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Kalyan M, Tousif AH, Sonali S, Vichitra C, Sunanda T, Praveenraj SS, Ray B, Gorantla VR, Rungratanawanich W, Mahalakshmi AM, Qoronfleh MW, Monaghan TM, Song BJ, Essa MM, Chidambaram SB. Role of Endogenous Lipopolysaccharides in Neurological Disorders. Cells 2022; 11:cells11244038. [PMID: 36552802 PMCID: PMC9777235 DOI: 10.3390/cells11244038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a cell-wall immunostimulatory endotoxin component of Gram-negative bacteria. A growing body of evidence reveals that alterations in the bacterial composition of the intestinal microbiota (gut dysbiosis) disrupt host immune homeostasis and the intestinal barrier function. Microbial dysbiosis leads to a proinflammatory milieu and systemic endotoxemia, which contribute to the development of neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic disorders. Two important pathophysiological hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are oxidative/nitrative stress and inflammation, which can be initiated by elevated intestinal permeability, with increased abundance of pathobionts. These changes lead to excessive release of LPS and other bacterial products into blood, which in turn induce chronic systemic inflammation, which damages the blood-brain barrier (BBB). An impaired BBB allows the translocation of potentially harmful bacterial products, including LPS, and activated neutrophils/leucocytes into the brain, which results in neuroinflammation and apoptosis. Chronic neuroinflammation causes neuronal damage and synaptic loss, leading to memory impairment. LPS-induced inflammation causes inappropriate activation of microglia, astrocytes, and dendritic cells. Consequently, these alterations negatively affect mitochondrial function and lead to increases in oxidative/nitrative stress and neuronal senescence. These cellular changes in the brain give rise to specific clinical symptoms, such as impairment of locomotor function, muscle weakness, paralysis, learning deficits, and dementia. This review summarizes the contributing role of LPS in the development of neuroinflammation and neuronal cell death in various neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manjunath Kalyan
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Ahmed Hediyal Tousif
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Sharma Sonali
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Chandrasekaran Vichitra
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Tuladhar Sunanda
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Sankar Simla Praveenraj
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Bipul Ray
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20892, USA
| | - Vasavi Rakesh Gorantla
- Department of Anatomical sciences, School of Medicine, St. George’s University Grenada, West Indies FZ818, Grenada
| | - Wiramon Rungratanawanich
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20892, USA
| | - Arehally M. Mahalakshmi
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - M. Walid Qoronfleh
- Q3CG Research Institute (QRI), Research & Policy Division, 7227 Rachel Drive, Ypsilanti, MI 48917, USA
- 21 Health Street, Consulting Services, 1 Christian Fields, London SW16 3JY, UK
| | - Tanya M. Monaghan
- National Institute for Health Research Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Byoung-Joon Song
- Section of Molecular Pharmacology and Toxicology, Laboratory of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20892, USA
- Correspondence: (B.-J.S.); (M.M.E.); (S.B.C.)
| | - Musthafa Mohamed Essa
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, CAMS, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman
- Aging and Dementia Research Group, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat 123, Oman
- Correspondence: (B.-J.S.); (M.M.E.); (S.B.C.)
| | - Saravana Babu Chidambaram
- Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Centre for Experimental Pharmacology and Toxicology, Central Animal Facility, JSS Academy of Higher Education & Research, Mysuru 570015, Karnataka, India
- Correspondence: (B.-J.S.); (M.M.E.); (S.B.C.)
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Quincozes-Santos A, Santos CL, de Souza Almeida RR, da Silva A, Thomaz NK, Costa NLF, Weber FB, Schmitz I, Medeiros LS, Medeiros L, Dotto BS, Dias FRP, Sovrani V, Bobermin LD. Gliotoxicity and Glioprotection: the Dual Role of Glial Cells. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:6577-6592. [PMID: 34581988 PMCID: PMC8477366 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02574-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia) are critical for the central nervous system (CNS) in both physiological and pathological conditions. With this in mind, several studies have indicated that glial cells play key roles in the development and progression of CNS diseases. In this sense, gliotoxicity can be referred as the cellular, molecular, and neurochemical changes that can mediate toxic effects or ultimately lead to impairment of the ability of glial cells to protect neurons and/or other glial cells. On the other hand, glioprotection is associated with specific responses of glial cells, by which they can protect themselves as well as neurons, resulting in an overall improvement of the CNS functioning. In addition, gliotoxic events, including metabolic stresses, inflammation, excitotoxicity, and oxidative stress, as well as their related mechanisms, are strongly associated with the pathogenesis of neurological, psychiatric and infectious diseases. However, glioprotective molecules can prevent or improve these glial dysfunctions, representing glial cells-targeting therapies. Therefore, this review will provide a brief summary of types and functions of glial cells and point out cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with gliotoxicity and glioprotection, potential glioprotective molecules and their mechanisms, as well as gliotherapy. In summary, we expect to address the relevance of gliotoxicity and glioprotection in the CNS homeostasis and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Quincozes-Santos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Camila Leite Santos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rômulo Rodrigo de Souza Almeida
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Amanda da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Natalie K Thomaz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Naithan Ludian Fernandes Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Neurociências, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Becker Weber
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Izaviany Schmitz
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lara Scopel Medeiros
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Lívia Medeiros
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Bethina Segabinazzi Dotto
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Filipe Renato Pereira Dias
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Sovrani
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Larissa Daniele Bobermin
- Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Currim F, Singh J, Shinde A, Gohel D, Roy M, Singh K, Shukla S, Mane M, Vasiyani H, Singh R. Exosome Release Is Modulated by the Mitochondrial-Lysosomal Crosstalk in Parkinson's Disease Stress Conditions. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:1819-1833. [PMID: 33404982 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-020-02243-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) pars compacta region of the brain. The main pathological hallmark involves cytoplasmic inclusions of α-synuclein and mitochondrial dysfunction, which is observed in other part of the central nervous system other than SN suggesting the spread of pathogenesis to bystander neurons. The inter-neuronal communication through exosomes may play an important role in the spread of the disease; however, the mechanisms are not well elucidated. Mitochondria and its role in inter-organellar crosstalk with multivesicular body (MVB) and lysosome and its role in modulation of exosome release in PD is not well understood. In the current study, we investigated the mitochondria-lysosome crosstalk modulating the exosome release in neuronal and glial cells. We observed that PD stress showed enhanced release of exosomes in dopaminergic neurons and glial cells. The PD stress condition in these cells showed fragmented network and mitochondrial dysfunction which further leads to functional deficit of lysosomes and hence inhibition of autophagy flux. Neuronal and glial cells treated with rapamycin showed enhanced autophagy and inhibited the exosomal release. The results here suggest that maintenance of mitochondrial function is important for the lysosomal function and hence exosomal release which is important for the pathogenesis of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatema Currim
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Jyoti Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Anjali Shinde
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Dhruv Gohel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Milton Roy
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Kritarth Singh
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Shatakshi Shukla
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Minal Mane
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Hitesh Vasiyani
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India
| | - Rajesh Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, The MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, 390002, India.
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Vallejo-Giraldo C, Genta M, Cauvi O, Goding J, Green R. Hydrogels for 3D Neural Tissue Models: Understanding Cell-Material Interactions at a Molecular Level. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:601704. [PMID: 33240868 PMCID: PMC7677185 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.601704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of 3D neural tissue analogs is of great interest to a range of biomedical engineering applications including tissue engineering of neural interfaces, treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and in vitro assessment of cell-material interactions. Despite continued efforts to develop synthetic or biosynthetic hydrogels which promote the development of complex neural networks in 3D, successful long-term 3D approaches have been restricted to the use of biologically derived constructs. In this study a poly (vinyl alcohol) biosynthetic hydrogel functionalized with gelatin and sericin (PVA-SG), was used to understand the interplay between cell-cell communication and cell-material interaction. This was used to probe critical short-term interactions that determine the success or failure of neural network growth and ultimately the development of a useful model. Complex primary ventral mesencephalic (VM) neural cells were encapsulated in PVA-SG hydrogels and critical molecular cues that demonstrate mechanosensory interaction were examined. Neuronal presence was constant over the 10 day culture, but the astrocyte population decreased in number. The lack of astrocytic support led to a reduction in neural process outgrowth from 24.0 ± 1.3 μm on Day 7 to 7.0 ± 0.1 μm on Day 10. Subsequently, purified astrocytes were studied in isolation to understand the reasons behind PVA-SG hydrogel inability to support neural network development. It was proposed that the spatially restrictive nature (or tight mesh size) of PVA-SG hydrogels limited the astrocytic actin polymerization together with a cytoplasmic-nuclear translocation of YAP over time, causing an alteration in their cell cycle. This was confirmed by the evaluation of p27/Kip1 gene that was found to be upregulated by a twofold increase in expression at both Days 7 and 10 compared to Day 3, indicating the quiescent stage of the astrocytes in PVA-SG hydrogel. Cell migration was further studied by the quantification of MMP-2 production that was negligible compared to 2D controls, ranging from 2.7 ± 2.3% on Day 3 to 5.3 ± 2.9% on Day 10. This study demonstrates the importance of understanding astrocyte-material interactions at the molecular level, with the need to address spatial constraints in the 3D hydrogel environment. These findings will inform the design of future hydrogel constructs with greater capacity for remodeling by the cell population to create space for cell migration and neural process extension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martina Genta
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Olivia Cauvi
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Josef Goding
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rylie Green
- Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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Esshili A, Manitz MP, Freund N, Juckel G. Induction of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in activated microglia and astrocytes following pre- and postnatal immune challenge in an animal model of schizophrenia. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2020; 35:100-110. [PMID: 32439226 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In the central nervous system, activated microglia and astrocytes produce proinflammatory mediators such as inducible nitric oxide (iNOS) and cytokines. Uncontrolled release of these mediators induced by immune challenge can lead to increased vulnerability to complex brain disorders such as schizophrenia. In this study, BALB/c mice were injected intraperitoneally (i.p) with the viral mimetic polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (poly(I:C)) or saline. At postnatal day 30 (PND0), the animals were sacrificed and the hippocampus, corpus callosum, striatum, cortex, fimbria and ventricle were immunostained for Iba-1, a microglial marker, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), an astrocyte marker, and iNOS, an activation marker for NO. Additionally, serum cytokine profiling (Interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL- 4, IL-6, interferon gamma (IFN-γ), tumour necrosis factor (TNF), IL-17A and IL-10) was determined using serum samples from poly(I:C)-treated and control mice. Our results demonstrated that poly(I:C) induced overactivation of differential proinflammatory responses in microglia and astrocytes, which could be strongly enhanced by a postnatal poly(I:C) administration before PND 30 in one part of the animals investigated. Specifically, there was significant iNOS upregulation in hippocampus, cortex and corpus callosum of poly(I:C)-affected off-springs. These inflammatory alterations were accompanied by increased circulating levels of the proinflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). This study provides insight into the role of microglia and astrocytes in an animal model of schizophrenia and an understanding of the regulation of iNOS expression in glial cells and cytokine networks. This knowledge could help identify novel targets for anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory therapeutic schizophrenia intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awatef Esshili
- Laboratory of Psychoneuroimmunology, Department of Psychiatry, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany; Laboratoire de génétique, biodiversité et valorisation des bioressources, Institut supérieur de biotechnologie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Tunisie
| | - Marie-Pierre Manitz
- Laboratory of Psychoneuroimmunology, Department of Psychiatry, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Nadja Freund
- Laboratory of Psychoneuroimmunology, Department of Psychiatry, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Georg Juckel
- Laboratory of Psychoneuroimmunology, Department of Psychiatry, LWL-University Hospital, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
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The Link between Gut Dysbiosis and Neuroinflammation in Parkinson’s Disease. Neuroscience 2020; 432:160-173. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neuroinflammation as a Bridge to Understand Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092293. [PMID: 31075861 PMCID: PMC6539529 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of experimental evidence suggests that neuroinflammation is a key pathological event triggering and perpetuating the neurodegenerative process associated with many neurological diseases. Therefore, different stimuli, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), are used to model neuroinflammation associated with neurodegeneration. By acting at its receptors, LPS activates various intracellular molecules, which alter the expression of a plethora of inflammatory mediators. These factors, in turn, initiate or contribute to the development of neurodegenerative processes. Therefore, LPS is an important tool for the study of neuroinflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases. However, the serotype, route of administration, and number of injections of this toxin induce varied pathological responses. Thus, here, we review the use of LPS in various models of neurodegeneration as well as discuss the neuroinflammatory mechanisms induced by this toxin that could underpin the pathological events linked to the neurodegenerative process.
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Kostuk EW, Cai J, Iacovitti L. Subregional differences in astrocytes underlie selective neurodegeneration or protection in Parkinson's disease models in culture. Glia 2019; 67:1542-1557. [PMID: 31025779 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the selective degeneration of dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta (SN), while the neighboring ventral tegmental area (VTA) is relatively spared. The mechanisms underlying this selectivity are not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate a vital role for subregional astrocytes in the protection of VTA DA neurons. We found that elimination of astrocytes in vitro exposes a novel vulnerability of presumably protected VTA DA neurons to the PD mimetic toxin MPP+ , as well as exacerbation of SN DA neuron vulnerability. Conversely, VTA astrocytes protected both VTA and SN DA neurons from MPP+ toxicity in a dose dependent manner, and this protection was mediated via a secreted molecule. RNAseq analysis of isolated VTA and SN astrocytes demonstrated a vast array of transcriptional differences between these two closely related populations demonstrating regional heterogeneity of midbrain astrocytes. We found that GDF15, a member of the TGFβ superfamily which is expressed 230-fold higher in VTA astrocytes than SN, recapitulates neuroprotection of both rat midbrain and iPSC-derived DA neurons, whereas its knockdown conversely diminished this effect. Neuroprotection was likely mediated through the GRFAL receptor expressed on DA neurons. Together; these results suggest that subregional differences in astrocytes underlie the selective degeneration or protection of DA neurons in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Wildon Kostuk
- Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jingli Cai
- Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Lorraine Iacovitti
- Department of Neuroscience, Thomas Jefferson University, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Department of Neurology, Thomas Jefferson University, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Department of Neurosurgery, Thomas Jefferson University, Farber Institute for Neurosciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Chen Y, Jiang M, Li L, Ye M, Yu M, Zhang L, Ge B, Xu W, Wei D. DL‑3‑n‑butylphthalide reduces microglial activation in lipopolysaccharide‑induced Parkinson's disease model mice. Mol Med Rep 2017; 17:3884-3890. [PMID: 29286148 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.8332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yuhua Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Mujun Jiang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Ming Ye
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Meiling Yu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Lina Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Bobo Ge
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Wenfang Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
| | - Daoxiang Wei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui 233004, P.R. China
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Foran L, Blackburn K, Kulesza RJ. Auditory hindbrain atrophy and anomalous calcium binding protein expression after neonatal exposure to monosodium glutamate. Neuroscience 2017; 344:406-417. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Khan MS, Ali T, Kim MW, Jo MH, Jo MG, Badshah H, Kim MO. Anthocyanins protect against LPS-induced oxidative stress-mediated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the adult mouse cortex. Neurochem Int 2016; 100:1-10. [PMID: 27522965 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Several studies provide evidence that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are key mediators of various neurological disorders. Anthocyanins are polyphenolic compounds and are well known for their anti-oxidant and neuroprotective effects. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins (extracted from black soybean) against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ROS-mediated neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the adult mouse cortex. Intraperitoneal injection of LPS (250 μg/kg) for 7 days triggers elevated ROS and oxidative stress, which induces neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in the adult mouse cortex. Treatment with 24 mg/kg/day of anthocyanins for 14 days in LPS-injected mice (7 days before and 7 days co-treated with LPS) attenuated elevated ROS and oxidative stress compared to mice that received LPS-injection alone. The immunoblotting results showed that anthocyanins reduced the level of the oxidative stress kinase phospho-c-Jun N-terminal Kinase 1 (p-JNK). The immunoblotting and morphological results showed that anthocyanins treatment significantly reduced LPS-induced-ROS-mediated neuroinflammation through inhibition of various inflammatory mediators, such as IL-1β, TNF-α and the transcription factor NF-kB. Anthocyanins treatment also reduced activated astrocytes and microglia in the cortex of LPS-injected mice, as indicated by reductions in GFAP and Iba-1, respectively. Anthocyanins also prevent overexpression of various apoptotic markers, i.e., Bax, cytosolic cytochrome C, cleaved caspase-3 and PARP-1. Immunohistochemical fluoro-jade B (FJB) and Nissl staining indicated that anthocyanins prevent LPS-induced neurodegeneration in the mouse cortex. Our results suggest that dietary flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, have antioxidant and neuroprotective activities that could be beneficial to various neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Sohail Khan
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Tahir Ali
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Woo Kim
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeung Hoon Jo
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Min Gi Jo
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Haroon Badshah
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeong Ok Kim
- Division of Applied Life Science (BK 21), College of Natural Sciences, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Republic of Korea.
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Wang S, Chu CH, Guo M, Jiang L, Nie H, Zhang W, Wilson B, Yang L, Stewart T, Hong JS, Zhang J. Identification of a specific α-synuclein peptide (α-Syn 29-40) capable of eliciting microglial superoxide production to damage dopaminergic neurons. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:158. [PMID: 27329107 PMCID: PMC4915166 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0606-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Misfolded α-synuclein (α-Syn) aggregates participate in the pathogenesis of synucleinopathies, such as Parkinson's disease. Whereas much is known about how the various domains within full-length α-Syn (FL-α-Syn) contribute to the formation of α-Syn aggregates and therefore to their neurotoxicity, little is known about whether the individual peptides that can be generated from α-syn, possibly as intermediate metabolites during degradation of misfolded α-Syn aggregates, are neurotoxic themselves. METHODS A series of synthesized α-Syn peptides, corresponding to the locus in FL-α-Syn containing alanine 30, substitution of which with a proline causes a familial form of Parkinson's disease, were examined for their capacity of inducing release of microglial superoxide. The neurotoxicity of these peptides was measured according to their influence on the ability of neuroglial cultures deficient in gp91 (phox) , the catalytic unit of NADPH oxidase (Nox2), or wild-type cultures to take up (3)H-labeled dopamine and on the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-staining-positive neurons. Western blots and confocal images were utilized to analyze membrane translocation of p47 (phox) and p67 (phox) , phosphorylation of p47 (phox) and Erk1/2 kinase, and binding of α-Syn peptides to gp91 (phox) . Activation of brain microglia in mice injected with α-Syn peptides was demonstrated by immunostaining for major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II along with qPCR for Iba-1 and MHC-II. RESULTS We report α-Syn (29-40) as a specific peptide capable of activating microglial Nox2 to produce superoxide and cause dopaminergic neuronal damage. Administered to mice, this peptide also activated brain microglia to increase expression of MHC-II and Iba-1 and stimulated oxidation reaction. Exploring the underlying mechanisms showed that α-Syn (29-40) peptide triggered Nox2 to generate extracellular superoxide and its metabolite H2O2 by binding to the catalytic unit gp91 (phox) of Nox2; diffusing into cytosol, H2O2 activated Erk1/2 kinase to phosphorylate p47 (phox) and p67 (phox) and further activated Nox2, establishing a positive feedback loop to amplify the Nox2-mediated response. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, our study suggests novel information regarding how α-Syn causes neuronal injury, possibly including mechanisms involving abnormal metabolites of α-Syn aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijun Wang
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, 98104, USA.,Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Chun-Hsien Chu
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Mingri Guo
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Haihe Hospital, Tianjin Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Lulu Jiang
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.,Institute of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, China
| | - Hui Nie
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100050, China
| | - Belinda Wilson
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Li Yang
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, 98104, USA
| | - Tessandra Stewart
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, 98104, USA
| | - Jau-Shyong Hong
- Neuropharmacology Section, Laboratory of Neurobiology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Pathology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington, 98104, USA. .,Department of Pathology, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, 100083, China.
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13
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Microglial Activation Promotes Cell Survival in Organotypic Cultures of Postnatal Mouse Retinal Explants. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0135238. [PMID: 26252475 PMCID: PMC4529135 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0135238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of microglia during neurodegeneration remains controversial. We investigated whether microglial cells have a neurotoxic or neuroprotective function in the retina. Retinal explants from 10-day-old mice were treated in vitro with minocycline to inhibit microglial activation, with LPS to increase microglial activation, or with liposomes loaded with clodronate (Lip-Clo) to deplete microglial cells. Flow cytometry was used to assess the viability of retinal cells in the explants and the TUNEL method to show the distribution of dead cells. The immunophenotypic and morphological features of microglia and their distribution were analyzed with flow cytometry and immunocytochemistry. Treatment of retinal explants with minocycline reduced microglial activation and simultaneously significantly decreased cell viability and increased the presence of TUNEL-labeled cell profiles. This treatment also prevented the migration of microglial cells towards the outer nuclear layer, where cell death was most abundant. The LPS treatment increased microglial activation but had no effect on cell viability or microglial distribution. Finally, partial microglial removal with Lip-Clo diminished the cell viability in the retinal explants, showing a similar effect to that of minocycline. Hence, cell viability is diminished in retinal explants cultured in vitro when microglial cells are removed or their activation is inhibited, indicating a neurotrophic role for microglia in this system.
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14
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Hoban DB, Howard L, Dowd E. GDNF-secreting mesenchymal stem cells provide localized neuroprotection in an inflammation-driven rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2015; 303:402-11. [PMID: 26166730 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Constraints involving the delivery method of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) have hampered its efficacy as a neuroprotectant in Parkinson's disease. Ex vivo gene therapy, in which suitable cells, such as bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), are genetically engineered to overexpress GDNF (GDNF-MSCs) prior to transplantation may be more beneficial than direct brain infusion of the neurotrophin. Previously, GDNF-MSCs have been assessed in the commonly employed 6-hydroxydopamine neurotoxic model of Parkinson's disease. In this study however, we used an emerging inflammatory model of Parkinson's disease (the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) model) to assess the ability of transplanted GDNF-MSCs to protect against LPS-induced neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and behavioral impairment. Thirty male Sprague-Dawley rats were used in this experiment. Rats were performance matched based on baseline motor function tests into three groups (LPS lesion only, LPS lesion+GFP-MSCs, LPS lesion+GDNF-MSCs; n=10/group). Both cell groups received a unilateral intra-striatal transplant of either 200,000 GDNF-MSCs or 200,000 GFP-MSCs (as a control). One day post-transplantation, all rats received a unilateral intra-nigral infusion of LPS (10 μg in 2 μl sterile saline). Rats were sacrificed by transcardial perfusion-fixation and their brains were used for post mortem quantitative immunohistochemistry. Injection of LPS into the substantia nigra induced a pronounced local inflammatory response which resulted in 20% loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons and impaired contralateral motor function. Following transplantation of GDNF-MSCs to the striatum, dense areas of TH-positive staining directly proximal to the transplant site were observed. Most importantly, this effect was observed only in the GDNF-MSC transplanted group and not the GFP-MSC transplanted group demonstrating protection and/or sprouting of the dopaminergic terminals induced by the secreted GDNF. This study is the first to highlight the neurotrophic capability of GDNF in the inflammation-driven LPS model and, while future studies will endeavor to improve this approach by increasing cell survival, this work highlights the potential of GDNF delivery by ex vivo gene therapy using MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- D B Hoban
- Pharmacology & Therapeutics, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland; NCBES Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - L Howard
- The Regenerative Medicine Institute, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - E Dowd
- Pharmacology & Therapeutics, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland; NCBES Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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15
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Cebrián C, Loike JD, Sulzer D. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease animal models: a cell stress response or a step in neurodegeneration? Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2015; 22:237-270. [PMID: 25293443 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2014_356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease are due to the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Multiple neuroinflammatory processes are exacerbated in Parkinson's disease, including glial-mediated reactions, increased expression of proinflammatory substances, and lymphocytic infiltration, particularly in the substantia nigra. Neuroinflammation is also implicated in the neurodegeneration and consequent behavioral symptoms of many Parkinson's disease animal models, although it is not clear whether these features emulate pathogenic steps in the genuine disorder or if some inflammatory features provide protective stress responses. Here, we compare and summarize findings on neuroinflammatory responses and effects on behavior in a wide range of toxin-based, inflammatory and genetic Parkinson's disease animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Cebrián
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, 10032, USA
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16
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Li Q, Dong C, Li W, Bu W, Wu J, Zhao W. Neuropeptide Y protects cerebral cortical neurons by regulating microglial immune function. Neural Regen Res 2014; 9:959-67. [PMID: 25206918 PMCID: PMC4146213 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.133140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y has been shown to inhibit the immunological activity of reactive microglia in the rat cerebral cortex, to reduce N-methyl-D-aspartate current (INMDA) in cortical neurons, and protect neurons. In this study, after primary cultured microglia from the cerebral cortex of rats were treated with lipopolysaccharide, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α levels in the cell culture medium increased, and mRNA expression of these cytokines also increased. After primary cultured cortical neurons were incubated with the lipopolysaccharide-treated microglial conditioned medium, peak INMDA in neurons increased. These effects of lipopolysaccharide were suppressed by neuropeptide Y. After addition of the neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor antagonist BIBP3226, the effects of neuropeptide Y completely disappeared. These results suggest that neuropeptide Y prevents excessive production of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α by inhibiting microglial reactivity. This reduces INMDA in rat cortical neurons, preventing excitotoxicity, thereby protecting neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qijun Li
- Graduate School, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Changzheng Dong
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wenling Li
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wei Bu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Third Hospital, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jiang Wu
- Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
| | - Wenqing Zhao
- Graduate School, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China ; Department of Functional Neurosurgery, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province, China
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17
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Gao Y, Chu SF, Li JP, Zuo W, Wen ZL, He WB, Yan JQ, Chen NH. Do glial cells play an anti-oxidative role in Huntington's disease? Free Radic Res 2014; 48:1135-44. [PMID: 24957138 DOI: 10.3109/10715762.2014.936432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a condition of imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and antioxidant capacity as a result of dysfunction of the antioxidant system. ROS can be served as a second messenger at low or moderate concentration, while excessive amount of ROS under oxidative stress condition would destroy macromolecules like proteins, DNA, and lipids, finally leading to cell apoptosis or necrosis. Changes in these macromolecules are involved in various pathological changes and progression of diseases, especially neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases are morphologically featured by progressive neuronal cell loss, accompanied with inclusions formed by protein aggregates in neurons or glial cells. Neurons have always received much more attention than glial cells in neurodegenerative diseases. Actually, glial cells might play a key role in the functioning of neurons and cellular survival through an antioxidant way. Additionally, neurons can modulate the activities of glia either. Herein, the main purposes of this review are to mention the connection between Huntington's disease (HD) and oxidative stress, to summarize the characteristics and functions of glial cells in HD, to state the cross talk between neurons and glial cells, and to emphasize the conclusive role of activation of Keap1-Nrf2-ARE pathway in glial cells against oxidative stress in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, State Key of Laboratory Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of MateriaMedica, Neuroscience Center, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing , P. R. China
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18
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Greene JG. Causes and consequences of degeneration of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve in Parkinson's disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 21:649-67. [PMID: 24597973 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2014.5859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Parkinson's disease (PD) is no longer considered merely a movement disorder caused by degeneration of dopamine neurons in the midbrain. It is now recognized as a widespread neuropathological syndrome accompanied by a variety of motor and nonmotor clinical symptoms. As such, any hypothesis concerning PD pathogenesis and pathophysiology must account for the entire spectrum of disease and not solely focus on the dopamine system. RECENT ADVANCES Based on its anatomy and the intrinsic properties of its neurons, the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus nerve (DMV) is uniquely vulnerable to damage from PD. Fibers in the vagus nerve course throughout the gastrointestinal (GI) tract to and from the brainstem forming a close link between the peripheral and central nervous systems and a point of proximal contact between the environment and areas where PD pathology is believed to start. In addition, DMV neurons are under high levels of oxidative stress due to their high level of α-synuclein expression, fragile axons, and specific neuronal physiology. Moreover, several consequences of DMV damage, namely, GI dysfunction and unrestrained inflammation, may propagate a vicious cycle of injury affecting vulnerable brain regions. CRITICAL ISSUES Current evidence to suggest the vagal system plays a pivotal role in PD pathogenesis is circumstantial, but given the current state of the field, the time is ripe to obtain direct experimental evidence to better delineate it. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Better understanding of the DMV and vagus nerve may provide insight into PD pathogenesis and a neural highway with direct brain access that could be harnessed for novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James G Greene
- Department of Neurology, Emory University , Atlanta, Georgia
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19
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Jiang XS, Ni YQ, Liu TJ, Zhang M, Jiang R, Xu GZ. Generation and characterization of immortalized rat retinal microglial cell lines. J Neurosci Res 2014; 92:424-31. [PMID: 24452530 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Retinal microglia play an important role as resident immunocompetent and phagocytic cells in the event of injury and disease. Retinal microglia and microglia precursor transplantation show a rescue effect in ischemic retina and retinal degeneration. However, studies of retinal microglia have been hampered by the difficulty of obtaining sufficient numbers of microglia. One way to circumvent this difficulty is to establish permanent retinal microglia cell lines. In the present study, we report the generation of immortalized retinal microglia, T-MG cells, from postnatal day 3 rat retinal tissue using a lentiviral vector encoding SV40 large T antigen. The T-MG cells exhibited cell-type-specific antigens for monocyte/macrophage lineage cells, including CD11b (OX42), ED1 (OX6), and Iba1, and actively phagocytosed latex beads. In addition to primary retinal microglia, T-MG cells also have the ability to recruit into chemokines. Treatment of T-MG cells with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) led to increased levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and inducible nitric oxide synthase. Genome-wide microarray analysis showed a less than 1% difference in the genes between the T-MG cells and the control primary retinal microglia. The T-MG cells exhibited properties similar to those of the primary retinal microglia and should have considerable utility as an in vitro model for the study of retinal microglia in health and as a curative therapy and an in vivo model for the study of retinal microglia in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-shuang Jiang
- Department of Ophthalmology, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China; Department of Ophthalmology, Eye and ENT Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Visual Impairment and Restoration, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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20
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Abstract
Neurons are more vulnerable to oxidative stress than astrocytes, the reasons for which have yet to be fully elucidated. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms which contribute to this enhanced vulnerability is key to efforts aimed at ameliorating neuronal health and resilience to oxidative stress, particularly in the context of neurodegenerative disease, which is characterized by progressive dysfunction and loss of neurons specifically, and in which oxidative stress is considered a central aetiological contributor. Biological factors which may influence neuronal susceptibility to oxidative stress, in normal and neurodegenerative contexts, are reviewed in the present article, with a focus on properties intrinsic to the neuronal cell type and on properties related to neuronal reliance on surrounding astrocytes.
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21
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Shinozuka K, Staples M, Borlongan CV. Melatonin-based therapeutics for neuroprotection in stroke. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:8924-47. [PMID: 23698756 PMCID: PMC3676765 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14058924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The present review paper supports the approach to deliver melatonin and to target melatonin receptors for neuroprotection in stroke. We discuss laboratory evidence demonstrating neuroprotective effects of exogenous melatonin treatment and transplantation of melatonin-secreting cells in stroke. In addition, we describe a novel mechanism of action underlying the therapeutic benefits of stem cell therapy in stroke, implicating the role of melatonin receptors. As we envision the clinical entry of melatonin-based therapeutics, we discuss translational experiments that warrant consideration to reveal an optimal melatonin treatment strategy that is safe and effective for human application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazutaka Shinozuka
- Center of Excellence for Aging & Brain Repair, Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, University of South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL 33612, USA.
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22
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Lazzarini M, Martin S, Mitkovski M, Vozari RR, Stühmer W, Bel ED. Doxycycline restrains glia and confers neuroprotection in a 6-OHDA Parkinson model. Glia 2013; 61:1084-100. [PMID: 23595698 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neuron-glia interactions play a key role in maintaining and regulating the central nervous system. Glial cells are implicated in the function of dopamine neurons and regulate their survival and resistance to injury. Parkinson's disease is characterized by the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, decreased striatal dopamine levels and consequent onset of extrapyramidal motor dysfunction. Parkinson's disease is a common chronic, neurodegenerative disorder with no effective protective treatment. In the 6-OHDA mouse model of Parkinson's disease, doxycycline administered at a dose that both induces/represses conditional transgene expression in the tetracycline system, mitigates the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra compacta and nerve terminals in the striatum. This protective effect was associated with: (1) a reduction of microglia in normal mice as a result of doxycycline administration per se; (2) a decrease in the astrocyte and microglia response to the neurotoxin 6-OHDA in the globus pallidus and substantia nigra compacta, and (3) the astrocyte reaction in the striatum. Our results suggest that doxycycline blocks 6-OHDA neurotoxicity in vivo by inhibiting microglial and astrocyte expression. This action of doxycycline in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neuron protection is consistent with a role of glial cells in Parkinson's disease neurodegeneration. The neuroprotective effect of doxycycline may be useful in preventing or slowing the progression of Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases linked to glia function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcio Lazzarini
- Department of Morphology, Physiology and Pathology, School of Odontology of Ribeirão Preto (FORP), University of São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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23
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Enhanced prostacyclin synthesis by adenoviral gene transfer reduced glial activation and ameliorated dopaminergic dysfunction in hemiparkinsonian rats. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2013; 2013:649809. [PMID: 23691265 PMCID: PMC3649752 DOI: 10.1155/2013/649809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2012] [Revised: 02/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Prostacyclin (PGI2), a potent vasodilator and platelet antiaggregatory eicosanoid, is cytoprotective in cerebral circulation. It is synthesized from arachidonic acid (AA) by the sequential action of cyclooxygenase- (COX-) 1 or 2 and prostacyclin synthase (PGIS). Because prostacyclin is unstable in vivo, PGI2 analogs have been developed and demonstrated to protect against brain ischemia. This work attempts to selectively augment PGI2 synthesis in mixed glial culture or in a model of Parkinson's disease (PD) by direct adenoviral gene transfer of prostacyclin biosynthetic enzymes and examines whether it confers protection in cultures or in vivo. Confluent mixed glial cultures actively metabolized exogenous AA into PGE2 and PGD2. These PGs were largely NS398 sensitive and considered as COX-2 products. Gene transfer of AdPGIS to the cultures effectively shunted the AA catabolism to prostacyclin synthesis and concurrently reduced cell proliferation. Furthermore, PGIS overexpression significantly reduced LPS stimulation in cultures. In vivo, adenoviral gene transfer of bicistronic COX-1/PGIS to substantia nigra protected 6-OHDA- induced dopamine depletion and ameliorated behavioral deficits. Taken together, this study shows that enhanced prostacyclin synthesis reduced glial activation and ameliorated motor dysfunction in hemiparkinsonian rats. Prostacyclin may have a neuroprotective role in modulating the inflammatory response in degenerating nigra-striatal pathway.
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Joshi G, Johnson JA. The Nrf2-ARE pathway: a valuable therapeutic target for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 7:218-29. [PMID: 22742419 DOI: 10.2174/157488912803252023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 05/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Modulation of NF-E2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) has been shown in several neurodegenerative disorders. The overexpression of Nrf2 has become a potential therapeutic avenue for various neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. The expression of phase II detoxification enzymes is governed by the cis-acting regulatory element known as antioxidant response element (ARE). The transcription factor Nrf2 binds to ARE thereby transcribing multitude of antioxidant genes. Keap1, a culin 3-based E3 ligase that targets Nrf2 for degradation, sequesters Nrf2 in cytoplasm. Disruption of Keap1-Nrf2 interaction or genetic overexpression of Nrf2 can increase the endogenous antioxidant capacity of the brain thereby rendering protection against oxidative stress in neurodegenerative disorders. This review primarily focuses on recent patents that target Nrf2 overexpression as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gururaj Joshi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, 6125 Rennebohm Hall, 777 Highland Avenue, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705, USA
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25
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Xu YF, Fu LL, Jiang CH, Qin YW, Ni YQ, Fan JW. Naloxone inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of retinal microglia is partly mediated via the p38 mitogen activated protein kinase signalling pathway. J Int Med Res 2013; 40:1438-48. [PMID: 22971495 DOI: 10.1177/147323001204000422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To investigate the effects and underlying mechanism of action of naloxone on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced activation of retinal microglia in vitro. METHODS Rat retinal microglia primary cultures were divided into four treatment groups: untreated; 1 μg/ml LPS for 12 h; 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 μM naloxone for 30 min before LPS; 2.5 or 5.0 μM SB203580 for 12 h before LPS and naloxone. Levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β were determined by enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay. Western blot analysis and double immunofluorescence were used to examine activation of the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling pathway. RESULTS LPS induced an increase in TNF-α and IL-1β in culture supernatants, which was dose-dependently inhibited by naloxone. Naloxone also dose-dependently inhibited LPS-induced increases in phosphorylated p38 MAPK. Pretreatment of cells with SB203580 attenuated the inhibitory effect of naloxone on TNF-α and IL-1β production. CONCLUSIONS Naloxone suppressed LPS-induced activation of cultured retinal microglia and this suppression appeared to occur partly through the p38 MAPK signalling pathway. Naloxone may have therapeutic potential in neuro degenerative diseases characterized by the activation of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y F Xu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Hospital, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Wang J, Song N, Jiang H, Wang J, Xie J. Pro-inflammatory cytokines modulate iron regulatory protein 1 expression and iron transportation through reactive oxygen/nitrogen species production in ventral mesencephalic neurons. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1832:618-25. [PMID: 23376588 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 01/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Both inflammatory processes associated with microglia activation and abnormal iron deposit in dopaminergic neurons are involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the relationship between neuroinflammation and iron accumulation was not fully elucidated. In the present study, we aimed to investigate whether the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) released by microglia, could affect cellular iron transportation in primary cultured ventral mesencephalic (VM) neurons. The results showed that IL-1β or TNF-α treatment led to increased ferrous iron influx and decreased iron efflux in these cells, due to the upregulation of divalent metal transporter 1 with the iron response element (DMT1+IRE) and downregulation of ferroportin1 (FPN1). Increased levels of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1), transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1) and hepcidin were also observed in IL-1β or TNF-α treated VM neurons. IRP1 upregulation could be fully abolished by co-administration of radical scavenger N-acetyl-l-cysteine and inducible NO synthetase inhibitor Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester hydrochloride. Further experiments demonstrated that IL-1β and TNF-α release was remarkably enhanced by iron load in activated microglia triggered by lipopolysaccharide or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)). In 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-intoxicated mice, salicylate application could not block DMT1+IRE upregulation in dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra. These results suggested that IL-1β and TNF-α released by microglia, especially under the condition of iron load, might contribute to iron accumulation in VM neurons by upregulating IRP1 and hepcidin levels through reactive oxygen/nitrogen species production. This might provide a new insight into unraveling that microglia might aggravate this iron mediated neuropathologies in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Wang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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Taetzsch T, Block ML. Pesticides, microglial NOX2, and Parkinson's disease. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 2013; 27:137-49. [PMID: 23349115 DOI: 10.1002/jbt.21464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 11/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence indicates that pesticide exposure is associated with an increased risk for developing Parkinson's disease (PD). Several pesticides known to damage dopaminergic (DA) neurons, such as paraquat, rotenone, lindane, and dieldrin also demonstrate the ability to activate microglia, the resident innate immune cell in the brain. While each of these environmental toxicants may impact microglia through unique mechanisms, they all appear to converge on a common final pathway of microglial activation: NADPH oxidase 2 (NOX2) activation. This review will detail the role of microglia in selective DA neurotoxicity, highlight what is currently known about the mechanism of microglial NOX2 activation in these key pesticides, and describe the importance for DA neuron survival and PD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Taetzsch
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University Medical Campus, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
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Kim MC, Kwon OW, Park JS, Kim SY, Kwon HC. Nocapyrones H–J, 3,6-Disubstituted α-Pyrones from the Marine Actinomycete Nocardiopsis sp. KMF-001. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2013; 61:511-5. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c12-00956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Cheol Kim
- Natural Medicine Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Gangneung
- Graduate School of East-West Medical Science, Kyung Hee University
| | - Oh-Wook Kwon
- Graduate School of East-West Medical Science, Kyung Hee University
| | - Jin-Soo Park
- Natural Medicine Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Gangneung
| | | | - Hak Cheol Kwon
- Natural Medicine Center, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Gangneung
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Betts MJ, O'Neill MJ, Duty S. Allosteric modulation of the group III mGlu4 receptor provides functional neuroprotection in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 166:2317-30. [PMID: 22404342 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01943.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We recently reported that broad spectrum agonist-induced activation of presynaptic group III metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors within the substantia nigra pars compacta using L-2-amino-4-phosphonobutyrate provided functional neuroprotection in the 6-hydroxydopamine lesion rat model of Parkinson's disease. The aim of this study was to establish whether selective activation of the mGlu(4) receptor alone could afford similar functional neuroprotection. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The neuroprotective effects of 8 days of supranigral treatment with a positive allosteric modulator of mGlu(4) receptors, (+/-)-cis-2-(3,5-dichlorphenylcarbamoyl)cyclohexanecarboxylic acid (VU0155041), were investigated in rats with unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions. The effects of VU0155041 treatment on motor function were assessed using both habitual (cylinder test) and forced (adjusted stepping, amphetamine-induced rotations) behavioural tests. Nigrostriatal tract integrity was examined by analysis of tyrosine hydroxylase, dopa decarboxylase or dopamine levels in the striatum and tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cell counts in the substantia nigra pars compacta. KEY RESULTS VU0155041 provided around 40% histological protection against a unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion as well as significant preservation of motor function. These effects were inhibited by pre-treatment with (RS)-α-cyclopropyl-4-phosphonophenylglycine, confirming a receptor-mediated response. Reduced levels of inflammatory markers were also evident in the brains of VU0155041-treated animals. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Allosteric potentiation of mGlu(4) receptors in the substantia nigra pars compacta provided neuroprotective effects in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model A reduced inflammatory response may contribute, in part, to this action. In addition to the reported symptomatic effects, activation of mGlu(4) receptors may also offer a novel approach for slowing the progressive degeneration observed in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Betts
- King's College London, Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Guy's Campus, London, UK
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Ravikumar M, Jain S, Miller RH, Capadona JR, Selkirk SM. An organotypic spinal cord slice culture model to quantify neurodegeneration. J Neurosci Methods 2012; 211:280-8. [PMID: 22975474 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 08/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Activated microglia cells have been implicated in the neurodegenerative process of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis; however, the precise roles of microglia in disease progression are unclear. Despite these diseases having been described for more than a century, current FDA approved therapeutics are symptomatic in nature with little evidence to supporting a neuroprotective effect. Furthermore, identifying novel therapeutics remains challenging due to undetermined etiology, a variable disease course, and the paucity of validated targets. Here, we describe the use of a novel ex vivo spinal cord culture system that offers the ability to screen potential neuroprotective agents, while maintaining the complexity of the in vivo environment. To this end, we treated spinal cord slice cultures with lipopolysaccharide and quantified neuron viability in culture using measurements of axon length and FluoroJadeC intensity. To simulate a microglia-mediated response to cellular debris, antigens, or implanted materials/devices, we supplemented the culture media with increasing densities of microspheres, facilitating microglia-mediated phagocytosis of the particles, which demonstrated a direct correlation between the phagocytic activities of microglia and neuronal health. To validate our model's capacity to accurately depict neuroprotection, cultures were treated with resveratrol, which demonstrated enhanced neuronal health. Our results successfully demonstrate the use of this model to reproducibly quantify the extent of neurodegeneration through the measurement of axon length and FluoroJadeC intensity, and we suggest this model will allow for accurate, high-throughput screening, which could result in expedited success in translational efficacy of therapeutic agents to clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhumitha Ravikumar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, School of Engineering, 2071 Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, Wickenden Bldg, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Triterpene Saponins Isolated from Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides). EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2012; 2012:798192. [PMID: 22988475 PMCID: PMC3442286 DOI: 10.1155/2012/798192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 07/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Blue cohosh has been used as a medicinal herb in eastern North America. It was commonly used as traditional medicines for the treatment of menopausal symptoms, rheumatic pain, and as anti-inflammatory remedy. Particularly, extract of blue cohosh roots has been used as anti-inflammatory antipyretic in traditional medicines. In the present study, we investigated the effects of blue cohosh components on the suppressive expression of iNOS or proinflammatory cytokines after the activation of microglia with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The expression of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 was determined by western blotting or gene expression. Blue cohosh treatment suppressed the elevation of LPS-induced iNOS expression in a concentration-dependent manner in microglia cells. Blue cohosh constituents also suppressed the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. In addition, blue cohosh extract suppressed the expression of COX-2, iNOS, and proinflammatory cytokines in adrenal glands of mice. These results demonstrate that constituents of blue cohosh exert anti-inflammatory effects through the inhibition of expression of iNOS and proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, blue cohosh may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.
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Ha SK, Moon E, Ju MS, Kim DH, Ryu JH, Oh MS, Kim SY. 6-Shogaol, a ginger product, modulates neuroinflammation: a new approach to neuroprotection. Neuropharmacology 2012; 63:211-23. [PMID: 22465818 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 02/13/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory processes in the central nervous system play an important role in a number of neurodegenerative diseases mediated by microglial activation, which results in neuronal cell death. Microglia act in immune surveillance and host defense while resting. When activated, they can be deleterious to neurons, even resulting in neurodegeneration. Therefore, the inhibition of microglial activation is considered a useful strategy in searching for neuroprotective agents. In this study, we investigated the effects of 6-shogaol, a pungent agent from Zingiber officinale Roscoe, on microglia activation in BV-2 and primary microglial cell cultures. 6-Shogaol significantly inhibited the release of nitric oxide (NO) and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The effect was better than that of 6-gingerol, wogonin, or N-monomethyl-l-arginine, agents previously reported to inhibit nitric oxide. 6-Shogaol exerted its anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) and proinflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and by downregulating cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) expression. In addition, 6-shogaol suppressed the microglial activation induced by LPS both in primary cortical neuron-glia culture and in an in vivo neuroinflammatory model. Moreover, 6-shogaol showed significant neuroprotective effects in vivo in transient global ischemia via the inhibition of microglia. These results suggest that 6-shogaol is an effective therapeutic agent for treating neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang Keun Ha
- Graduate School of East-West Medical Science, Kyung Hee University Global Campus, #1732 Deogyeong-daero, Giheung-gu, Yongin, Gyeonggi-do 446-701, Republic of Korea
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Peterson LJ, Flood PM. Oxidative stress and microglial cells in Parkinson's disease. Mediators Inflamm 2012; 2012:401264. [PMID: 22544998 PMCID: PMC3321615 DOI: 10.1155/2012/401264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant evidence has now been accumulated that microglial cells play a central role in the degeneration of DA neurons in animal models of PD. The oxidative stress response by microglial cells, most notably the activity of the enzyme NADPH oxidase, appears to play a central role in the pathology of PD. This oxidative stress response occurs in microglia through the activation of the ERK signaling pathway by proinflammatory stimuli, leading to the phosphorylation and translocation of the p47(phox) and p67(phox) cytosolic subunits, the activation of membrane-bound PHOX, and the production of ROS. Therapeutic anti-inflammatories which prevent DA neurodegeneration in PD, including anti-inflammatory cytokines, morphinan compounds, NADPH oxidase inhibitors, NF-κB inhibitors, and β2-AR agonists, all function to inhibit the activation of the PHOX in microglial cells. These observations suggest a central role for the oxidative stress response in microglial cells as a mediator or regulator of DA neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynda J. Peterson
- North Carolina Oral Health Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#7454, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7454, USA
| | - Patrick M. Flood
- North Carolina Oral Health Institute, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#7454, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7454, USA
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34
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Collins LM, Toulouse A, Connor TJ, Nolan YM. Contributions of central and systemic inflammation to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Neuropharmacology 2012; 62:2154-68. [PMID: 22361232 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Revised: 01/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) represents a complex interaction between the inherent vulnerability of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, a possible genetic predisposition, and exposure to environmental toxins including inflammatory triggers. Evidence now suggests that chronic neuroinflammation is consistently associated with the pathophysiology of PD. Activation of microglia and increased levels of pro-inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, reactive oxygen species and eicosanoids has been reported after post-mortem analysis of the substantia nigra from PD patients and in animal models of PD. It is hypothesised that chronically activated microglia secrete high levels of pro-inflammatory mediators which damage neurons and further activate microglia, resulting in a feed forward cycle promoting further inflammation and neurodegeneration. Moreover, nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons are more vulnerable to pro-inflammatory and oxidative mediators than other cell types because of their low intracellular glutathione concentration. Systemic inflammation has also been suggested to contribute to neurodegeneration in PD, as lymphocyte infiltration has been observed in brains of PD patients and in animal models of PD, substantiating the current theory of a fundamental role of inflammation in neurodegeneration. We will examine the current evidence in the literature which offers insight into the premise that both central and systemic inflammation may contribute to neurodegeneration in PD. We will discuss the emerging possibility of the use of diagnostic tools such as imaging technologies for PD patients. Finally, we will present the immunomodulatory therapeutic strategies that are now under investigation and in clinical trials as potential neuroprotective drugs for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M Collins
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Biosciences Institute, Western Road, Cork, Ireland
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35
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Kim SY, Choe BY, Lee HS, Lee DW, Ryu KN, Park JS, Yin CS, Hong KS, Lee CH, Choi CB. Forelimb akinesia and metabolic alteration in the striatum following unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion in rats: An in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. NEUROCHEM J+ 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s1819712411040088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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36
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Filipov NM, Dodd CA. Role of glial cells in manganese neurotoxicity. J Appl Toxicol 2011; 32:310-7. [PMID: 22120544 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2011] [Revised: 09/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The objectives of this focused review are to (i) provide a systematic overview of recent advances pertaining to the role of glia, namely microglia and astrocytes, in the neuropathology associated with excessive exposure to manganese (Mn), (ii) highlight possible mechanisms and factors involved in Mn-modulated, glia-derived neuroinflammation, and (iii) discuss the implications of excessive neuroinflammation on neuronal injury within the context of Mn overexposure. As this is not meant to be a comprehensive review on the topic of Mn neurotoxicity, the reader may wish to refer to several broader and more comprehensive reviews. After a brief introduction to Mn neurotoxicity, we first discuss the role of glial cells in neurodegeneration. Next, we review existing in vitro and in vivo studies that implicate Mn as a modulator of glial activation and ensuing neuroinflammation. This is followed by an examination of recognized and potential mechanisms that are involved in the modulation of glial inflammatory output by Mn; here the common pathways activated by Mn in glial and neuronal cells, including outcomes of such activation, are also addressed. We finish with a discussion of the implications of Mn-modulated glial activation for neuronal survival and with a list of data gaps in the topic that need to be filled in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay M Filipov
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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37
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Liu M, Bing G. Lipopolysaccharide animal models for Parkinson's disease. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2011; 2011:327089. [PMID: 21603177 PMCID: PMC3096023 DOI: 10.4061/2011/327089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an endotoxin from Gram-negative bacteria, acts as a potent stimulator of microglia and has been used to study the inflammatory process in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) and anti-inflammatory therapy for PD treatment. Here, we review the growing body of literature on both in vitro and in vivo LPS PD models. Primary cell cultures from mesencephalic tissue were exposed to LPS in vitro; LPS was stereotaxically injected into the substantia nigra, striatum, or globus pallidus of brain or injected into the peritoneal cavity of the animal in vivo. In conclusion, the LPS PD models are summarized as (1) local and direct LPS treatment and (2) systemic LPS treatment. Mechanisms underlying the PD models are investigated and indicated that LPS induces microglial activation to release a variety of neurotoxic factors, and damaged neurons may trigger reactive microgliosis, which lead to progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Liu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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Machado A, Herrera AJ, Venero JL, Santiago M, de Pablos RM, Villarán RF, Espinosa-Oliva AM, Argüelles S, Sarmiento M, Delgado-Cortés MJ, Mauriño R, Cano J. Inflammatory Animal Model for Parkinson's Disease: The Intranigral Injection of LPS Induced the Inflammatory Process along with the Selective Degeneration of Nigrostriatal Dopaminergic Neurons. ISRN NEUROLOGY 2011; 2011:476158. [PMID: 22389821 PMCID: PMC3263561 DOI: 10.5402/2011/476158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We have developed an animal model of degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, the neuronal system involved in Parkinson's disease (PD). The implication of neuroinflammation on this disease was originally established in 1988, when the presence of activated microglia in the substantia nigra (SN) of parkinsonians was reported by McGeer et al. Neuroinflammation could be involved in the progression of the disease or even has more direct implications. We injected 2 μg of the potent proinflammatory compound lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in different areas of the CNS, finding that SN displayed the highest inflammatory response and that dopaminergic (body) neurons showed a special and specific sensitivity to this process with the induction of selective dopaminergic degeneration. Neurodegeneration is induced by inflammation since it is prevented by anti-inflammatory compounds. The special sensitivity of dopaminergic neurons seems to be related to the endogenous dopaminergic content, since it is overcome by dopamine depletion. Compounds that activate microglia or induce inflammation have similar effects to LPS. This model suggest that inflammation is an important component of the degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system, probably also in PD. Anti-inflammatory treatments could be useful to prevent or slow down the rate of dopaminergic degeneration in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Machado
- - Departmento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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Possible role of propofol's cyclooxygenase-inhibiting property in alleviating dopaminergic neuronal loss in the substantia nigra in an MPTP-induced murine model of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2011; 1387:125-33. [PMID: 21376018 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.02.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Propofol is an intravenous anesthetic widely used for sedation and general anesthesia. We investigated the effect of propofol on prostanoid production by activated microglia. Primary microglial culture was obtained from the brains of neonatal C57BL/6 mice. The microglia were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence of propofol. Propofol suppressed the LPS-induced production of prostaglandin E(2) and thromboxane B(2). Cyclooxygenase (COX) protein expression and arachidonic acid release were not affected by propofol, while COX enzyme activity was significantly inhibited by propofol. The COX-inhibiting activity was also observed with purified enzymes, with COX-2 inhibition being significantly greater than COX-1 inhibition. Next, we studied whether the COX-inhibiting activity of propofol resulted in dopaminergic neuroprotection in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) murine model of Parkinson's disease, in which COX inhibitors, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are reported to be neuroprotective. C57BL/6 mice received intraperitoneal injections of MPTP with or without propofol treatment, and the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) were examined immunohistochemically by observing the tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells. The number of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc was significantly reduced by MPTP treatment, while the MPTP-induced neuronal loss was minimal upon treatment with propofol or the selective COX-2 inhibitor, NS-398. These results indicate that propofol might be beneficial in mitigating MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurons, possibly via its COX-inhibiting activity.
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Tufekci KU, Genc S, Genc K. The endotoxin-induced neuroinflammation model of Parkinson's disease. PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2011; 2011:487450. [PMID: 21331154 PMCID: PMC3034925 DOI: 10.4061/2011/487450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 11/18/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra. Although the exact cause of the dopaminergic neurodegeneration remains elusive, recent postmortem and experimental studies have revealed an essential role for neuroinflammation that is initiated and driven by activated microglial and infiltrated peripheral immune cells and their neurotoxic products (such as proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide) in the pathogenesis of PD. A bacterial endotoxin-based experimental model of PD has been established, representing a purely inflammation-driven animal model for the induction of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurodegeneration. This model, by itself or together with genetic and toxin-based animal models, provides an important tool to delineate the precise mechanisms of neuroinflammation-mediated dopaminergic neuron loss. Here, we review the characteristics of this model and the contribution of neuroinflammatory processes, induced by the in vivo administration of bacterial endotoxin, to neurodegeneration. Furthermore, we summarize the recent experimental therapeutic strategies targeting endotoxin-induced neuroinflammation to elicit neuroprotection in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. The potential of the endotoxin-based PD model in the development of an early-stage specific diagnostic biomarker is also emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Ugur Tufekci
- Department of Neuroscience, Health Science Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti, 35340 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Sermin Genc
- Department of Neuroscience, Health Science Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti, 35340 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Kursad Genc
- Department of Neuroscience, Health Science Institute, Dokuz Eylul University, Inciralti, 35340 Izmir, Turkey
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Granholm AC, Zaman V, Godbee J, Smith M, Ramadan R, Umphlet C, Randall P, Bhat NR, Rohrer B, Middaugh LD, Boger HA. Prenatal LPS increases inflammation in the substantia nigra of Gdnf heterozygous mice. Brain Pathol 2010; 21:330-48. [PMID: 20969653 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2010.00457.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal systemic inflammation has been implicated in neurological diseases, but optimal animal models have not been developed. We investigated whether a partial genetic deletion of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (Gdnf(+/-)) increased vulnerability of dopamine (DA) neurons to prenatal lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS [0.01 mg/kg intraperitoneal (i.p.)] or saline was administered to wild-type (WT) or Gdnf(+/-) pregnant mice on gestational day 9.5. Male offspring were examined at 3 weeks, 3 and 12 months of age. There was a progressive degeneration of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) with age in Gdnf(+/-) but not in WT mice, with no observed effects on locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic neurons or DA neurons of the ventral tegmental area. Inflammatory markers were elevated in SN of LPS treated offspring, with exacerbation in Gdnf(+/-) mice. Intracellular accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) immunoreactivity in DA neurons of SN was observed in all groups of Gdnf(+/-) and in WT mice with prenatal LPS, with altered distribution between pars reticulata (pr) and pars compacta (pc). The findings suggest that prenatal LPS leads to accelerated neuropathology in the SN with age, and that a partial loss of GDNF exacerbates these effects, providing a novel model for age-related neuropathology of the nigrostriatal DA system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Charlotte Granholm
- Department of Neurosciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Center on Aging, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
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Kern CH, Smith DR. Preweaning Mn exposure leads to prolonged astrocyte activation and lasting effects on the dopaminergic system in adult male rats. Synapse 2010; 65:532-44. [PMID: 20963817 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Little is known about the effects of manganese (Mn) exposure over neurodevelopment and whether these early insults result in effects lasting into adulthood. To determine if early Mn exposure produces lasting neurobehavioral and neurochemical effects, we treated neonate rats with oral Mn (0, 25, or 50 mg Mn/kg/d over PND 1-21) and evaluated (1) behavioral performance in the open arena in the absence (PND 97) and presence (PND 98) of a d-amphetamine challenge, (2) brain dopamine D1 and D2-like receptors and dopamine transporter densities in the prefrontal cortex, striatum, and nucleus accumbens (PND 107), and (3) astrocyte marker glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) levels in these same brain regions (PND 24 and 107). We found that preweaning Mn exposure did not alter locomotor activity or behavior disinhibition in adult rats, though Mn-exposed animals did exhibit an enhanced locomotor response to d-amphetamine challenge. Preweaning Mn exposure led to increased D1 and D2 receptor levels in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex, respectively, compared with controls. We also found increased GFAP expression in the prefrontal cortex in Mn-exposed PND 24 weanlings, and increased GFAP levels in prefrontal cortex, medial striatum and nucleus accumbens of adult (PND 107) rats exposed to preweaning Mn, indicating an effect of Mn exposure on astrogliosis that persisted and/or progressed to other brain regions in adult animals. These data show that preweaning Mn exposure leads to lasting molecular and functional impacts in multiple brain regions of adult animals, long after brain Mn levels returned to normal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia H Kern
- Department of Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA
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Kondoh T, Kameishi M, Mallick HN, Ono T, Torii K. Lysine and arginine reduce the effects of cerebral ischemic insults and inhibit glutamate-induced neuronal activity in rats. Front Integr Neurosci 2010; 4:18. [PMID: 20589237 PMCID: PMC2892957 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2010.00018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Intravenous administration of arginine was shown to be protective against cerebral ischemic insults via nitric oxide production and possibly via additional mechanisms. The present study aimed at evaluating the neuroprotective effects of oral administration of lysine (a basic amino acid), arginine, and their combination on ischemic insults (cerebral edema and infarction) and hemispheric brain swelling induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion in rats. Magnetic resonance imaging and 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining were performed 2 days after ischemia induction. In control animals, the major edematous areas were observed in the cerebral cortex and striatum. The volumes associated with cortical edema were significantly reduced by lysine (2.0 g/kg), arginine (0.6 g/kg), or their combined administration (0.6 g/kg each). Protective effects of these amino acids on infarction were comparable to the inhibitory effects on edema formation. Interestingly, these amino acids, even at low dose (0.6 g/kg), were effective to reduce hemispheric brain swelling. Additionally, the effects of in vivo microiontophoretic (juxtaneuronal) applications of these amino acids on glutamate-evoked neuronal activity in the ventromedial hypothalamus were investigated in awake rats. Glutamate-induced neuronal activity was robustly inhibited by microiontophoretic applications of lysine or arginine onto neuronal membranes. Taken together, our results demonstrate the neuroprotective effects of oral ingestion of lysine and arginine against ischemic insults (cerebral edema and infarction), especially in the cerebral cortex, and suggest that suppression of glutamate-induced neuronal activity might be the primary mechanism associated with these neuroprotective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Kondoh
- Institute of Life Sciences, Ajinomoto Co., Inc. Kawasaki, Japan
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Modulation of morphological changes of microglia and neuroprotection by monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in experimental glaucoma. Cell Mol Immunol 2010; 7:61-8. [PMID: 20081877 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2009.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)/CCL2 is a C-C chemokine involved in the activation and recruitment of monocytic cells to injury sites. MCP-1/CCL2 can induce either neuroprotection or neurodestruction in vitro, depending on the experimental model. We aim to use MCP-1/CCL2 as an experimental tool to investigate the morphological changes of microglia when loss of healthy retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) is exacerbated or attenuated in an experimental glaucoma model. While a high concentration (1000 ng) of MCP-1/CCL2 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-exacerbated RGC loss, 100 ng MCP-1/CCL2 provided neuroprotection towards RGC. Neuroprotective MCP-1/CCL2 (100 ng) also upregulated insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) immunoreactivity in the RGCs. The neuroprotective effect of MCP-1/CCL2 was not due to the massive infiltration of microglia/macrophages. Taken together, this is the first report showing that an appropriate amount of MCP-1/CCL2 can protect RGCs in experimental glaucoma.
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Tansey MG, Goldberg MS. Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease: its role in neuronal death and implications for therapeutic intervention. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 37:510-8. [PMID: 19913097 PMCID: PMC2823829 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2009.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 757] [Impact Index Per Article: 54.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2009] [Revised: 11/03/2009] [Accepted: 11/04/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, after Alzheimer's disease. The potential causes of PD remain uncertain, but recent studies suggest neuroinflammation and microglia activation play important roles in PD pathogenesis. Major unanswered questions include whether protein aggregates cause the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra that underlies the clinical symptoms and whether neuroinflammation is a consequence or a cause of nigral cell loss. Within the microenvironment of the brain, glial cells play a critical role in homeostatic mechanisms that promote neuronal survival. Microglia have a specialized immune surveillance role and mediate innate immune responses to invading pathogens by secreting a myriad of factors that include, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and growth factors. Some of these factors have neuroprotective and trophic activities and aid in brain repair processes; while others enhance oxidative stress and trigger apoptotic cascades in neurons. Therefore, pro- and anti-inflammatory responses must be in balance to prevent the potential detrimental effects of prolonged or unregulated inflammation-induced oxidative stress on vulnerable neuronal populations. In this review, we discuss potential triggers of neuroinflammation and review the strongest direct evidence that chronic neuroinflammation may have a more important role to play in PD versus other neurodegenerative diseases. Alternatively, we propose that genetic deficiency is not the only way to reduce protective factors in the brain which may function to keep microglial responses in check or regulate the sensitivity of DA neurons. If chronic inflammation can be shown to decrease the levels of neuroprotective factors in the midbrain, in essence genetic haploinsufficiency of protective factors such as Parkin or RGS10 may result from purely environmental triggers (aging, chronic systemic disease, etc.), increasing the vulnerability to inflammation-induced nigral DA neuron death and predisposing an individual to development of PD. Lastly, we review the latest epidemiological and experimental evidence supporting the potential use of anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory drugs as neuroprotective agents to delay the progressive nigrostriatal degeneration that leads to motor dysfunction in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malú G Tansey
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30324, USA.
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Barnum CJ, Tansey MG. Modeling neuroinflammatory pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2010; 184:113-32. [DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(10)84006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Kinetics of microglial activation and degeneration of dopamine-containing neurons in a rat model of Parkinson disease induced by 6-hydroxydopamine. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2009; 68:1092-102. [PMID: 19918121 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181b767b4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In both Parkinson disease and in animal models of Parkinson disease, there is a microglial reaction in addition to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral midbrain. To determine the pathological role of this microglial reaction, we analyzed the kinetics of microglial activation and dopaminergic cell death induced in rats with the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine. As early as Day 1 after the injection, there was a decline in the motor performance of the 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rats that correlated with a reduction of dopaminergic innervation of the contralateral striatum. Loss of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral midbrain developed a few days later and seemed to follow a specific temporospatial pattern. Degenerating neurons and activated microglia were seen only in areas in which dopaminergic cells were no longer observed, suggesting that the loss of the dopaminergic phenotype preceded the degenerative process. In sham-lesioned rats, there was a transient activation of microglia in the vicinity of the needle tract without any cell degeneration. This chronology of events supports the hypothesis that microglial activation is a secondary rather than primary phenomenon in dopaminergic cell degeneration induced by 6-hydroxydopamine.
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Long-Smith CM, Sullivan AM, Nolan YM. The influence of microglia on the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 89:277-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2009] [Revised: 08/08/2009] [Accepted: 08/10/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Chiu K, Chan HC, Yeung SC, Yuen WH, Zee SY, Chang RCC, So KF. Erratum: Modulation of microglia by Wolfberry on the survival of retinal ganglion cells in a rat ocular hypertension model. J Ocul Biol Dis Infor 2009; 2:127-136. [PMID: 20046845 PMCID: PMC2798983 DOI: 10.1007/s12177-009-9035-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The active component of Wolfberry (Lycium barbarum), lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBP), has been shown to be neuroprotective to retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) against ocular hypertension (OH). Aiming to study whether this neuroprotection is mediated via modulating immune cells in the retina, we used multiphoton confocal microscopy to investigate morphological changes of microglia in whole-mounted retinas. Retinas under OH displayed slightly activated microglia. One to 100 mg/kg LBP exerted the best neuroprotection and elicited moderately activated microglia in the inner retina with ramified appearance but thicker and focally enlarged processes. Intravitreous injection of bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) decreased the survival of RGCs at 4 weeks, and the activated microglia exhibited amoeboid appearance as fully activated phenotype. When activation of microglia was attenuated by intravitreous injection of macrophage/microglia inhibitory factor, protective effect of 10 mg/kg LBP was attenuated. The results implicated that neuroprotective effects of LBP were partly due to modulating the activation of microglia.[This corrects the article on p. in vol. .].
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Affiliation(s)
- Kin Chiu
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Anatomy, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- Research Centre of Heart, Brain, Hormone and Healthy Aging, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Hiu-Chi Chan
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Sze-Chun Yeung
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Anatomy, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Wai-Hung Yuen
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Sze-Yong Zee
- United College, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Raymond Chuen-Chung Chang
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Anatomy, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- Research Centre of Heart, Brain, Hormone and Healthy Aging, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Kwok-Fai So
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Anatomy, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- Research Centre of Heart, Brain, Hormone and Healthy Aging, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
- Laboratory Block, Faculty of Medicine Building, Department of Anatomy, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR China
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Abstract
The expression of phase-II detoxification and antioxidant enzymes is governed by a cis-acting regulatory element named the antioxidant response element (ARE). ARE-containing genes are regulated by the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a member of the Cap'n'Collar basic-leucine-zipper family of transcription factors. ARE-regulated genes are preferentially activated in astrocytes, which consequently have more efficient detoxification and antioxidant defences than neurons. Astrocytes closely interact with neurons to provide structural, metabolic and trophic support, as well as actively participating in the modulation of neuronal excitability and neurotransmission. Therefore, functional alterations in astrocytes can shape the interaction with surrounding cells, such as neurons and microglia. Activation of Nrf2 in astrocytes protects neurons from a wide array of insults in different in vitro and in vivo paradigms, confirming the role of astrocytes in determining the vulnerability of neurons to noxious stimuli. Here, we review the current data supporting Nrf2 activation in astrocytes as a viable therapeutic approach, not only in acute neuronal damage, but also in chronic neurodegeneration related to oxidative stress.
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