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Triple Combination Therapy and Drug Cycling-Tangential Strategies for Countering Artemisinin Resistance. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2017; 19:25. [PMID: 28589330 DOI: 10.1007/s11908-017-0579-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review attempts to understand the reasons for the successes and failures of the two novel strategies that have slowly begun to emerge as potential counters for anti-malarial drug resistance-"Triple Combination Therapy" and "Drug Cycling." RECENT FINDINGS Recent reports have suggested that increasing the heterogeneity within the parasite's environment, both at an individual and the population level, may help raise the probabilistic barrier of development of resistance in the parasite. The encouraging results following the implementation of a few experimental triple combination therapies like atovaquone-proguanil-artesunate along with the re-emergence of chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium falciparum parasites in the sub-Saharan African nations have re-kindled mankind's hope of curbing anti-malarial drug resistance. The addition of a third drug with traits like a medium half-life and benign safety profile is crucial to achieving SERCAP (single encounter radical cure and preventive therapy), the principle of a triple combination therapy. Simultaneously, the plausible reasons behind the re-emergence of chloroquine sensitive Plasmodium falciparum malaria in the high transmission regions could be the re-expansion of an existing chloroquine susceptible parasite reservoir and a greater predisposition towards the development of polyclonal infections. Another potential reason for this observation could be an impaired deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) repair mechanisms in the south-east Asian Plasmodium falciparum parasites. These strategies may potentially emerge as the key players in warding off anti-malarial drug resistance in the near future. However, their implementation would be dictated by a host of factors like the epidemiological knowledge, population pharmacokinetics, drug-resistance patterns, cost, availability, and ease of adherence.
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Knight DJ, Williamson P. The antimalarial activity of N-benzyloxydihydrotriazines. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1980.11687361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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da Silva AFC, Benchimol JL. Malaria and quinine resistance: a medical and scientific issue between Brazil and Germany (1907-19). MEDICAL HISTORY 2014; 58:1-26. [PMID: 24331212 PMCID: PMC3866000 DOI: 10.1017/mdh.2013.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
This article addresses the discussion about quinine-resistant malaria plasmodium in the early decades of the twentieth century. Observed by Arthur Neiva in Rio de Janeiro in 1907, the biological and social resistance of malaria sufferers to preventive and curative treatment with quinine was corroborated three years later by Oswaldo Cruz during the construction of the Madeira-Mamoré Railway in the Brazilian Amazon. Likewise in 1910, ailing German workers were transferred from Brazil to Hamburg's Institute for Maritime and Tropical Diseases, where quinine resistance was confirmed by Bernard Nocht and Heinrich Werner. When the First World War saw failures in treating and preventing malaria with quinine along with violent outbreaks of the disease on the Turkish and Balkan fronts, resistance to this alkaloid became the topic of the day within the field of experimental medicine in Germany. New attempts were made to account for the resistance, especially by the physician Ernst Rodenwaldt, who explored the topic by applying modern theories on heredity. The present article offers a preliminary survey and analysis of pronouncements about quinine resistance, shedding new light on the circulation of knowledge in the field of tropical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Felipe Cândido da Silva
- Department of History, Faculty of Philosophy, Languages and Literature and Human Sciences (FFLCH), University of São Paulo, Av. Professor Luciano Gualberto, 315, Cicade Universitária, CEP: 05508.900, Sao Paulo - SP, Brazil
| | - Jaime Larry Benchimol
- Casa de Oswaldo Cruz – FIOCRUZ, Av. Brasil, 4036/403, CEP 21040.361, Rio de Janeiro - RJ, Brazil
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McGready R, Nosten F. Which drug is effective and safe for acute malaria in pregnancy? Reviewing the evidence. Drug Dev Res 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.20348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kevin Baird
- U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2, Jakarta, Indonesia.
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Abstract
Malaria, the most prevalent and most pernicious parasitic disease of humans, is estimated to kill between one and two million people, mainly children, each year. Resistance has emerged to all classes of antimalarial drugs except the artemisinins and is responsible for a recent increase in malaria-related mortality, particularly in Africa. The de novo emergence of resistance can be prevented by the use of antimalarial drug combinations. Artemisinin-derivative combinations are particularly effective, since they act rapidly and are well tolerated and highly effective. Widespread use of these drugs could roll back malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J White
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Abstract
Antimalarial drug resistance emerges de novo predominantly in areas of low malaria transmission. Because of the logarithmic distribution of parasite numbers in human malaria infections, inadequately treated high biomass infections are a major source of de novo antimalarial resistance, whereas use of antimalarial prophylaxis provides a low resistance selection risk. Slowly eliminated antimalarials encourage resistance largely by providing a selective filter for resistant parasites acquired from others, and not by selecting resistance de novo. The de novo emergence of resistance can be prevented by use of antimalarial combinations. Artemisinin derivative combinations are particularly effective. Ensuring adequate treatment of the relatively few heavily infected patients would slow the emergence of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J White
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, 420/6 Rajvithi Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand.
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Abstract
The recent advances in immunology and biotechnology have stimulated much research on the control of parasitic diseases through vaccination. This is a review of the state of the art regarding important protozoan and arthropod veterinary parasites. A live oocyst vaccine for avian coccidiosis is still in use but much work has been done on the identification, cloning, and assay of protective antigens. The sporozoites of Eimeria tenella have been the preferred subject and at least four recombinant antigens have already been tested with partial success. Premunization against babesiosis is still widely used in Latin America as is a live vaccine with attenuated parasites in Australia. At least three Babesia bovis and three Babesia bigemina antigens that generate partial protection have been produced as recombinant proteins. A vaccine against canine babesiosis is being commercialized in France. Infection-treatment is still used to vaccinate against Theileria parva and a schizont vaccine against Theileria annulata. Recombinant sporozoite antigens have been assayed with partial success against both species but the identification and administration of protective schizont antigens, regarded as the most important, still requires considerable work. The immunological control of African trypanosomoses is still impaired by the antigenic variation that the parasites experience during the infection. Although some possibilities exist, most specialists are pessimistic about the promise of developing a vaccine in the near future. Control of Boophilus ticks with an occult tick intestine recombinant antigen seems to have potential in inhibiting reproduction of the tick but salivary antigens appear to be more effective at inhibiting feeding and pathogen transmission. Vaccination with a Hypoderma protein, recently cloned, has induced 90% protection against subsequent infestations. It is very likely that effective vaccines against veterinary parasites will become available in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- O O Barriga
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus 43210
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Abstract
Drug resistance of Plasmodium falciparum is not a recent phenomenon, but it became a major problem when the parasite became resistant to chloroquine, the cheapest and initially the most effective antimalarial compound that could be used for treatment and suppression. In some areas this problem is compounded by resistance to the first line of alternative drugs, and rapid loss of sensitivity to the next line. The dynamics of drug resistance are regulated mainly by drug related selection pressure and intensity of malaria transmission. Mass drug administration in its various forms, and insufficient treatment are obviously the most important motors of selection.
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Alin MH, Björkman A, Ashton M. In vitro activity of artemisinin, its derivatives, and pyronaridine against different strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1990; 84:635-7. [PMID: 2278058 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(90)90129-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The activities of artemisinin (qinghaosu), dihydroartemisinin (dihydroqinghaosu), artemether and pyronaridine were tested in a 48 h in vitro assay against 3 chloroquine-sensitive and one chloroquine-resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Growth inhibition was modelled with a sigmoid Emax model. All compounds markedly inhibited the growth of all strains although, for the chloroquine-resistant strain, merozoites were detected at concentrations as high as 10(-4) M of artemisinin, dihydroartemisinin and artemether. Dihydroartemisinin, artemether and pyronaridine appeared to be more potent than artemisinin, with EC50 values of 4.7-23 nM, 0.98-6.1 nM and 4.4-18 nM respectively, while the EC50 value of artemisinin was 3-108 nM against all 4 strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Alin
- Department of Morphology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Somali National University, Mugadishu
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Chemoprophylaxis and treatment of malaria. N Engl J Med 1989; 320:1561. [PMID: 2657426 DOI: 10.1056/nejm198906083202318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Peto TE, Gilks CF. Strategies for the prevention of malaria in travellers: comparison of drug regimens by means of risk-benefit analysis. Lancet 1986; 1:1256-61. [PMID: 2872399 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(86)91395-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A risk-benefit analysis has been used to balance the risks to travellers of death from malaria against the toxicity of various drug regimens. The mortality of travellers who take no prophylaxis is estimated to be surprisingly low, and it is concluded that most travellers, even in areas of drug resistance should take only non-toxic drugs, such as a combination of chloroquine and proguanil.
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Hung J, Werbel LM. Investigations into the synthesis of 6-ethyl-5-(4-pyridinyl)-2,4-pyrimidinediamine as a potential antimalarial agent. J Heterocycl Chem 1984. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.5570210321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Bhat BK, Seth M, Bhaduri AP. Recent developments in 8-aminoquinoline antimalarials. PROGRESS IN DRUG RESEARCH. FORTSCHRITTE DER ARZNEIMITTELFORSCHUNG. PROGRES DES RECHERCHES PHARMACEUTIQUES 1984; 28:197-231. [PMID: 6207558 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0348-7118-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Alencar FH, Ferraroni JJ, Shrimpton R. [Resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to fansidar, quinine and tetracycline]. Rev Saude Publica 1982; 16:299-302. [PMID: 6762641 DOI: 10.1590/s0034-89101982000500005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Descreve-se pela primeira vez uma cêpa amazônica de Plasmodium falciparum resistente ao Fansidar (pirimetamina mais sulfadoxina) e quinino mais tetraciclina simultaneamente. O paciente, com 13 anos de idade, residia há cinco anos em Ariquemes, Estado de Rondônia, na Amazônia brasileira. A infecção foi curada com dose elevada de cloroquina administrada em dose única intravenosa (IV). É evidenciado o alto valor da cloroquina na cura da malária falciparum resistente, quando administrada em doses maiores que as usadas nos esquemas convencionais de tratamento.
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Masaba SC, Spencer HC. Sensitivity of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine in Busia District, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1982; 76:314-6. [PMID: 7051452 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(82)90178-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Individuals infected with Plasmodium falciparum were randomly divided into two groups; one group was treated with a single dose of 10 mg chloroquine base per kg. body-weight and the other with 25 mg base of chloroquine per kg body-weight given over three days, followed by an observation period of seven days. By Day 3 of observation complete parasite clearance had occurred in all the 125 triple dose recipients and 113 of 114 (99.1%) of those who had the single dose. 94.4% of 36 isolates tested in vitro by the macrotechnique were sensitive to drug concentration of 0.75 nmol/ml blood or less. On isolate was relatively less sensitive and required a concentration of chloroquine of 1.50 nmol/ml to inhibit schizont growth. However, the same isolate responded well to 25 mg base of chloroquine. These findings have demonstrated that, at present, isolates of P. falciparum in Busia District are sensitive to the standard dose of 10 mg chloroquine base and there is no reason therefore to resort to alternative antimalaria drugs. These should be reserved for special cases only.
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Charters AD, Davis RE. A SURVEY OF IMPORTED MALARIA IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA INCLUDING FOUR CASES OF DRUG RESISTANCE*. Med J Aust 1974. [DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.1974.tb93173.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Drug Resistance in Malaria. Med Chem 1972. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-688950-5.50009-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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McKelvey TP, Lundie AR, Vanreenen RM, Williams ED, Moore HS, Thomas MJ, Worsley DE, Crawford IP. Chloroquine-resistant falciparum malaria among British service personnel in West Malaysia and Singapore. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1971; 65:286-309. [PMID: 4934534 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(71)90003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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Richards WH. The combined action of pyrimidines and sulfonamides or sulfones in the chemotherapy of malaria and other protozoal infections. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY AND CHEMOTHERAPY 1971; 8:121-47. [PMID: 5002795 DOI: 10.1016/s1054-3589(08)60595-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Pinder RM. Recent advances in the chemotherapy of malaria. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 1971; 8:231-316. [PMID: 4947769 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6468(08)70131-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Bruce-Chwatt LJ. Resistance of P. falciparum to chloroquine in Africa: true or false? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1970; 64:776-84. [PMID: 5500542 DOI: 10.1016/0035-9203(70)90022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
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Ramkaran AE, Peters W. Infectivity of chloroquine resistant Plasmodium berghei to Anopheles stephensi enhanced by chloroquine. Nature 1969; 223:635-6. [PMID: 5799541 DOI: 10.1038/223635a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Langman MJ. Faecal blood-loss after sodium acetylsalicylate taken with alcohol. Lancet 1969; 2:54-5. [PMID: 4182812 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(69)92619-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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