Determination of psychotropic phenylalkylamine derivatives in biological matrices by high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode-array detection

New mescaline concentrations from 14 taxa/cultivars of Echinopsis spp. (Cactaceae) ("San Pedro") and their relevance to shamanic practice

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the present study is to determine in a procedurally uniform manner the mescaline concentrations in stem tissue of 14 taxa/cultivars of the subgenus Trichocereus of the genus Echinopsis (Cactaceae) and to evaluate the relationship (if any) between mescaline concentration and actual shamanic use of these plants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Columnar cacti of the genus Echinopsis, some of which are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes by South American shamans in traditional medicine, were selected for analysis because they were vegetative clones of plants of documented geographic origin and/or because they were known to be used by practitioners of shamanism. Mescaline content of the cortical stem chlorenchyma of each cactus was determined by Soxhlet extraction with methanol, followed by acid-base extraction with water and dichloromethane, and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).

RESULTS

By virtue of the consistent analytical procedures used, comparable alkaloid concentrations were obtained that facilitated the ranking of the various selected species and cultivars of Echinopsis, all of which exhibited positive mescaline contents. The range of mescaline concentrations across the 14 taxa/cultivars spanned two orders of magnitude, from 0.053% to 4.7% by dry weight.

CONCLUSIONS

The mescaline concentrations reported here largely support the hypothesis that plants with the highest mescaline concentrations - particularly E. pachanoi from Peru - are most associated with documented shamanic use.

Detection and validated quantification of nine herbal phenalkylamines and methcathinone in human blood plasma by LC-MS/MS with electrospray ionization

The herbal stimulants Ephedra species, Catha edulis (khat), and Lophophora williamsii (peyote) have been abused for a long time. In recent years, the herbal drug market has grown owing to publicity on the Internet. Some ingredients of these plants are also ingredients of cold remedies. The aim of the presented study is to develop a multianalyte procedure for detection and validated quantification of the phenalkylamines ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, norephedrine, norpseudoephedrine, methylephedrine, methylpseudoephedrine, cathinone, mescaline, synephrine (oxedrine), and methcathinone in plasma. After mixed-mode solid-phase extraction of 1 ml of plasma, the analytes were separated using a strong cation exchange separation column and gradient elution. They were detected using a Q-Trap LC-ESI-MS/MS system (MRM mode). Calibration curves were used for quantification using norephedrine-d3, ephedrine-d3, and mescaline-d9 as internal standards. The method was validated according to international guidelines. The assay was selective for the tested compounds. It was linear from 10 to 1000 ng/ml for all analytes. The recoveries were generally higher than 70%. Accuracy ranged from - 0.8 to 20.0%, repeatability from 2.5 to 12.3%, and intermediate precision from 4.6 to 20.0%. The lower limit of quantification was 10 ng/ml for all analytes. No instability was observed after repeated freezing and thawing or in processed samples. The applicability of the assay was tested by analysis of authentic plasma samples after ingestion of different cold medications containing ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, and after ingestion of an aqueous extract of Herba Ephedra. After ingestion of the cold medications, only the corresponding single alkaloids were detected in human plasma, whereas after ingestion of the herb extract, all six ephedrines contained in the plant were detected. The presented LC-MS/MS assay was found applicable for sensitive detection and accurate and precise quantification of all studied analytes in plasma.

MDMA administration to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats results in its passage to the fetal compartment

Recent investigations have demonstrated that prenatal 3,4-methylenedeoxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) exposure in rats results in significant and persistent changes in the developing brain. However, no published pharmacokinetic studies exist demonstrating that MDMA administered during pregnancy passes to the fetal compartment. This leaves open the question whether MDMA is directly acting on the fetal brain to produce the observed changes in previous studies, or whether such effects are an indirect result of MDMA administration to the pregnant dam. Therefore, pregnant rats were administered a single dose of MDMA (15 mg/kg, subcutaneous) at embryonic day 14 (E14) and the levels of MDMA and its metabolite 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) were quantified in maternal plasma, amniotic fluid, and fetal brain over 8 h by HPLC. The time course of MDMA and MDA metabolism was reliable and reproducible in all tissues. There was a strong correlation between fetal amniotic fluid and fetal brain suggesting that amniotic fluid could be used to reliably estimate fetal brain levels without directly utilizing fetal brain tissue. These data also provide a framework for subsequent in vitro cell culture studies using biologically relevant MDMA doses.

Hallucinogenic botanicals of America: A growing need for focused drug education and research

Botanical sources for medicines in America have been known since long before the arrival of Columbus. Nevertheless, both scientists and the general public are often unaware that some of these botanical drugs are also potent intoxicants. We provide a quick overview of hallucinogenic and dissociative drugs harvested from nature or that are openly and legally cultivated in the United States. Examples of harmful outcomes reported in the media are contrasted with existing responsible ingestion by others, some of whom have the protected right to do so for traditional or sacramental religious purposes. Despite an ongoing and expensive effort to warn people of the potential harms of recreational drug use, little is known about the extent of use of these psychoactive botanicals, and the recent explosion of information available via the Internet could herald a storm of morbidity to come. Mounting more targeted research and educational efforts today may reduce later use and abuse, inform society about the special circumstances of religious use, and better prepare clinicians and other health care providers about the issues involved when people choose to indigenously source psychoactive drugs for human consumption.

Screening for and validated quantification of phenethylamine-type designer drugs and mescaline in human blood plasma by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

In recent years, several newer designer drugs of the so-called 2C series such as 2C-D, 2C-E, 2C-P, 2C-B, 2C-I, 2C-T-2, and 2C-T-7 have entered the illicit drug market as recreational drugs. Some fatal intoxications involving 2C-T-7 have been reported. Only scarce data have been published about analyses of these substances in human blood and/or plasma. This paper describes a method for screening and simultaneous quantification of the above-mentioned compounds and their analog mescaline in human blood plasma. The analytes were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in the selected-ion monitoring mode, after mixed-mode solid-phase extraction (HCX) and derivatization with heptafluorobutyric anhydride. The method was fully validated according to international guidelines. Validation data for 2C-T-2 and 2C-T-7 were unacceptable. For all other analytes, the method was linear from 5 to 500 microg/L and the data for accuracy (bias) and precision (coefficient of variation) were within the acceptance limits of +/-15% and <15%, respectively (within +/-20% and <20% near the limit of quantification of 5 microg/L).

Hallucinogens and dissociative agents naturally growing in the United States

It is usually believed that drugs of abuse are smuggled into the United States or are clandestinely produced for illicit distribution. Less well known is that many hallucinogens and dissociative agents can be obtained from plants and fungi growing wild or in gardens. Some of these botanical sources can be located throughout the United States; others have a more narrow distribution. This article reviews plants containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine, reversible type A monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI), lysergic acid amide, the anticholinergic drugs atropine and scopolamine, or the diterpene salvinorin-A (Salvia divinorum). Also reviewed are mescaline-containing cacti, psilocybin/psilocin-containing mushrooms, and the Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina mushrooms that contain muscimol and ibotenic acid. Dangerous misidentification is most common with the mushrooms, but even a novice forager can quickly learn how to properly identify and prepare for ingestion many of these plants. Moreover, through the ever-expanding dissemination of information via the Internet, this knowledge is being obtained and acted upon by more and more individuals. This general overview includes information on the geographical range, drug content, preparation, intoxication, and the special health risks associated with some of these plants. Information is also offered on the unique issue of when bona fide religions use such plants as sacraments in the United States. In addition to the Native American Church's (NAC) longstanding right to peyote, two religions of Brazilian origin, the Santo Daime and the Uniao do Vegetal (UDV), are seeking legal protection in the United States for their use of sacramental dimethyltryptamine-containing "ayahuasca."

A sensitive method for determining levels of [-]-2,5,-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine in the brain tissue

INTRODUCTION

Indolamine and phenethylamine hallucinogens are drugs of abuse and, as well, mimic some aspects of idiopathic psychosis. To assist in investigating the mechanisms of action of (-)2,5-dimethoxy4-methylamphetamine ([-]-DOM), a member of the phenethylamine class of serotonergic hallucinogens, a sensitive and precise method for determining its levels in the brain tissue is required.

METHODS

We now describe a method for determining nanogram quantities of [-]-DOM in the rat brain tissue using D-amphetamine as an intemal standard. The method employs solvent extraction with toluene and derivatization with trifluoroacetic acid anhydride (TFAA) followed by analysis using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GS-MS) in the selective ion monitoring (SIM) mode.

RESULTS

With SIM detection, our overall recoveries were greater than 90%. The method was reliable in terms of within-day and between-day precision, accuracy, and linearity. The procedure was applied to animal subjects to determine the in vivo [-]-DOM brain levels following intraperitoneal (ip) administration. Our findings indicate that peak levels of [-]-DOM do not coincide with the 75-min pretreatment time established by drug-induced stimulus control.

DISCUSSION

This study demonstrates a sensitive and precise analytical method for the determination of [-]-DOM levels in the rat brain following systemic administration of behaviorally relevant doses.

Determination of the Designer Drugs 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine, and 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine with HPLC and Fluorescence Detection in Whole Blood, Serum, Vitreous Humor, and Urine

Background: The popular designer drugs 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) can be determined in serum, whole blood, and urine, but also in vitreous humor. The latter matrix is interesting when dealing with decomposed bodies in a toxicological setting.

Methods: After extraction, chromatographic separation was achieved on a narrow-bore C18 column by gradient elution with fluorometric detection; results were confirmed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

Results: The method was linear over the range of 2–1000 μg/L for whole blood, serum, and vitreous humor, and 0.1–5 mg/L for urine. Extraction recoveries were &gt;70%, imprecision (CV) was 2.5–19%, and analytical recoveries were 95.5–104.4%. The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantification (LOQ) were 0.8 and 2 μg/L, respectively, for whole blood, serum, and vitreous humor, and 2.5 μg/L and 0.1 mg/L, respectively, for urine. Excellent correlations between the quantitative LC-fluorescence and LC-MS/MS results were obtained. We found the following concentrations in a thanatochemical distribution study in rabbits: in serum, 5.3–685 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 14.5 μg/L for 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA); in whole blood, 19.7–710 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 17.8 μg/L for MDA; in vitreous humor, 12.1–97.8 μg/L for MDMA and from the LOQ to 3.86 μg/L for MDA. In routine toxicological urine samples, concentrations ranged from LOQ to 14.62 mg/L for MDA, from LOQ to 157 mg/L for MDMA, and from LOQ to 32.54 mg/L for MDEA.

Conclusions: The HPLC method described is sensitive, specific, and suitable for the determination of MDMA, MDEA, and MDA in whole blood, serum, vitreous humor, and urine.

Quantification of methamphetamine, amphetamine and enantiomers by semi-micro column HPLC with fluorescence detection; applications on abusers' single hair analyses

Achiral and chiral semi-micro column high-performance liquid chromatographic methods with fluorescence detection to determine methamphetamine and amphetamine in human hair are described. These compounds were extracted into 5% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) in methanol, derivatized with 4-(4,5-diphenyl-1H-imidazol-2-yl)-benzoyl chloride and separated either on a 250 x 1.5 mm i.d. octadecyl-silane (ODS) or a 150 x 2 mm i.d. OD-RH column. Linear calibration curves extending over a wide range of concentration that covers the practical samples were obtained for amphetamine, methamphetamine and their enantiomers (r = 0.999). Resolution values for amphetamine and methamphetamine enantiomers were 3.4 and 1.1, respectively. Intra- and inter-day variations of both the methods were not larger than 8.9% expressed as relative standard deviations (n >/= 5). The limits of detection at a signal-to-noise ratio of 3 obtained by both the methods were in the range of 1.0-4.7 fmol/5 microL injection with the achiral method being more sensitive. Abusers' hair samples were analyzed by the two methods and only the S(+)-enantiomers were found in eight Japanese abusers' hair samples. The achiral method was used to study the concentrations of these compounds in single black and white hair strands of abusers.

Quantification of 3,4-methylenedioxymetamphetamine and its metabolites in plasma and urine by gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection

A gas chromatographic method with nitrogen-phosphorus detection involving a solid-liquid extraction phase was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) in plasma. A modification of this method was validated for the analysis of MDMA, MDA, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) and, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA) in urine. Under the analytical conditions described, the limits of detection in plasma and urine were less than 1.6 microg/l and 47 microg/l, respectively, for all the compounds studied. Good linearity was observed in the concentration range evaluated in plasma (5-400 microg/l) and urine (100-2000 microg/l) for all compounds tested. The recoveries obtained from plasma were 85.1% and 91.6% for MDMA and MDA, respectively. Urine recoveries were higher than 90% for MDMA and MDA, 74% for HMMA, and 64% for HMA. Methods have been successfully used in the assessment of plasma and urine concentrations of MDMA and its main metabolites in samples from clinical studies in healthy volunteers.

Determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine and amphetamine-derived designer drugs or medicaments in blood and urine

This paper reviews procedures for the determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine and amphetamine-derived designer drugs or medicaments in blood and urine. Papers published from 1991 to early 1997 were taken into consideration. Gas chromatographic and liquid chromatographic procedures with different detectors (e.g., mass spectrometer or diode array) were considered as well as the seldom used thin-layer chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. Enantioselective procedures are also discussed. A chapter deals with amphetamine-derived medicaments, e.g. anoretics, antiparkinsonians or vasodilators, which are metabolized to amphetamine or methamphetamine. Differentiation of an intake of such medicaments from amphetamine or methamphetamine intake is discussed. Basic information about the biosample assayed, internal standard, work-up, GC column or LC column and mobile phase, detection mode, reference data and validation data of each procedure is summarized in Tables. Examples of typical applications are presented.

Sensitive and selective determination of methylenedioxylated amphetamines by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorimetric detection

A rapid, sensitive and selective liquid chromatographic method with fluorimetric detection was developed for the separation and quantification of four methylenedioxylated amphetamines without interference of other drugs of abuse and common substances found in illicit tablets. The method was validated by examining linearity, precision and accuracy as well as detection and quantification limits. Methylenedioxylated amphetamines were quantified in eight tablets from illicit drug seizures and results were quantitatively compared to HPLC-UV analyses. To demonstrate the better sensitivity of the fluorimetric detection, methylenedioxylated amphetamines were analyzed in serum after a liquid-liquid extraction procedure and results were also compared to HPLC-UV analyses.

Direct chiral resolution of phenylalkylamines using a crown ether chiral stationary phase

A direct, isocratic high-performance liquid chromatographic method is described for the enantiomeric resolution of a number of phenylalkylamines, namely, racemic cathinone, amphetamine, norephedrine, and norphenylephrine, without sample derivatization. The separations were achieved on an S-18-crown-6-ether chiral stationary phase known as CR(+). The chromatographic parameters alpha (separation factor) and Rs (resolution factor) lay within a narrow range for all compounds used in this study except for cathinone, which resulted in high alpha and Rs values. The recognition mechanism for this column involves the interaction of the crown structure with a charged primary ammonium ion. The stereochemical structures of the compounds in this study contribute to the results obtained for the chromatographic parameters, especially in cathinone's case. This paper will discuss the recognition mechanism contributing to the high alpha and Rs, values obtained for cathinone.

Toxicological detection of the designer drug 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE, "Eve") and its metabolites in urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fluorescence polarization immunoassay

Studies are presented on the toxicological detection of the designer drug methylenedioxyethylamphetamine [MDE, rac-N-ethyl-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-propane-2-amine] in urine after a single oral dose of 140 mg of MDE by GC-MS and fluorescence polarization immunoassay (FPIA). After acid hydrolysis, extraction and acetylation MDE and its metabolites could be detected by mass chromatography with the selected ions m/z 72, 86, 114, 150, 162 and 164, followed by identification of the peaks underlying full mass spectra by computer library search. The following metabolites could be detected: unchanged MDE and 3,4-dihydroxyethylamphetamine (DHE) for 33-62 h, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) for 32-36 h and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyethylamphetamine (HME) for 7-8 days. 3,4-Dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), piperonyl acetone, 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl acetone and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl acetone could only be detected in trace amounts within the first few hours. The Abbott TD x FPIA assay amphetamine/metamphetamine II gave positive results in urine for 33-62 h. Therefore, positive immunoassay results could be confirmed by the GC-MS procedure which also allowed the differentiation of MDE and its homologues 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and MDA as well as other amphetamine derivatives interfering with the TD x assay. Furthermore, this GC-MS procedure allowed the simultaneous detection of most of the toxicologically relevant drugs.

On the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine designer drugs by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Designer drugs of the methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine type are increasingly abused. Studies on their metabolism in humans are necessary to develop a reliable gas chromatography--mass spectrometry (GC-MS) screening procedure. Such a method must allow their detection in urine for drug testing in clinical and forensic toxicology. Studies on racemic methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methylenedioxymetamphetamine (MDMA), methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), benzodioxazolylbutanamine (BDB), and N-methylbenzodioxazolylbutanamine (MBDB) are presented. The metabolites were identified by GC-MS after enzymatic hydrolysis, isolation (pH 4.5 and 8-9), and derivatization (acetylation followed by methylation). The drugs undergo two overlapping metabolic pathways: O-dealkylation of the methylenedioxy group to dihydroxy derivatives followed by methylation of one of the hydroxy groups and successive degradation of the side chain to N-dealkyl and deaminooxo metabolites. MDA, MDMA, and MDE are subsequently metabolized to glycine conjugates of the corresponding 3,4-disubstituted benzoic acids. The hydroxy metabolites are excreted in a conjugated form. Based on these results, a GC-MS procedure was developed for simultaneous screening and identification of these designer drugs and/or their metabolites in urine after acid hydrolysis, isolation at pH 8-9, and acetylation. With use of mass chromatography with the most characteristic fragment ions m/z 58, 72, 86, 150, 162, 164, 176, and 178, the presence of the designer drugs was indicated and the peak underlying spectra could be identified by computerized comparison with reference spectra recorded during the presented studies. The procedure was suitable to detect an abuse of or an intoxication with the studied designer drugs (detection limit 5-50 ng/ml).

Improved amphetamine and methamphetamine determination in urine by normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with sodium 1,2-naphthoquinone 4-sulphonate as derivatizing agent and solid-phase extraction for sample clean-up

Solid-phase extraction techniques were evaluated for the treatment of urine samples in the analysis of amphetamine and methamphetamine by normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with 1,2-naphthoquinone 4-sulphonate. Six different packing materials were tested, and the results obtained are compared with those obtained in a classical liquid-liquid extraction with n-hexane. Different clean-up eluents and the influence of pH of urine have been tested. The intra-day and inter-day precision, the accuracy of the method and the addition of beta-phenylethylamine as internal standard were also studied.