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Khan MM, Badruddeen, Mujahid M, Akhtar J, Khan MI, Ahmad U. An Overview of Stroke: Mechanism, In vivo Experimental Models Thereof, and Neuroprotective Agents. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2021; 21:860-877. [PMID: 32552641 DOI: 10.2174/1389203721666200617133903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Stroke is one of the causes of death and disability globally. Brain attack is because of the acute presentation of stroke, which highlights the requirement for decisive action to treat it. OBJECTIVE The mechanism and in-vivo experimental models of stroke with various neuroprotective agents are highlighted in this review. METHOD The damaging mechanisms may proceed by rapid, nonspecific cell lysis (necrosis) or by the active form of cell death (apoptosis or necroptosis), depending upon the duration and severity and of the ischemic insult. RESULTS Identification of injury mediators and pathways in a variety of experimental animal models of global cerebral ischemia has directed to explore the target-specific cytoprotective strategies, which are critical to clinical brain injury outcomes. CONCLUSION The injury mechanism, available encouraging medicaments thereof, and outcomes of natural and modern medicines for ischemia have been summarized. In spite of available therapeutic agents (thrombolytics, calcium channel blockers, NMDA receptor antagonists and antioxidants), there is a need for an ideal drug for strokes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Muazzam Khan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Badruddeen
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Mohd Mujahid
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, University of Hafr Al Batin, Hafr Al Batin, Saudi Arabia
| | - Juber Akhtar
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | | | - Usama Ahmad
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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2
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Xu J, Chen F, Wang S, Akins NS, Hossain MI, Zhou Y, Huang J, Ji J, Xi J, Lin W, Grothusen J, Le HV, Liu R. Kappa opioid receptors internalization is protective against oxygen-glucose deprivation through β-arrestin activation and Akt-mediated signaling pathway. Neurochem Int 2020; 137:104748. [PMID: 32339667 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2020.104748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxia induces reversible κ-opioid receptor (KOR) internalization similar to the internalization that is induced by KOR agonists. In the current study, we demonstrate that this KOR internalization is a protective mechanism via the β-arrestin specific pathway in an oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model. Mouse neuroblastoma Neuro2A cells were stably transfected with mouse KOR-tdTomato fusion protein (N2A-mKOR-tdT cells). Various concentrations of salvinorin A (SA), a highly selective KOR agonist, were given in the presence and absence of norbinaltorphimine (norBNI), which is a KOR antagonist, or Dyngo-4a (internalization inhibitor) or API-2 (Akt/Protein kinase B signaling inhibitor-2). Various concentrations of SA and RB-64 (22-thiocyanatosalvinorin A, selective for the G protein signaling pathway) were administered both in normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Autophagosomes and ultrastructural components of cells were observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Cell viability, severity of cell injury, and levels of proteins related to the Akt signaling pathway were evaluated using live cell counting (by Cell Counting Kit-8), the lactic acid dehydrogenase (LDH) release rate, and Western blot analysis, respectively. SA promoted cell survival and attenuated OGD-induced cell injury. The Akt signaling pathway is activated by SA. KOR internalization, when blocked by norBNI or Dyngo-4a, increased LDH release and decreased cell viability under OGD. Treatment with SA significantly inhibited autophagy, and the effects of SA on autophagy were reversed by API-2 pretreatment. RB-64 in a low concentration without β-arrestin recruitment did not reduce LDH release and increase cell viability as observed with SA. KOR internalization through β-arrestin activation is a protective mechanism against OGD. The Akt pathway might play a critical role in modulating these protective effects by inhibiting autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihong Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen University General Hospital, Shenzhen, China; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Fang Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Shenzhen Children's Hospital, Shenzhen, China; Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Shuyan Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nicholas S Akins
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, USA
| | - Md Imran Hossain
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, USA
| | - Yi Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jinxi Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jiafu Ji
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jin Xi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Wenzhen Lin
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - John Grothusen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hoang V Le
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, Mississippi, USA
| | - Renyu Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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3
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Clark SD, Abi-Dargham A. The Role of Dynorphin and the Kappa Opioid Receptor in the Symptomatology of Schizophrenia: A Review of the Evidence. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 86:502-511. [PMID: 31376930 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a debilitating mental illness that affects approximately 1% of the world's population. Despite much research in its neurobiology to aid in developing new treatments, little progress has been made. One system that has not received adequate attention is the kappa opioid system and its potential role in the emergence of symptoms, as well as its therapeutic potential. Here we present an overview of the kappa system and review various lines of evidence derived from clinical studies for dynorphin and kappa opioid receptor involvement in the pathology of both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. This overview includes evidence for the psychotomimetic effects of kappa opioid receptor agonists in healthy volunteers and their reversal by the pan-opioid antagonists naloxone and naltrexone and evidence for a therapeutic benefit in schizophrenia for 4 pan-opioid antagonists. We describe the interactions between kappa opioid receptors and the dopaminergic pathways that are disrupted in schizophrenia and the histologic evidence suggesting abnormal kappa opioid receptor signaling in schizophrenia. We conclude by discussing future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel David Clark
- Columbia University Medical Center, New York; Terran Biosciences Inc., New York.
| | - Anissa Abi-Dargham
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Renaissance School of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
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4
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The neuroprotective role of the brain opioid system in stroke injury. Drug Discov Today 2018; 23:1385-1395. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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5
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Highly selective non-opioid kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonist salvinorin A protects against forebrain ischemia-induced brain injury in rats. Brain Res 2016; 1637:168-176. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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6
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Rasakham K, Liu-Chen LY. Sex differences in kappa opioid pharmacology. Life Sci 2010; 88:2-16. [PMID: 20951148 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2010.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2010] [Revised: 09/24/2010] [Accepted: 10/06/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In recent years it has become apparent that sex is a major factor involved in modulating the pharmacological effects of exogenous opioids. The kappa opioid receptor (KOPR) system is a potential therapeutic target for pain, mood disorders and addiction. In humans mixed KOPR/MOPR ligands have been found to produce greater analgesia in women than men. In contrast, in animals, selective KOPR agonists have been found to produce greater antinociceptive effects in males than females. Collectively, the studies indicate that the direction and magnitude of sex differences of KOPR-mediated antinociception/analgesia are dependent on species, strain, ligand and pain model examined. Of interest, and less studied, is whether sex differences in other KOPR-mediated effects exist. In the studies conducted thus far, greater effects of KOPR agonists in males have been found in neuroprotection against stroke and suppression of food intake behavior. On the other hand, greater effects of KOPR agonists were found in females in mediation of prolactin release. In modulation of drugs of abuse, sex differences in KOPR effects were observed but appear to be dependent on the drug examined. The mechanism(s) underlying sex differences in KOPR-mediated effects may be mediated by sex chromosomes, gonadal hormonal influence on organization (circuitry) and/or acute hormonal influence on KOPR expression, distribution and localization. In light of the diverse pharmacology of KOPR we discuss the need for future studies characterizing the sexual dimorphism of KOPR neural circuitry and in examining other behaviors and processes that are modulated by the KOPR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khampaseuth Rasakham
- Department of Pharmacology and Center for Substance Abuse Research, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, United States
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7
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Chen TY, Liu HT, Lee CL, Ong J, Lee EJ, Shyr MH. The Neuroprotection of Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist BRL52537 is Partly Through Enhancing Endogenous GABA Function. Tzu Chi Med J 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1016-3190(08)60051-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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8
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Zeynalov E, Nemoto M, Hurn PD, Koehler RC, Bhardwaj A. Neuroprotective effect of selective kappa opioid receptor agonist is gender specific and linked to reduced neuronal nitric oxide. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2006; 26:414-20. [PMID: 16049424 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that treatment with selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist BRL 52537 hydrochloride [(+/-)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) acetyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) methylpiperidine] (1) has a long therapeutic window for providing ischemic neuroprotection and (2) attenuates ischemia-evoked nitric oxide (NO) production in vivo in rats. Neuronally derived NO has been shown to be deleterious in the male, but not in the female, rodent model of focal ischemic stroke. We sought to determine if the agent fails to protect ischemic brain when neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) is genetically deleted in male, but not female, mice. Halothane-anesthetized adult male and female nNOS null mutants (nNOS(-/-)) and the genetically matched wildtype (WT) strain were subjected to transient (2 h) middle cerebral artery occlusion by the intraluminal filament technique. Vehicle or BRL 52537 treatment with continuous intravenous infusion was instituted at the onset of reperfusion and continued for 22 h. In WT male mice, infarct volumes measured at 72 h of reperfusion were robustly decreased with BRL 52537 treatment. In contrast, BRL 52537 did not decrease infarct volume in male nNOS(-/-) mice. BRL 52537 had no effect in the WT or nNOS(-/-) female mice. These data support that BRL 52537's mechanism of neuroprotection in vivo is through attenuation of nNOS activity and ischemia-evoked NO production. Neuroprotective effects of BRL 52537 are lost in the male when nNOS is not present; therefore, BRL 52537 likely acts upstream from NO generation and its subsequent neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Zeynalov
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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9
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Abstract
Cerebral ischemia results in a rapid depletion of energy stores that triggers a complex cascade of cellular events such as cellular depolarization and Ca2+ influx, resulting in excitotoxic cell death. The critical determinant of severity of brain injury is the duration and severity of the ischemic insult and early restoration of CBF. Induced therapeutic hypothermia following CA is the only strategy that has demonstrated improvement in outcomes in prospective, randomized clinical trials. Although pharmacologic neuro-protection has been disappointing thus far in a variety of experimental animal models, further research efforts are directed at using some agents that demonstrate marginal or moderate efficacy in combination with hypothermia. Although the signal transduction pathways and intracellular molecular events during cerebral ischemia and reperfusion are complex, potential therapeutic neuroprotective strategies hold promise for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izumi Harukuni
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Division of Cardiac Anesthesiology, Tower 711, Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA
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10
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Chen CH, Toung TJK, Hurn PD, Koehler RC, Bhardwaj A. Ischemic Neuroprotection With Selective κ-Opioid Receptor Agonist Is Gender Specific. Stroke 2005; 36:1557-61. [PMID: 15933260 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000169928.76321.3d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and Purpose—
We demonstrated previously that treatment with selective κ-opioid receptor (KOR) agonist
BRL 52537
hydrochloride [(±)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) acetyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) methylpiperidine] (1) has a long therapeutic window for providing ischemic neuroprotection, and (2) attenuates ischemia-evoked NO production in vivo in rats. Neuronally derived NO has been shown to be deleterious in the male but not in the female rodent model of focal ischemic stroke. We tested the hypothesis that
BRL
provides significant neuroprotection from transient focal ischemia in male but not in female rats.
Methods
Halothane-anesthetized adult male and female Wistar rats (250 to 275 g) were subjected to 2 hours of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) by the intraluminal suture technique. Adequacy of MCAO and reperfusion was monitored with laser-Doppler flowmetry over the ipsilateral parietal cortex. In the first experiment, male and female rats were treated in a blinded randomized fashion with vehicle saline or 1 mg/kg per hour
BRL
infusion started at the onset of reperfusion and continued for 22 hours. In the second experiment, ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were treated with vehicle or
BRL
. Infarct volume in the cortex and caudoputamen (CP) complex was assessed by triphenyl tetrazolium chloride staining at 72 hours after MCAO.
Results
Infarct volume (percentage of ipsilateral structure; mean±SEM) was attenuated significantly in male rats with
BRL
treatment (cortex 23±5%; CP 44±6%; n=15) compared with vehicle-treated male rats (cortex 38±4%; CP 66±4%; n=15) but not in female rats (
BRL
−cortex 26±6; CP 55±8%; vehicle−cortex 26±5; CP 62±5%; n=10 each). Neurologic deficit score was improved in
BRL
-treated male rats but not in female rats. Infarct volume was not different in OVX female rats treated with vehicle or
BRL
.
Conclusions
These data: (1) demonstrate that this dose of selective KOR agonist provides ischemic neuroprotection in male but not female rats, (2) demonstrate that the lack of protection by
BRL
is not attributable to circulating ovarian hormones, and (3) highlight the importance of using animal models of both sexes in preclinical studies of experimental ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hung Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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11
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Barber A, Gottschlich R. Novel developments with selective, non-peptidic kappa-opioid receptor agonists. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2005; 6:1351-68. [PMID: 15989506 DOI: 10.1517/13543784.6.10.1351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Despite the recent introduction of a number of new compounds, there has of late been a cooling of interest by pharmaceutical companies in the development of centrally-active, selective kappa opioid agonists for therapeutic purposes. This is reflected in the discontinuation of a number of clinical trials, for reasons that are often not completely clear to outside observers. Spiradoline and enadoline have apparently been abandoned as potential analgesics because they induce dose-limiting central side-effects (i.e., dysphoria) in models of post-surgical pain. The development of niravoline as an aquaretic for the treatment of cirrhosis with ascites and other hyponatraemic disorders has also been halted. Enadoline may yet find some application against ischaemic stroke and severe head injury, presumably in comatose patients in whom psychiatric side-effects are taken to be immaterial, while apadoline and TRK 820 remain in Phase II clinical testing against cancer pain. The peripherally-selective kappa agonists, asimadoline, and the atypical compound, fedotozine, are well-tolerated in man. Results of Phase III trials of fedotozine against irritable bowel syndrome and dyspepsia have, however, ultimately been disappointing, whereas asimadoline is currently in Phase II clinical trials against pain of rheumatic and osteoarthritic origin. The results of these trials are eagerly awaited.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Barber
- Department of CNS Research, Preclinical Pharmaceutical Research, Merck KGaA, 64271 Darmstadt, Germany
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12
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Chen TY, Goyagi T, Toung TJK, Kirsch JR, Hurn PD, Koehler RC, Bhardwaj A. Prolonged Opportunity for Ischemic Neuroprotection with Selective κ-Opioid Receptor Agonist in Rats. Stroke 2004; 35:1180-5. [PMID: 15031456 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000125011.93188.c6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We have previously demonstrated that pretreatment with selective kappa-opioid agonist BRL 52537 hydrochloride [(+/-)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl) acetyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) methylpiperidine], provides ischemic neuroprotection following transient focal ischemia in rats. The present study was undertaken to a) define "therapeutic opportunity" for ischemic neuroprotection with BRL 52537, and b) determine if BRL 52537 attenuates ischemia-evoked efflux of dopamine and its metabolites in the striatum in vivo following transient focal ischemia. METHODS Using the intraluminal filament technique, halothane-anesthetized male Wistar rats were subjected to 2 hours of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). In a blinded, randomized fashion, rats were treated with saline (vehicle) or 1 mg/Kg/hr BRL 52537 infusion for 22 hours, initiated at onset, 2, 4, or 6 hours of reperfusion (Rep). In a separate set of experiments utilizing in vivo microdialysis, extracellular levels of dopamine and its metabolites were determined in the striatum during 2 hours of MCAO and 3 hours of reperfusion. RESULTS Infarct volume (% of contralateral structure; mean +/-SEM) in cortex was significantly attenuated when BRL 52537 was administered at reperfusion (22+/-6%), 2 hours (21+/-6%), and 4 hours (18+/-5%) compared with controls (39+/-5%). In striatum, infarct volume was significantly attenuated when BRL 52537 was administered at reperfusion (38+/-9%), 2 hours (40+/-8%), 4 hours (50+/-8%), and 6 hours (46+/-9%) as compared with controls (70+/-4%). A 6- to 8-fold increase in dopamine in microdialysates occurred within 40 minutes of MCAO. Pretreatment with BRL 52537 did not alter microdialysate levels of dopamine or its metabolites in the striatum during MCAO and early reperfusion, as compared with saline controls. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that BRL 52537 provides robust ischemic neurprotection with a long therapeutic opportunity (at least 6 hours) without altering ischemia-evoked efflux of dopamine (DA) and its metabolites in striatum during ischemia and early reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Ying Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md, USA
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Zhang Z, Chen TY, Kirsch JR, Toung TJK, Traystman RJ, Koehler RC, Hurn PD, Bhardwaj A. Kappa-Opioid Receptor Selectivity for Ischemic Neuroprotection with BRL 52537 in Rats. Anesth Analg 2003; 97:1776-1783. [PMID: 14633559 DOI: 10.1213/01.ane.0000087800.56290.2e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Kappa-opioid receptors (KOR) have been implicated in neuroprotection from ischemic neuronal injury, but less work has been performed with transient focal cerebral ischemia to determine the role of KOR during reperfusion. We tested the effects of a selective and specific KOR agonist, BRL 52537 hydrochloride [(+/-)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)acetyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)methylpiperidine], and the standard KOR antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine dihydrochloride [nor-BNI; 17,17'-(dicyclopropylmethyl)-6,6',7,7'-6,6'-imino-7,7'-binorphinan-3,4',14,14'-tetrol], on functional and histological outcome after transient focal ischemia in the rat. By use of the intraluminal filament technique, halothane-anesthetized adult male Wistar rats were subjected to 2 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion confirmed by laser Doppler flowmetry. In a blinded, randomized fashion, rats were treated with 1). saline (vehicle) 15 min before reperfusion followed by saline at reperfusion for 22 h, 2). saline 15 min before reperfusion followed by BRL 52537 (1 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1)) at reperfusion for 22 h, 3). saline 15 min before reperfusion followed by nor-BNI (1 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1)) at reperfusion for 22 h, or 4) nor-BNI (1 mg/kg) 15 min before reperfusion followed by BRL 52537 (1 mgx kg(-1)x h(-1)) and nor-BNI (1 mg x kg(-1) x h(-1)) at reperfusion for 22 h. Infarct volume (percentage of ipsilateral structure) analyzed at 4 days of reperfusion was significantly attenuated in saline/BRL 52537 rats (n = 8; cortex, 10.2% +/- 4.3%; caudoputamen [CP], 23.8% +/- 6.7%) (mean +/- SEM) compared with saline/saline treatment (n = 8; cortex, 28.6% +/- 4.9%; CP, 53.3% +/- 5.8%). Addition of the specific KOR antagonist nor-BNI to BRL 52537 completely prevented the neuroprotection (n = 7; cortex, 28.6% +/- 5.3%; CP, 40.9% +/- 6.2%) conferred by BRL 52537. BRL 52537 did not produce postischemic hypothermia. These data demonstrate that KORs may provide a therapeutic target during early reperfusion after ischemic stroke. IMPLICATIONS The neuroprotective effect of selective kappa-opioid agonists in transient focal ischemia is via a selective action at the kappa-opioid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhizheng Zhang
- *Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon; and Departments of †Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine and ‡Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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14
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Goyagi T, Toung TJK, Kirsch JR, Traystman RJ, Koehler RC, Hurn PD, Bhardwaj A. Neuroprotective kappa-opioid receptor agonist BRL 52537 attenuates ischemia-evoked nitric oxide production in vivo in rats. Stroke 2003; 34:1533-8. [PMID: 12738895 DOI: 10.1161/01.str.0000072512.30658.e7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Kappa-opioid receptors (KOR) have been implicated in neuroprotection from ischemic neuronal injury. We tested the effects of a selective and specific KOR agonist, BRL 52537 hydrochloride [(+/-)-1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)acetyl-2-(1-pyrrolidinyl) methylpiperidine], on infarct volume and nitric oxide production after transient focal ischemia in the rat. METHODS With the use of the intraluminal filament technique, halothane-anesthetized male Wistar rats (weight, 250 to 300 g) were subjected to 2 hours of focal cerebral ischemia confirmed by Doppler flowmetry. In a blinded randomized fashion, rats were treated with intravenous saline or 1 mg/kg per hour BRL 52537 infusion, initiated 15 minutes before occlusion and maintained until 2 hours of reperfusion. In a second experiment, rats were treated during reperfusion with saline or 1 mg/kg per hour BRL 52537, initiated at onset of reperfusion and continued for 22 hours. In a final experiment, in vivo striatal nitric oxide production was estimated via microdialysis by quantification of citrulline recovery after labeled arginine infusion in striatum of intravenous BRL 52537- or saline-treated rats. RESULTS In rats treated with BRL 52537 during ischemia and early reperfusion, infarct volume was significantly attenuated in cortex (16+/-6% versus 40+/-7% of ipsilateral cortex in saline group) and in caudoputamen (30+/-8% versus 66+/-6% of ipsilateral caudoputamen in saline group). Infarct volume was also reduced by treatment administered only during reperfusion in cortex (19+/-8% in BRL 52537 group [n=10] versus 38+/-6% in saline group) and in caudoputamen (35+/-9% versus 66+/-4% in saline group). BRL 52537 treatment markedly attenuated NO production in ischemic striatum compared with saline-treated controls. CONCLUSIONS These data demonstrate that (1) the selective KOR agonist BRL 52537 provides significant neuroprotection from focal cerebral ischemia when given as a pretreatment or as a posttreatment and (2) attenuation of ischemia-evoked nitric oxide production in vivo may represent one mechanism of ischemic neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toru Goyagi
- Department of Anesthesiology/Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md, USA
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15
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Abstract
Neurologic complications from cerebral ischemia occur frequently following cardiac arrest, as well as in the perioperative period in cardiac surgery. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of cerebral ischemia are complex. This article discusses several important cell death and salvage pathways that are important in experimental cerebral ischemia that may be critical to outcome in clinical brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anish Bhardwaj
- Meyer 8-140, Neuroscience Critical Care Division, Johns Hopkins Hospital, 600 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21287, USA.
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16
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Abstract
Magnesium exhibits a range of neuronal and vascular actions that may ameliorate ischaemic CNS insults, including stroke. Significant neuroprotection with magnesium has been observed in different models of focal cerebral ischaemia in many laboratories, with infarct volume reductions between 25 and 61%. Maximal neuroprotection is evident at readily attainable serum concentrations, and neuroprotection is still seen when administration is delayed up to 6 hours after onset of ischaemia. Clinical use of magnesium in pre-eclampsia and acute myocardial infarction confirms its safety and tolerability. Five small trials in acute stroke have reported reduced odds of death or dependence with administration of magnesium, but confidence intervals are wide, and definitive data from ongoing large trials are awaited.
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Affiliation(s)
- K W Muir
- University Department of Neurology, Institute of Neurological Sciences, Southern General Hospital, Glasgow, Scotland, UK.
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MacGregor DG, Carswell HV, Graham DI, McCulloch J, Macrae IM. Impaired cerebral autoregulation 24 h after induction of transient unilateral focal ischaemia in the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2000; 12:58-66. [PMID: 10651860 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.2000.00880.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebral autoregulation have been investigated 24 h after transient focal ischaemia in the rat. Cerebral blood flow was measured autoradiographically before and during a moderate hypotensive challenge, to test autoregulatory responses, using two CBF tracers, (99m)Tc-d,l-hexamethylproyleneamine oxide and 14C-iodoantipyrine. Prior to induced hypotension, CBF was significantly reduced within areas of infarction; cortex (28 +/- 20 compared with 109 +/- 23 mL/100 g/min contralateral to ischaemic focus, P = 0.001) and caudate (57 +/- 31 compared with 141 +/- 32 mL/100 g/min contralaterally, P = 0.005). The hypotensive challenge (mean arterial pressure reduced to 60 mmHg by increasing halothane concentration) did not compromise grey matter autoregulation in the contralateral hemisphere; CBF data were not significantly different at normotension and during hypotension. However, in the ipsilateral hemisphere, a significant volume of cortex adjacent to the infarct, which exhibited normal flow at normotension, became oligaemic during the hypotensive challenge (e.g. frontal parietal cortex 109 +/- 15% to 65 +/- 15% of cerebellar flow, P < 0.01). This resulted in a 2.5-fold increase in the volume of cortex which fell below 50% cerebellar flow (39 +/- 34 to 97 +/- 46 mm3, P = 0.003). Moderate hypotension induced a significant reduction in CBF in both ipsilateral and contralateral subcortical white matter (P < 0.01). In peri-infarct caudate tissue, CBF was not significantly affected by hypotension. In conclusion, a significant volume of histologically normal cortex within the middle cerebral artery territory was found to have essentially normal levels of CBF but impaired autoregulatory function at 24 h post-ischaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G MacGregor
- Wellcome Surgical Institute and Hugh Fraser Neuroscience Laboratories, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
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Kanesaki T, Saeki M, Ooi Y, Suematsu M, Matsumoto K, Sakuda M, Saito K, Maeda S. Morphine prevents peroxynitrite-induced death of human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells through a direct scavenging action. Eur J Pharmacol 1999; 372:319-24. [PMID: 10395028 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(99)00206-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
N-ethyl-2-(1-ethyl-2-hydroxy-2-nitrosohydrazino)-ethanamine (NOC12), a nitric oxide donor, 3-morpholinosydnonimine (SIN-1), a generator of peroxynitrite (ONOO-), and peroxynitrite induced cell death accompanied by DNA fragmentation in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell cultures. Morphine prevented the cell death induced by SIN-1 or peroxynitrite, but not that induced by NOC12. The protective effect of morphine was concentration-dependent (10-100 microM), but was not antagonized by naloxone. The selective ligands for opioid receptor subtypes, [D-Ala2, N-Me-Phe4, Gly-ol5]enkephalin (DAMGO, micro-opioid receptor agonist), [D-Pen2,5]enkephalin (DPDPE, delta-opioid receptor agonist) and trans-(+/-)-3,4-dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-[1-pyrrolidinyl]-cyclohexyl)benze neacetamide (U-50488, kappa-opioid receptor agonist) even at the concentration of 100 microM did not prevent the cell death induced by SIN-1. From measurement of the absorbance spectrum of peroxynitrite, the decomposition of peroxynitrite in 0.25 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) was very rapid and complete within seconds. However, the absorbance was very stable in the presence of morphine. In addition, morphine inhibited peroxynitrite-induced nitration of tyrosine in a concentration-dependent manner. These results indicate that morphine rapidly reacts with peroxynitrite. The present study showed that morphine prevented peroxynitrite-induced cell death through its direct scavenging action, suggesting that morphine can protect cells against damage caused by peroxynitrite.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kanesaki
- The Second Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
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Becker A, Braun H, Schröder H, Grecksch G, Höllt V. Effects of enadoline on the development of pentylenetetrazol kindling, learning performance, and hippocampal morphology. Brain Res 1999; 823:191-7. [PMID: 10095026 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01189-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Opioids are involved in the development of epileptic seizures. Recently, interest has been focused on the role of the kappa-opioid receptor agonists as novel approaches to the treatment of epilepsy. In the present study we investigated the effects of the kappa-opioid receptor agonist enadoline (Ena) on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) induced seizures, PTZ kindling, shuttle-box performance and hippocampal neuromorphology. Ena injected i.c.v. in doses of 1 and 10 nmol did not affect acute PTZ seizures. In the course of PTZ kindling development, co-treatment (1 nmol) with the kappa-opioid receptor agonist suppressed seizure strength. Eight days after kindling completion the animals received a challenge dose of PTZ. In reaction to challenge, kindled animals which were pretreated with Ena reached significantly lower seizure scores. Kindling resulted in diminished shuttle-box performance. Learning performance in kindled animals pretreated with Ena was not normalised. Kindling resulted in increased glutamate binding. Interestingly, in comparison with the saline/saline group, neither in the Ena/saline nor in the Ena/PTZ treated groups changes in glutamate binding were found. That means that Ena prevented the increase in glutamate binding in the kindled group. In kindled animals significant cell loss in CA1 of the dorsal hippocampus was found and this was efficaciously counteracted by Ena. However, Ena alone did induce similar cell loss compared to kindled animals. It is hypothesised that the effects of enadoline are mainly due to interferences with glutamatergic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Becker
- O.-v.-Guericke University, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Leipzigerstr. 44, D-39120, Magdeburg, Germany.
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20
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Zhai QZ, Ingenito AJ. Comparative hypotensive actions of three nonpeptide kappa opioid agonists on hippocampus of SHRs and normotensive WKY rats. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1998; 31:806-12. [PMID: 9641463 DOI: 10.1097/00005344-199806000-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Comparative centrally mediated hypotensive effects of three nonpeptide kappa opioid agonist drugs (bremazocine, spiradoline, and U-50,488H) were evaluated in chloralose-anesthetized male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) and in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. The drugs were administered unilaterally into previously established active hypotensive sites in the dorsal hippocampus at doses of 12, 24, and 48 nmol. Each drug produced dose-related decreases in mean arterial pressure, ranging from -5 to -40% of predrug control values, with bremazocine being somewhat more effective than spiradoline, which was in turn slightly more active than U-50,488H. The effects were only marginally greater in SHRs than in normotensive controls. Each drug caused a modest decrease in heart rate, but except for the highest dose of bremazocine, the effects were not statistically significant. The onset of hypotension after intrahippocampal injection of each agent was approximately 2 min and lasted approximately 30 min with U-50,488H and spiradoline and >60 min with bremazocine. The responses to all three drugs were completely blocked by prior injection of the active hippocampal sites with nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI), a selective kappa-receptor antagonist. Because bremazocine is more selective for kappa-2 opioid receptors, whereas U-50,488H and spiradoline favor the kappa-1 subtype, the results suggest that drugs active on each of these subtypes should be investigated as potential antihypertensives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Z Zhai
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858, USA
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Stutzmann JM, Wahl F, Pratt J, Mary V, Reibaud M, Tecoult E, Rataud J. Neuroprotective Profile of Riluzole in In Vivo Models of Acute Neurodegenerative Diseases. CNS DRUG REVIEWS 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.1997.tb00318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Obrenovitch TP, Urenjak J. Altered glutamatergic transmission in neurological disorders: from high extracellular glutamate to excessive synaptic efficacy. Prog Neurobiol 1997; 51:39-87. [PMID: 9044428 DOI: 10.1016/s0301-0082(96)00049-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
This review is a critical appraisal of the widespread assumption that high extracellular glutamate, resulting from enhanced pre-synaptic release superimposed on deficient uptake and/or cytosolic efflux, is the key to excessive glutamate-mediated excitation in neurological disorders. Indeed, high extracellular glutamate levels do not consistently correlate with, nor necessarily produce, neuronal dysfunction and death in vivo. Furthermore, we exemplify with spreading depression that the sensitivity of an experimental or pathological event to glutamate receptor antagonists does not imply involvement of high extracellular glutamate levels in the genesis of this event. We propose an extension to the current, oversimplified concept of excitotoxicity associated with neurological disorders, to include alternative abnormalities of glutamatergic transmission which may contribute to the pathology, and lead to excitotoxic injury. These may include the following: (i) increased density of glutamate receptors; (ii) altered ionic selectivity of ionotropic glutamate receptors; (iii) abnormalities in their sensitivity and modulation; (iv) enhancement of glutamate-mediated synaptic efficacy (i.e. a pathological form of long-term potentiation); (v) phenomena such as spreading depression which require activation of glutamate receptors and can be detrimental to the survival of neurons. Such an extension would take into account the diversity of glutamate-receptor-mediated processes, match the complexity of neurological disorders pathogenesis and pathophysiology, and ultimately provide a more elaborate scientific basis for the development of innovative treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- T P Obrenovitch
- Department of Neurochemistry, Institute of Neurology, London.
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MacKay KB, Patel TR, Galbraith SL, Woodruff GN, McCulloch J. The relationship between glutamate release and cerebral blood flow after focal cerebral ischaemia in the cat: effect of pretreatment with enadoline (a kappa receptor agonist). Brain Res 1996; 712:329-34. [PMID: 8814909 DOI: 10.1016/0006-8993(95)01559-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The effect of the kappa-opioid agonist enadoline (CI-977) upon the relationship between cerebral blood flow and glutamate release was simultaneously assessed (using microdialysis and hydrogen clearance techniques respectively) at the same anatomical locus in the cerebral cortex (suprasylvian gyrus) after permanent middle cerebral artery (MCA) occlusion in halothane-anaesthetised cats. During controlled graded ischaemia, pretreatment with enadoline (0.3 mg/kg i.v. followed by continuous infusion at 0.15 mg/kg/h), initiated 30 min prior to MCA occlusion, significantly attenuated the marked increases in extracellular glutamate, aspartate and GABA observed in the focal ischaemic penumbra. The present data are consistent with the hypothesis that the neuroprotective efficacy of enadoline in focal cerebral ischaemia is due to inhibition of glutamate release in the ischaemic penumbra.
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Affiliation(s)
- K B MacKay
- Wellcome Surgical Institute, University of Glasgow, UK
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