1
|
Smith DFQ, Mudrak NJ, Zamith-Miranda D, Honorato L, Nimrichter L, Chrissian C, Smith B, Gerfen G, Stark RE, Nosanchuk JD, Casadevall A. Melanization of Candida auris Is Associated with Alteration of Extracellular pH. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:1068. [PMID: 36294632 PMCID: PMC9604884 DOI: 10.3390/jof8101068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida auris is a recently emerged global fungal pathogen, which causes life-threatening infections, often in healthcare settings. C. auris infections are worrisome because the fungus is often resistant to multiple antifungal drug classes. Furthermore, C. auris forms durable and difficult to remove biofilms. Due to the relatively recent, resilient, and resistant nature of C. auris, we investigated whether it produces the common fungal virulence factor melanin. Melanin is a black-brown pigment typically produced following enzymatic oxidation of aromatic precursors, which promotes fungal virulence through oxidative stress resistance, mammalian immune response evasion, and antifungal peptide and pharmaceutical inactivation. We found that certain strains of C. auris oxidized L-DOPA and catecholamines into melanin. Melanization occurred extracellularly in a process mediated by alkalinization of the extracellular environment, resulting in granule-like structures that adhere to the fungus' external surface. C. auris had relatively high cell surface hydrophobicity, but there was no correlation between hydrophobicity and melanization. Melanin protected the fungus from oxidative damage, but we did not observe a protective role during infection of macrophages or Galleria mellonella larvae. In summary, C. auris alkalinizes the extracellular medium, which promotes the non-enzymatic oxidation of L-DOPA to melanin that attaches to its surface, thus illustrating a novel mechanism for fungal melanization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel F. Q. Smith
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Nathan J. Mudrak
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Krieger School of Arts & Science, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Leandro Honorato
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
| | - Christine Chrissian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, The City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Barbara Smith
- Institute for Basic Biomedical Sciences Microscope Facility, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Gary Gerfen
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ruth E. Stark
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, City College of New York and CUNY Institute for Macromolecular Assemblies, The City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bruno D, Montali A, Mastore M, Brivio MF, Mohamed A, Tian L, Grimaldi A, Casartelli M, Tettamanti G. Insights Into the Immune Response of the Black Soldier Fly Larvae to Bacteria. Front Immunol 2021; 12:745160. [PMID: 34867970 PMCID: PMC8636706 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.745160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In insects, a complex and effective immune system that can be rapidly activated by a plethora of stimuli has evolved. Although the main cellular and humoral mechanisms and their activation pathways are highly conserved across insects, the timing and the efficacy of triggered immune responses can differ among different species. In this scenario, an insect deserving particular attention is the black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Indeed, BSF larvae can be reared on a wide range of decaying organic substrates and, thanks to their high protein and lipid content, they represent a valuable source of macromolecules useful for different applications (e.g., production of feedstuff, bioplastics, and biodiesel), thus contributing to the development of circular economy supply chains for waste valorization. However, decaying substrates bring the larvae into contact with different potential pathogens that can challenge their health status and growth. Although these life strategies have presumably contributed to shape the evolution of a sophisticated and efficient immune system in this dipteran, knowledge about its functional features is still fragmentary. In the present study, we investigated the processes underpinning the immune response to bacteria in H. illucens larvae and characterized their reaction times. Our data demonstrate that the cellular and humoral responses in this insect show different kinetics: phagocytosis and encapsulation are rapidly triggered after the immune challenge, while the humoral components intervene later. Moreover, although both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are completely removed from the insect body within a few hours after injection, Gram-positive bacteria persist in the hemolymph longer than do Gram-negative bacteria. Finally, the activity of two key actors of the humoral response, i.e., lysozyme and phenoloxidase, show unusual dynamics as compared to other insects. This study represents the first detailed characterization of the immune response to bacteria of H. illucens larvae, expanding knowledge on the defense mechanisms of this insect among Diptera. This information is a prerequisite to manipulating the larval immune response by nutritional and environmental factors to increase resistance to pathogens and optimize health status during mass rearing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Bruno
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Aurora Montali
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Maristella Mastore
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Maurizio Francesco Brivio
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, Department of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Amr Mohamed
- Laboratory of Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Sciences, Department of Entomology, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ling Tian
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-Animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, Guangdong Provincial Sericulture and Mulberry Engineering Research Center, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Annalisa Grimaldi
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Morena Casartelli
- Laboratory of Insect Physiology and Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, University of Milano, Milan, Italy.,Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Gianluca Tettamanti
- Laboratory of Invertebrate Biology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy.,Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology (BAT Center), University of Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Krieg A. Zur potentiellen Pathogenität einiger Sporenbildner (Genus: Bacillus) gegenüber Larven von Galleria mellonella und deren Ursachen. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0418.1982.tb03608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
4
|
Zakarian RJ, Dunphy GB, Quiot JM. Growth of an ovarian cell line of Galleria mellonella and its response to immune-inducing factors. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2002; 38:572-81. [PMID: 12762839 DOI: 10.1290/1543-706x(2002)38<572:goaocl>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Antibacterial proteins are produced in the reproductive tracts of some insect species. The advent of a pupal ovarian cell line of the lepidopteran Galleria mellonella offered an opportunity for exploring the use of ovarian tissue culture to induce antimicrobial proteins in lieu of the larvae. The ovarian cell growth rates and cell yields were maximized by adjusting Grace's medium to pH 6.5, adding 15% (v/v) qualified heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, and lowering the sucrose concentration to 9.3 g/L. Five cell forms and biochemical profiles of the collective cell types were analyzed throughout the culture growth cycle. The final modified culture medium did not affect morphogenesis, whereas it increased the culture growth rate by 50% and the final cell yield threefold. The molting and immunoprotein-inducing hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone, increased culture growth rate and altered the levels of cell types A and D. Neither 20-hydroxyecdysone nor the larval immunizing agents, apolipophorin-III or Bacillus subtilis, in combination or alone, induced antibacterial activity. The bacterium did induce immunity in both larval and adult stages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Zakarian
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, Ste Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Marmaras VJ, Charalambidis ND, Zervas CG. Immune response in insects: the role of phenoloxidase in defense reactions in relation to melanization and sclerotization. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1996; 31:119-133. [PMID: 8580494 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1520-6327(1996)31:2<119::aid-arch1>3.0.co;2-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that activated prophenoloxidase (proPO) plays an important role in cuticular melanization and sclerotization. In addition, studies dealing with immune response of insects suggest that phenoloxidase (PO) is also critical in the defense reactions of insects against invaders. proPO is activated by elicitors derived from microbial cell wall components such as peptidoglycan, beta-1,3-glucan, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). According to our recent studies we proposed a model clarifying the role of PO in both cellular and humoral immune responses. LPS triggers Ceratitis capitata hemocytes via induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation to release biologically active molecules, including p47 and proPO-activators. Furthermore, hemocytes in response to LPS facilitate clearance of LPS from the hemocoel of medfly. The effector molecules involved in the LPS clearance are hemocyte surface-associated p47 (mp47), soluble p47 (sp47), activated proPO, and tyrosine. A similar LPS clearance system in the integument of medfly in vitro was also demonstrated. According to our data, the proposed mechanism for LPS clearance from hemocoel and from integument is the crosslinking of LPS to p47 or certain integumental proteins via the intermediacy of reactive tyrosine derivatives generated by PO activity, as is the case for cuticular protein-chitin crosslinks during sclerotization. We also demonstrated that metabolites of the eumelanin biosynthesis and not melanin itself or N-acetyldopamine (NADA), the key precursor of sclerotizing agent, were necessary for the immune responses by hemocytes and integument.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V J Marmaras
- Department of Biology, University of Patras, Greece
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kopácek P, Weise C, Götz P. The prophenoloxidase from the wax moth Galleria mellonella: purification and characterization of the proenzyme. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1995; 25:1081-1091. [PMID: 8580908 DOI: 10.1016/0965-1748(95)00040-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A prophenoloxidase (PPO) was purified from the hemolymph of the larvae of Galleria mellonella. A 135-fold purification of the proenzyme with 25% yield was achieved by a combination of different chromatographic methods. An alternative micropreparation of pure PPO by a novel method for native electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel is also described. The molecular mass of the native PPO was estimated to be 300 kDa by the pore-limit gradient electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel. In the presence of sodium dodecyl sulphate, two closely migrating subunits of 80 and 83 kDa were detected under non-reducing conditions. The PPO was shown to be a glycoprotein and its isoelectric point was 6.2. The amino-acid composition of the purified protein was similar to the PPO from Bombyx mori. The monospecific antibody raised against the purified PPO crossreacted with the (pro)phenoloxidase in hemolymph of Manduca sexta. The activation of the PPO with chymotrypsin was investigated and two proteins of 67 and 50 kDa were found to be products of the proteolytic cleavage. The N-terminus of the G. mellonella PPO was blocked, but eleven partial internal sequences were determined after fragmentation of the purified PPO with trypsin. Three of these peptides exhibited significant homology with highly conserved sequences found in arthopod hemocyanins and insect storage proteins, which indicates that the PPO belongs to this family.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P Kopácek
- Institute of Entomology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceské Budejovice, Czech Republik
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Circatidal rhythmicity in the activity of the phenoloxidase enzyme in the common shore crab, Carcinus maenas. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(94)00258-v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
8
|
Charalambidis ND, Bournazos SN, Lambropoulou M, Marmaras VJ. Defense and melanization depend on the eumelanin pathway, occur independently and are controlled differentially in developing Ceratitis capitata. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1994; 24:655-662. [PMID: 8069330 DOI: 10.1016/0965-1748(94)90052-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
A defense mechanism in the hemocytes and cuticle of developing Ceratitis capitata has been demonstrated (Marmaras and Charalambidis, 1992; Marmaras et al., 1993a; Marmaras et al., 1993b). To elucidate further the mechanism and the regulation of defense reactions, we studied this process in relation to melanization in the major larval tissues, in two distinct developmental stages; the feeding and wandering larval stages. The results demonstrate that defense reaction depends on reactive tyrosine derivatives of either early or late stages of the sequence of reactions involved in eumelanin biosynthesis. However, defense and melanization occur independently e.g. hemocytes exhibit a high degree of Escherichia coli immobilization and entrapment, but not any ability to biosynthesize melanin. Serum on the other hand, showed a high degree of melanin formation in wandering stage larvae, but had not any ability for E. coli immobilization. In integuments of wandering stage larvae, both processes occur simultaneously. These findings suggest independent control mechanisms for these processes. Indeed, our results suggest that defense seems to be controlled by the presence of proteins responsible for nonself recognition and melanization by developmental regulation of dopachrome conversion factor.
Collapse
|
9
|
Eguchi M. Protein protease inhibitors in insects and comparison with mammalian inhibitors. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. B, COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY 1993; 105:449-56. [PMID: 8365101 DOI: 10.1016/0305-0491(93)90073-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
1. Studies on insect protein protease inhibitors are summarized. Biochemical, genetic and physiological investigations of the silkworm are performed. 2. In addition, the properties and characteristics of fungal protease inhibitors from the silkworm (Bombyx mori) are described and their importance as defensive functions is emphasized. 3. This review also concerns comparative and evolutionary studies of protease inhibitors from various sources. 4. The biological significance of inhibitors is discussed in view of the extensive experimental results.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Eguchi
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Nellaiappan K. On the latency of blood phenoloxidase of painted locust Poeciloceros pictus. ARCHIVES INTERNATIONALES DE PHYSIOLOGIE, DE BIOCHIMIE ET DE BIOPHYSIQUE 1992; 100:223-9. [PMID: 1382670 DOI: 10.3109/13813459208998105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The blood phenoloxidase of Poeciloceros pictus exists as proenzyme. The amidase activity present in the haemocyte is responsible for the activation of haemocyte phenoloxidase. There is an amidase inhibitor in the plasma. Plasma phenoloxidase could be activated by various fatty acids, biological compounds like lipopolysaccharide zymosan and detergents. Electrophoretic studies suggest that activation of haemocyte phenoloxidase involves limited proteolysis. It is suggested that the natural activator of plasma phenoloxidase may be fatty acid and it does not undergo proteolysis during activation. The biological compounds like zymosan or LPS are easily recognised by the factor(s) from the membranes of haemocytes.
Collapse
|
11
|
Townson H, Chaithong U. Mosquito host influences on development of filariae. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 1991; 85:149-63. [PMID: 1888212 DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1991.11812541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A brief review is presented of the literature relating to factors which limit the capacity of filariae to develop in mosquitoes, with particular emphasis on immune mechanisms. Most insects respond to bacterial infection by the production of potent antibacterial proteins, but little is known of this aspect of the immune response in mosquitoes or of the possible influence of immune proteins on the fate of filarial infections in mosquitoes. A summary account is given of recent experiments with the mosquito Aedes aegypti which involve passive transfer of immune haemolymph together with its in vitro assay and SDS-PAGE examination for induced proteins. These experiments demonstrate the production, in response to inoculation with Brugia pahangi, Escherichia coli, and various components of microbial cell walls, of haemolymph factors which are protective against filarial infection. It remains to be seen whether mosquitoes can produce a specific protective response to infection with eukaryotic organisms such as filaria that is distinctive from that mobilized against bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Townson
- Department of Medical Entomology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, U.K
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
|
13
|
Insect haemolymph: Cooperation between humoral and cellular factors in Locusta migratoria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-1790(89)90076-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
14
|
Nappi AJ, Christensen BM, Tracy JW. Quantitative analysis of hemolymph monophenol oxidase activity in immune reactive Aedes aegypti. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-1790(87)90036-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
15
|
Microbial activation of two serine enzymes and prophenoloxidase in the plasma fraction of hemolymph of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-1790(86)90031-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
16
|
|
17
|
Ashida M, Ishizaki Y, Iwahana H. Activation of pro-phenoloxidase by bacterial cell walls or beta-1,3-glucans in plasma of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1983; 113:562-8. [PMID: 6409105 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(83)91762-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Silkworm hemolymph plasma contains pro-phenoloxidase and the activating system for the pro-enzyme. The latter was triggered by elicitors such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacterial cell wall, glucans with beta-1,3-glycosidic linkages and denatured lipophorin, which is one of silkworm plasma proteins, but not by lipopolysaccharide, dextram sulfate, kaolin or inulin. Calcium was required for the elicitors to activate the system. However, putative pro-PO activating enzyme, which activity is induced in plasma by the action of the elicitors, could activate pro-PO in the absence of the ion, suggesting that at least two reaction steps are involved in the activation reaction of pro-PO in plasma. The activating enzyme was completely inhibited in the presence of p-NPGB, an inhibitor for serine protease.
Collapse
|
18
|
Ashida M. A cane sugar factor suppressing activation of prophenoloxidase in haemolymph of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1981. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-1790(81)90041-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|