3. [PMID: 1256558 DOI: 10.1038/260161a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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32
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Simon H, Le Moal M, Cardo B. Intracranial self-stimulation from the dorsal raphe nucleus of the rat: effects of the injection of para-chlorophenylalanine and of alpha-methylparatyrosine. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1976; 16:353-64. [PMID: 132167 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(76)91486-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Stinus L, Thierry AM, Cardo B. Effects of various inhibitors of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine beta-hydroxylase on rat self-stimulation after reserpine treatment. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1976; 45:287-94. [PMID: 2944 DOI: 10.1007/bf00421142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The behavioral effects of low doses of the catecholamine (CA) synthesis inhibitor, alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (alpha-MPT, 50 mg/kg i.p.), or the norepinephrine (NE) synthesis inhibitors (FLA-63, 15 mg/kg i.p., U-14624, 50 mg/kg i.p., or disulfiram 150 mg/kg i.p.) were studied in rats pretreated with reserpine (1 mg/kg i.p.) 24 h before. Rats were implanted either in the area ventralis tegmenti (AVT) or in the lateral hypothalamus (LH). The modifications of CA synthesis and endogenous CA levels were estimated in a parallel experiment. Reserpine treatment produced a slow decrease in self-stimulation (SS) rates during the first 12 h; SS rates were 85% of control values 24 h after reserpine treatment. Injection of alpha-MPT in reserpine-pretreated rats inhibited SS (85% decrease 3 h after administration either in AVT or LH rats), whereas dopamine beta-hydroxylase inhibition had no great effect on SS. The administration of very low doses of alpha-MPT (20 mg/kg i.p.) to rats treated with reserpine (24 h before) plus FLA-63 (1 h before) induced an important decrease in SS rates in AVT-implanted rats only. The major conclusion is that dopaminergic neurons seem to be involved in AVT and LH SS. The last experiment suggests the involvement of a balance between dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons in AVT SS.
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Liebman JM, Segal DS. Lack of tolerance or sensitization to the effects of chronic d-amphetamine on substantia nigra self-stimulation. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1976; 16:211-20. [PMID: 176995 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(76)91324-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Clavier RM, Routtenberg A. Brain stem self-stimulation attenuated by lesions of medial forebrain bundle but not by lesions of locus coeruleus or the caudal ventral norepinephrine bundle. Brain Res 1976; 101:251-71. [PMID: 1244972 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(76)90267-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Midbrain tegmental intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) was not attenuated by ipsilateral or bilateral locus coeruleus lesions. Certain of these lesions were followed by histochemical confirmation that the majority of locus coeruleus neurons was destroyed, and biochemical evidence that over 80% of the cortical norepinephrine was depleted. To test the possibility that the surviving ICSS was due to stimulation of another norepinephrine system, histochemically verified ipsilateral or bilateral lesions of the ventral norepinephrine bundle were administered to a second group of midbrain tegmental ICSS animals. These lesions resulted in marked loss of body weight, but had no effect on ICSS. In a third experiment, lesions were made in the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) ipsilateral to midbrain tegmental ICSS electrodes. These lesions resulted in attenuation of ICSS which was directly proportional to the extent of MFB damage. On the basis of these data alone, however, it was not possible to identify the ciritical fibers supporting ICSS. It was oncluded that the locus coeruleus does not play a necessary role in midbrain tegmental ICSS.
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Ellman SJ, Ackermann RF, Bodnar RJ, Jackler F, Steiner SS. D- and l-amphetamine differentially mediates self-stimulation in rat dorsal midbrain area. Physiol Behav 1976; 16:1-7. [PMID: 1273106 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(76)90184-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Pycock CJ, Donaldson IM, Marsden CD. Circling behaviour produced by unilateral lesions in the region of the locus coeruleus in rats. Brain Res 1975; 97:317-29. [PMID: 1175049 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(75)90453-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Rats with unilateral lesions in the region of the locus coeruleus circled tightly to the opposite side when given apomorphine or amphetamine. This turning behaviour was transient and disappeared within some 30 days after surgery. It was seen most obviously in animals with severe unilateral destruction of the locus coeruleus, which caused on average a 55% reduction in the level of noradrenaline in the ipsilateral cerebral cortex. It was not marked in animals with partial unilateral lesions of the locus coeruleus, which caused only an average fall in cortical noradrenaline of 22%. It was not seen in sham operated animals or animals in which lesions were placed into adjacent structures such as the cerebellum above, superior cerebellar peduncle laterally, and brain stem ventrally. A clue to the mechanism of this phenomenon may lie in the observation that dopamine in the ipsilateral striatum was increased 5 days after operation, when circling occurred, but had returned to normal by 30 days when circling had ceased. It is suggested that the lesion causes a reduction in impulse traffic in the ipsilateral nigrostriatal pathway, and that circling is due to preferential stimulation of the ipsilateral striatal dopamine receptors by both drugs; apomorphine directly, amphetamine by release of endogenous dopamine.
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Kilanmaa K, Fuxe K, Jonsson G, Ahtee L. Evidence for involvement of central NA neurones in alcohol intake. Increased alcohol consumption after degeneration of the NA pathway to the cortex cerebri. Neurosci Lett 1975; 1:41-5. [DOI: 10.1016/0304-3940(75)90010-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/1975] [Accepted: 04/24/1975] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Belluzzi JD, Ritter S, Wise CD, Stein L. Substantia nigra self-stimulation: dependence on noradrenergic reward pathways. BEHAVIORAL BIOLOGY 1975; 13:103-11. [PMID: 1111501 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-6773(75)90853-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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