Mechanisms of polymer degradation in implantable devices. I. Poly(caprolactone)

Development of novel hybrid 3D-printed degradable artificial joints incorporating electrospun pharmaceutical- and growth factor-loaded nanofibers for small joint reconstruction

Small joint reconstruction remains challenging and can lead to prosthesis-related complications, mainly due to the suboptimal performance of the silicone materials used and adverse host reactions. In this study, we developed hybrid artificial joints using three-dimensional printing (3D printing) for polycaprolactone (PCL) and incorporated electrospun nanofibers loaded with drugs and biomolecules for small joint reconstruction. We evaluated the mechanical properties of the degradable joints and the drug discharge patterns of the nanofibers. Empirical data revealed that the 3D-printed PCL joints exhibited good mechanical and fatigue properties. The drug-eluting nanofibers sustainedly released teicoplanin, ceftazidime, and ketorolac in vitro for over 30, 19, and 30 days, respectively. Furthermore, the nanofibers released high levels of bone morphogenetic protein-2 and connective tissue growth factors for over 30 days. An in vivo animal test demonstrated that nanofiber-loaded joints released high concentrations of antibiotics and analgesics in a rabbit model for 28 days. The animals in the drug-loaded degradable joint group showed greater activity counts than those in the surgery-only group. The experimental data suggest that degradable joints with sustained release of drugs and biomolecules may be utilized in small joint arthroplasty.

High dose, dual-release polymeric films for extended surgical bed paclitaxel delivery

While surgery represents a major therapy for most solid organ cancers, local recurrence is clinically problematic for cancers such as sarcoma for which adjuvant radiotherapy and systemic chemotherapy provide minimal local control or survival benefit and are dose-limited due to off-target side effects. We describe an implantable, biodegradable poly(1,2-glycerol carbonate) and poly(caprolactone) film with entrapped and covalently-bound paclitaxel enabling safe, controlled, and extended local delivery of paclitaxel achieving concentrations 10,000× tissue levels compared to systemic administration. Films containing entrapped and covalently-bound paclitaxel implanted in the tumor bed, immediately after resection of human cell line-derived chondrosarcoma and patient-derived xenograft liposarcoma and leiomyosarcoma in mice, improve median 90- or 200-day recurrence-free and overall survival compared to control mice. Furthermore, mice in the experimental film arm show no film-related morbidity. Continuous, extended, high-dose paclitaxel delivery via this unique polymer platform safely improves outcomes in three different sarcoma models and provides a rationale for future incorporation into human trials.

Ester Bond: Chemically Labile Yet Mechanically Stable

Due to the dynamic nature of ester linkages, ester-bond-containing materials are well known for their outstanding degradability and stimuli responsiveness. However, whether ester hydrolysis is affected by mechanical forces remains unclear. Here, we develop a single-molecule assay to quantitatively study the force-dependent ester hydrolysis using an engineered circular permutant protein with a caged ester bond as a model. Our single-molecule force spectroscopy results show that the ester hydrolysis rate is surprisingly insensitive to forces, with a ∼7 s-1 dissociation rate that remains almost unchanged in the force range of 80 to 200 pN. Quantum calculations reveal that the ester hydrolysis involves an intermediate state formed by either H3O+- or OH--bonded tetrahedral intermediates. The measured ester-hydrolysis kinetics at the single-molecule level may primarily correspond to the rupture of these intermediate states. However, the rate-limiting step appears to be the formation of the tetrahedral intermediates, which cannot be quantitatively characterized in our experiments. Nonetheless, based on the quantum calculations, this step is also insensitive to applied forces. Altogether, our study suggests that the ester bond is chemically labile yet mechanically stable, serving as the basis for the design of responsive materials using ester bonds as mechanically inert units.

Controlled Degradation of Polycaprolactone Polymers through Ultrasound Stimulation

This study describes the development of an ultrasound-responsive polymer system that provides on-demand degradation when exposed to high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU). Diels-Alder cycloadducts were used to crosslink polycaprolactone (PCL) polymers and underwent a retro Diels-Alder reaction when stimulated with HIFU. Two Diels-Alder polymer compositions were explored to evaluate the link between reverse reaction energy barriers and polymer degradation rates. PCL crosslinked with isosorbide was also used as a non-Diels-Alder-based control polymer. An increase of HIFU exposure time and amplitude correlated with an increase of PCL degradation for Diels-Alder-based polymers. Ultrasound imaging during HIFU allowed for real-time visualization of the on-demand degradation through cavitation-based mechanisms. The temperature surrounding the sample was monitored with a thermocouple during HIFU stimulation; a minimal increase in temperature was observed. PCL polymers were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), optical profilometry, and mechanical testing. PCL degradation byproducts were identified by mass spectrometry, and their cytocompatibility was evaluated in vitro. Overall, this study demonstrated that HIFU is an effective image-guided, external stimulus to control the degradation of Diels-Alder-based PCL polymers on-demand.

Three-Dimensional Fluorescent Imaging to Identify Multi-Paths in Polymer Aging

It is of great significance to disclose the diverse aging pathways for polymers under multiple factors, so as to predict and control the potential aging evolution. However, the current methods fail to distinguish multiple pathways (multi-paths) of polymer aging due to the lack of spatiotemporal resolution. In this work, using polyimide as a model polymer, the hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino groups from the polyimide aging process were labeled using specific fluorescent probes through boron-oxygen, imine, and thiourea linkages, respectively. When the excitation and emission wavelengths of each fluorescent probe were controlled, the multi-paths in polyimide aging can be visualized individually and simultaneously in three-dimensional fluorescent images. The overall aging process under hydrothermal treatment was destructured into the pyrolysis and hydrolysis pathways. Three-dimensional dynamic studies discovered that the increased humidity, along with the decreased oxygen content, could hamper the pyrolysis reaction and accelerate the hydrolysis reaction, leading to severe degradation of the overall polyimide aging. More importantly, the oxygen showed a higher regulation coefficient in accelerating the pyrolysis reaction, than the water vapor in motivating the hydrolysis reactions. Such a multidimensional identification methodology is able to guide the long-term use of polymers and control their aging process to a harmless direction in advance by tuning the contents of oxygen and water vapor.

Progressing Plastics Circularity: A Review of Mechano-Biocatalytic Approaches for Waste Plastic (Re)valorization

Inspirational concepts, and the transfer of analogs from natural biology to science and engineering, has produced many excellent technologies to date, spanning vaccines to modern architectural feats. This review highlights that answers to the pressing global petroleum-based plastic waste challenges, can be found within the mechanics and mechanisms natural ecosystems. Here, a suite of technological and engineering approaches, which can be implemented to operate in tandem with nature's prescription for regenerative material circularity, is presented as a route to plastics sustainability. A number of mechanical/green chemical (pre)treatment methodologies, which simulate natural weathering and arthropodal dismantling activities are reviewed, including: mechanical milling, reactive extrusion, ultrasonic-, UV- and degradation using supercritical CO2. Akin to natural mechanical degradation, the purpose of the pretreatments is to render the plastic materials more amenable to microbial and biocatalytic activities, to yield effective depolymerization and (re)valorization. While biotechnological based degradation and depolymerization of both recalcitrant and bioplastics are at a relatively early stage of development, the potential for acceleration and expedition of valuable output monomers and oligomers yields is considerable. To date a limited number of independent mechano-green chemical approaches and a considerable and growing number of standalone enzymatic and microbial degradation studies have been reported. A convergent strategy, one which forges mechano-green chemical treatments together with the enzymatic and microbial actions, is largely lacking at this time. An overview of the reported microbial and enzymatic degradations of petroleum-based synthetic polymer plastics, specifically: low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethanes (PU) and polycaprolactone (PCL) and selected prevalent bio-based or bio-polymers [polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and polybutylene succinate (PBS)], is detailed. The harvesting of depolymerization products to produce new materials and higher-value products is also a key endeavor in effectively completing the circle for plastics. Our challenge is now to effectively combine and conjugate the requisite cross disciplinary approaches and progress the essential science and engineering technologies to categorically complete the life-cycle for plastics.

Electrospun biodegradable poly(ε-caprolactone) membranes for annulus fibrosus repair: Long-term material stability and mechanical competence

BACKGROUND

Electrospun (ES) poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) is widely used to provide critical mechanical support in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Therefore, there is a clear need for understanding the change in the mechanical response of the membranes as the material degrades in physiological conditions.

STUDY DESIGN

ES membranes with fiber diameters from 1.6 to 6.7 μm were exposed to in vitro conditions at 37°C in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) or dry for up to 6 months.

METHODS

During this period, the mechanical properties were assessed using cyclic mechanical loading, and material properties such as crystallinity and ester bond degradation were measured.

RESULTS

No significant difference was found for any parameters between samples kept dry and in DMEM. The increase in crystallinity was linear with time, while the ester bond degradation showed an inverse logarithmic correlation with time. All samples showed an increase in modulus with exposure time for the first loading cycle. Modulus changes for the consecutive loading cycles showed a nonlinear relationship to the exposure time that depended on membrane type and maximum strain. In addition, the recovered elastic range showed an expected increase with the maximum strain reached. The mechanical response of ES membranes was compared to experimental tensile properties of the human annulus fibrosus tissue and an in silico model of the intervertebral disk. The modulus of the tested membranes was at the lower range of the values found in literature, while the elastically recoverable strain after preconditioning for all membrane types lies within the desired strain range for this application.

CONCLUSION

The long-term assessment under application-specific conditions allowed to establish the mechanical competence of the electrospun PCL membranes. It can be concluded that with the use of appropriate fixation, the membranes can be used to create a seal on the damaged AF.

Biomanufacturing organized collagen-based microfibers as a Tissue ENgineered Device (TEND) for tendon regeneration

Approximately 800, 000 surgical repairs are performed annually in the U.S. for debilitating injuries to ligaments and tendons of the foot, ankle, knee, wrist, elbow and shoulder, presenting a significant healthcare burden. To overcome current treatment shortcomings and advance the treatment of tendon and ligament injuries, we have developed a novel electrospun Tissue ENgineered Device (TEND), comprised of type I collagen and poly(D,L-lactide) (PDLLA) solubilized in a benign solvent, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). TEND fiber alignment, diameter and porosity were engineered to enhance cell infiltration leading to promote tissue integration and functional remodeling while providing biomechanical stability. TEND rapidly adsorbs blood and platelet-rich-plasma (PRP), and gradually releases growth factors over two weeks. TEND further supported cellular alignment and upregulation of tenogenic genes from clinically relevant human stem cells within three days of culture. TEND implanted in a rabbit Achilles tendon injury model showed new in situ tissue generation, maturation, and remodeling of dense, regularly oriented connective tissue in vivo. In all, TEND's organized microfibers, biological fluid and cell compatibility, strength and biocompatiblility make significant progress towards clinically translating electrospun collagen-based medical devices for improving the clinical outcomes of tendon injuries.

A Tuneable, Photocurable, Poly(Caprolactone)-Based Resin for Tissue Engineering-Synthesis, Characterisation and Use in Stereolithography

Stereolithography is a useful additive manufacturing technique for the production of scaffolds for tissue engineering. Here we present a tuneable, easy-to-manufacture, photocurable resin for use in stereolithography, based on the widely used biomaterial, poly(caprolactone) (PCL). PCL triol was methacrylated to varying degrees and mixed with photoinitiator to produce a photocurable prepolymer resin, which cured under UV light to produce a cytocompatible material. This study demonstrates that poly(caprolactone) methacrylate (PCLMA) can be produced with a range of mechanical properties and degradation rates. By increasing the degree of methacrylation (DM) of the prepolymer, the Young's modulus of the crosslinked PCLMA could be varied from 0.12-3.51 MPa. The accelerated degradation rate was also reduced from complete degradation in 17 days to non-significant degradation in 21 days. The additive manufacturing capabilities of the resin were demonstrated by the production of a variety of different 3D structures using micro-stereolithography. Here, β-carotene was used as a novel, cytocompatible photoabsorber and enabled the production of complex geometries by giving control over cure depth. The PCLMA presented here offers an attractive, tuneable biomaterial for the production of tissue engineering scaffolds for a wide range of applications.

Poly(ε-caprolactone-co-p-dioxanone): a Degradable and Printable Copolymer for Pliable 3D Scaffolds Fabrication toward Adipose Tissue Regeneration

The advancement of 3D printing technologies in the fabrication of degradable scaffolds for tissue engineering includes, from the standpoint of the polymer chemists, an urgent need to develop new materials that can be used as ink and are suitable for medical applications. Here, we demonstrate that a copolymer of ε-caprolactone (CL) with low amounts of p-dioxanone (DX) (15 mol %) is a degradable and printable material that suits the requirements of melt extrusion 3D printing technologies, including negligible degradation during thermal processing. It is therefore a potential candidate for soft tissue regeneration. The semicrystalline CL/DX copolymer is processed at a lower temperature than a commercial polycaprolactone (PCL), shaped as a filament for melt extrusion 3D printing and as porous and pliable scaffolds with a gradient design. Scaffolds have Young's modulus in the range of 60-80 MPa, values suitable for provision of structural support for damaged soft tissue such as breast tissue. SEM and confocal microscope indicate that the CL/DX copolymer scaffolds support adipose stem cell attachment, spreading, and proliferation.

Polyurethane End-Capped by Tetramethylpyrazine-Nitrone for Promoting Endothelialization Under Oxidative Stress

Thrombus and restenosis are two main factors that cause the failure of vascular implants. Constructing a functional and confluent layer of endothelial cells (ECs) is considered an ideal method to prevent these problems. However, oxidative stress induced by the disease and implantation can damage ECs and hinder the endothelialization of implants. Thus, developing biomaterials that can protect ECs adhesion and proliferation from oxidative stress is urgently needed for the rapid endothelialization of vascular implants. In this work, a novel polyurethane (PU-TBN) is synthesized by employing tetramethylpyrazine-nitrone (TBN) as end-group to endow polymers with dual functions of antioxidant activity and promoting endothelialization. Common PU without TBN is also prepared to be control. Compared to PU, PU-TBN significantly promotes human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) adhesion and proliferation, where cells spread well and a confluent endothelial layer is formed. PU-TBN also shows obvious free radical scavenging activity, and thus effectively attenuates oxidative stress to protect HUVECs from oxidative apoptosis. Moreover, PU-TBN exhibits enhanced antiplatelets effect, excellent biocompatibility, and similar mechanical properties to PU. These characteristics can endow PU-TBN with great potential to be used as vascular implants or coatings of other materials for rapid endothelialization under complex oxidative stress environment.

Enhancing the Properties of Poly(ε-caprolactone) by Simple and Effective Random Copolymerization of ε-Caprolactone with p-Dioxanone

We have developed a straightforward strategy to obtain semicrystalline and random copolymers of ε-caprolactone (CL) and p-dioxanone (DX) with thermal stabilities similar to poly(ε-caprolactone), PCL, but with a faster hydrolytic degradation rate. CL/DX copolymers are promising inks when printing scaffolds aimed for tissue engineering. Such copolymers behave similar to PCL and resorb faster. The copolymers were synthesized by bulk ring-opening copolymerization, achieving a high yield; a molecular weight, M_n, of 57-176 kg mol^-1; and an inherent viscosity of 1.7-1.9 dL g^-1. The copolymer microstructure consisted of long CL blocks that are separated by isolated DX units. The block length and the melting point were a linear function of the DX content. The copolymers crystallize as an orthorhombic lattice that is typical for PCL, and they formed more elastic, softer, and less hydrophobic films with faster degradation rates than PCL. Relatively high thermal degradation temperatures (above 250 °C), similar to PCL, were estimated by thermogravimetric analysis, and copolymer filaments for three-dimensional printing and scaffolds were produced without thermal degradation.

Redox-Responsive Nanoparticle-Mediated Systemic RNAi for Effective Cancer Therapy

Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) have demonstrated significant potential to improve the systemic delivery of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics, such as small interfering RNA (siRNA), for cancer therapy. However, the slow and inefficient siRNA release inside tumor cells generally observed for most biodegradable polymeric NPs may result in compromised gene silencing efficacy. Herein, a biodegradable and redox-responsive NP platform, composed of a solid poly(disulfide amide) (PDSA)/cationic lipid core and a lipid-poly(ethylene glycol) (lipid-PEG) shell for systemic siRNA delivery to tumor cells, is developed. This newly generated NP platform can efficiently encapsulate siRNA under extracellular environments and can respond to the highly concentrated glutathione (GSH) in the cytoplasm to induce fast intracellular siRNA release. By screening a library of PDSA polymers with different structures and chain lengths, the optimized NP platform shows the unique features of i) long blood circulation, ii) high tumor accumulation, iii) fast GSH-triggered intracellular siRNA release, and iv) exceptionally effective gene silencing. Together with the facile polymer synthesis technique and robust NP formulation enabling scale-up, this new redox-responsive NP platform may become an effective tool for RNAi-based cancer therapy.

The Fate of the Peroxyl Radical in Autoxidation: How Does Polymer Degradation Really Occur?

Bolland and Gee's basic autoxidation scheme (BAS) for lipids and rubbers has long been accepted as a general scheme for the autoxidation of all polymers. This scheme describes a chain process of initiation, propagation, and termination to describe the degradation of polymers in the presence of O₂. Central to this scheme is the conjecture that propagation of damage to the next polymer chain occurs via hydrogen atom transfer with a peroxyl radical. However, this reaction is strongly thermodynamically disfavored for all but unsaturated polymers, where the product allylic radical is resonance-stabilized. Paradoxically, there is no denying that the autocatalytic degradation and oxidation of saturated polymers still occurs. Critical analysis of the literature, described herein, has begun to unravel this mystery. One possibility is that the BAS still holds for saturated polymers but only at unsaturated defect sites, where H transfer is thermodynamically favorable. Another is that peroxyl termination rather than H transfer is dominant. If this were the case, tertiary peroxyl radicals (formed at quaternary centers or quaternary branching defects) may terminate to form alkoxy radicals, which can much more readily undergo chain transfer. This process would lead to the creation of hydroxy groups on the degraded polymer. On the other hand, primary and secondary peroxyl radicals would terminate to form nonradical products and halt further degradation. As a result, under this scenario the degree of branching and substitution would have a major effect on polymer stability. Herein we survey studies of polymer degradation products and of the effect of polymer structure on stability and show that indeed peroxyl termination is competitive with peroxyl transfer and possibly dominant under some conditions. It is also feasible that oxygen may not be the only reactive atmospheric species involved in catalyzing polymer degradation. Herein we outline plausible mechanisms involving ozone, hydroperoxyl radical, and hydroxyl radical that have all been suggested in the literature and can account for the experimentally observed formation of hydroperoxides without invoking peroxyl transfer. We also show that oxygen itself has even been reported to slow the degradation of poly(methyl methacrylate)s, which might be expected if peroxyl radicals are unreactive toward hydrogen transfer. Discrepancies between the rate of oxidation and the rate of degradation have been observed for polyolefins and also support the counterintuitive notion that oxygen stabilizes these polymers against degradation. We show that together these studies support alternative mechanisms for polymer degradation. A thorough assessment of kinetic studies reported in the literature indicates that they are limited by their propensity to use models based on the BAS, disregarding the chemical differences intrinsic to each class of polymer. Thus, we propose that further work must be done to fully grasp the complex mechanism of polymer degradation under ambient conditions. Nonetheless, our analysis of the literature points to measures that can be used to enhance or prevent polymer degradation and indicates that we should focus beyond just the role of oxygen toward the specific chemical nature and environment of the polymer at hand.

A non-invasive nanoparticle mediated delivery of triamcinolone acetonide ameliorates diabetic retinopathy in rats

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a multifactorial manifestation associated with microvascular complications and is the fourth leading cause of visual impairment and blindness world-wide. Current day treatment of DR relies heavily on invasive techniques such as intravitreal injections of therapeutic agents. Unfortunately, intravitreal injections are associated with various complications such as intraocular bleeding, endophthalmitis, pain and discomfort resulting in poor patient compliance. To date, there has been no non-invasive drug delivery system reported for DR treatment. To address this, we developed a core-shell nanoparticle-based delivery system consisting of a hydrophobic polycaprolactone core and a hydrophilic Pluronic® F68 shell, loaded with triamcinolone acetonide and evaluated its efficacy in a DR rat model. After being administered as eye drops, the drug loaded nanoparticles significantly improved structural (retinal thickness and vascular health) and functional activity (rod and cone function) of retina as compared to DR controls that were treated with the drug alone or placebo nanoparticles. Furthermore, drug loaded nanoparticles reduced retinal inflammation as evidenced by a decrease in NF-κB, ICAM-1 and TNFα expression after 20 days of treatment. Similarly, a reduction in glial cell hyperplasia as evidenced by reduced GFAP expression, and a decrease in microvascular complications as evidenced by a decrease in VEGF secretion and microvascular tuft formation were observed in rat retinas after 40 days of treatment. The combined reduction in retinal inflammation and vascular abnormalities, both hallmarks of DR, demonstrates the potential of the nanoparticulate delivery system for use as a topical formulation for treating DR.

Nanofiber-Based Multi-Tubular Conduits with a Honeycomb Structure for Potential Application in Peripheral Nerve Repair

Peripheral nerve injury is a large-scale problem and it is a great challenge to repair the long lesion in a thick nerve. The design of a multi-tubular conduit with a honeycomb structure by mimicking the anatomy of a peripheral nerve for the potential repair of large defects in thick nerves has been reported. A bilayer mat of electrospun nanofibers is rolled up to form a single tube, with the inner and outer layers comprised aligned and random nanofibers, respectively. Seven such tubes are then assembled into a hexagonal array and encased within the lumen of a larger tube to form the multi-tubular conduit. By introducing an adhesive to the regions between the tubes, the conduit is robust enough for handling during surgery. The seeded bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs) are able to proliferate in all the tubes with even circumferential and longitudinal distributions. Under chemical induction, the BMSCs are transdifferentiated into Schwann-like cells in all the tubes. While the cellular version holds great promise for peripheral nerve repair, the multi-tubular conduit can also be used to investigate the fundamental aspects involved in the development of peripheral nervous system and migration of cells.

Anticancer properties of lipid and poly(ε-caprolactone) nanocapsules loaded with ferrocenyl-tamoxifen derivatives

OBJECTIVE

We synthesized new tamoxifen derivatives as anticancer drug candidates and elaborated on convection-enhanced delivery (CED) as a strategy for delivery.

METHODS

To overcome the issue of their poor solubility, these ferrocenyl-tamoxifen derivatives were esterified and encapsulated into different nanocarriers, that is lipid (LNC) and polymeric nanocapsules (PNL-NC). We describe the chemistry, the encapsulation and the physicochemical characterization of these formulations.

KEY FINDINGS

Starting compounds [phthalimido-ferrocidiphenol and succinimido-ferrocidiphenol], esterified prodrugs and their nanocapsules formulations were characterized. These drug candidates displayed a strong in vitro activity against breast and glioblastoma cancer cells. The ester prodrugs were toxic for glioblastoma cells (IC₅₀ = 9.2 × 10^-2 μm and 6.7 × 10^-2 μm, respectively). The IC₅₀ values for breast cancer cells were higher for these compounds. The encapsulation of the esterified compounds in LNCs (≈50 nm) or PCL-NCs (≈300 nm) did not prevent their efficacy on glioblastoma cells. These anticancer effects were due to both blockade in the S-phase of the cell cycle and apoptosis. Moreover, the tamoxifen derivatives-loaded nanocapsules induced no toxicity for healthy astrocytes and showed no haemolytic properties. Loaded Lipid Nanocapsules (LNCs) presented interesting profiles for the optimal delivery of active compounds.

CONCLUSIONS

Phthalimido- and Succinimido-esters represent an innovative approach to treat cancers with cerebral localizations such as glioblastoma or brain metastases from breast cancers.

Tailoring the Interface of Biomaterials to Design Effective Scaffolds

Tissue engineering (TE) is a multidisciplinary science, which including principles from material science, biology and medicine aims to develop biological substitutes to restore damaged tissues and organs. A major challenge in TE is the choice of suitable biomaterial to fabricate a scaffold that mimics native extracellular matrix guiding resident stem cells to regenerate the functional tissue. Ideally, the biomaterial should be tailored in order that the final scaffold would be (i) biodegradable to be gradually replaced by regenerating new tissue, (ii) mechanically similar to the tissue to regenerate, (iii) porous to allow cell growth as nutrient, oxygen and waste transport and (iv) bioactive to promote cell adhesion and differentiation. With this perspective, this review discusses the options and challenges facing biomaterial selection when a scaffold has to be designed. We highlight the possibilities in the final mold the materials should assume and the most effective techniques for its fabrication depending on the target tissue, including the alternatives to ameliorate its bioactivity. Furthermore, particular attention has been given to the influence that all these aspects have on resident cells considering the frontiers of materiobiology. In addition, a focus on chitosan as a versatile biomaterial for TE scaffold fabrication has been done, highlighting its latest advances in the literature on bone, skin, cartilage and cornea TE.

Porous silicon-poly(ε-caprolactone) film composites: evaluation of drug release and degradation behavior

This work focuses on an evaluation of novel composites of porous silicon (pSi) with the biocompatible polymer ε-polycaprolactone (PCL) for drug delivery and tissue engineering applications. The degradation behavior of the composites in terms of their morphology along with the effect of pSi on polymer degradation was monitored. PSi particles loaded with the drug camptothecin (CPT) were physically embedded into PCL films formed from electrospun PCL fiber sheets. PSi/PCL composites revealed a release profile of CPT (monitored via fluorescence spectroscopy) in accordance with the Higuchi release model, with significantly lower burst release percentage compared to pSi microparticles alone. Degradation studies of the composites, using gravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), carried out in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) under simulated physiological conditions, indicated a modest mass loss (15%) over 5 weeks due to pSi dissolution and minor polymer hydrolysis. DSC results showed that, relative to PCL-only controls, pSi suppressed crystallization of the polymer film during PBS exposure. This suppression affects the evolution of surface morphology during this exposure that, in turn, influences the degradation behavior of the polymer. The implications of the above properties of these composites as a possible therapeutic device are discussed.

Long acting systemic HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis: an examination of the field

Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis for the prevention of HIV-1 transmission (HIV PrEP) has been widely successful as demonstrated by a number of clinical trials. However, studies have also demonstrated the need for patients to tightly adhere to oral dosing regimens in order to maintain protective plasma and tissue concentrations. This is especially true for women, who experience less forgiveness from dose skipping than men in clinical trials of HIV PrEP. There is increasing interest in long-acting (LA), user-independent forms of HIV PrEP that could overcome this adherence challenge. These technologies have taken multiple forms including LA injectables and implantables. Phase III efficacy trials are ongoing for a LA injectable candidate for HIV PrEP. This review will focus on the design considerations for both LA injectable and implantable platforms for HIV PrEP. Additionally, we have summarized the existing LA technologies currently in clinical and pre-clinical studies for HIV PrEP as well as other technologies that have been applied to HIV PrEP and contraceptives. Our discussion will focus on the potential application of these technologies in low resource areas, and their use in global women's health.

Fast Degradable Polycaprolactone for Drug Delivery

Polycaprolactone (PCL) was reported a long time ago; however, its biomedical applications has not been extensively investigated in comparison with poly(lactide- co-glycolide) (PLGA) due to its too slow degradation profile. Here, we are reporting an oxalate-connected oligocaprolactone multiblock copolymer (PCL-OX) as a fast degradable PCL while maintaining its crystalline properties and low melting point of PCL. The in vivo application of the paclitaxel-loaded PCL-OX microspheres provided a steady plasma drug concentration of 6-9 μg/mL over 28 days, similar to that of the PLGA microspheres. Both PCL and PLGA microspheres were completely cleared two months after in vivo implantation. The PCL-OX microspheres showed a similar tissue compatibility to that of PLGA microspheres in the subcutaneous layer of rats. These findings suggest that PCL-OX is a useful biomaterial that solves the slow degradation problems of PCL and, thus, may find uses in other biomedical applications as an alternative to PLGA.

Enzymatic Synthesis of Amino Acids Endcapped Polycaprolactone: A Green Route Towards Functional Polyesters

ε-caprolactone (CL) has been enzymatically polymerized using α-amino acids based on sulfur (methionine and cysteine) as (co-)initiators and immobilized lipase B of Candida antarctica (CALB) as biocatalyst. In-depth characterizations allowed determining the corresponding involved mechanisms and the polymers thermal properties. Two synthetic strategies were tested, a first one with direct polymerization of CL with the native amino acids and a second one involving the use of an amino acid with protected functional groups. The first route showed that mainly polycaprolactone (PCL) homopolymer could be obtained and highlighted the lack of reactivity of the unmodified amino acids due to poor solubility and affinity with the lipase active site. The second strategy based on protected cysteine showed higher monomer conversion, with the amino acids acting as (co-)initiators, but their insertion along the PCL chains remained limited to chain endcapping. These results thus showed the possibility to synthesize enzymatically polycaprolactone-based chains bearing amino acids units. Such cysteine endcapped PCL materials could then find application in the biomedical field. Indeed, subsequent functionalization of these polyesters with drugs or bioactive molecules can be obtained, by derivatization of the amino acids, after removal of the protecting group.

Electric-field assisted 3D-fibrous bioceramic-based scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration: Fabrication, characterization, and in vitro cellular activities

Nano/microfibrous structure can induce high cellular activities because of the topological similarity of the extracellular matrix, and thus, are widely used in various tissue regenerative materials. However, the fabrication of a bioceramic (high weight percent)-based 3D microfibrous structure is extremely difficult because of the low process-ability of bioceramics. In addition, three-dimensional (3D) microfibrous structure can induce more realistic cellular behavior when compared to that of 2D fibrous structure. Hence, the requirement of a 3D fibrous ceramic-based structure is an important issue in bioceramic scaffolds. In this study, a bioceramic (α-TCP)-based scaffold in which the weight fraction of the ceramic exceeded 70% was fabricated using an electrohydrodynamic printing (EHDP) process. The fabricated ceramic structure consisted of layer-by-layered struts entangled with polycaprolactone microfibers and the bioceramic phase. Various processing conditions (such as applied electric field, flow rate, nozzle size, and weight fraction of the bioceramic) were manipulated to obtain an optimal processing window. A 3D printed porous structure was used as a control, which had pore geometry similar to that of a structure fabricated using the EHDP process. Various physical and cellular activities using preosteoblasts (MC3T3-E1) helped confirm that the newly designed bioceramic scaffold demonstrated significantly high metabolic activity and mineralization.

Bioreducible cross-linked core polymer micelles enhance in vitro activity of methotrexate in breast cancer cells

PEG-poly(caprolactone) co-polymers with disulfide-linked cores are highly efficient for delivery of the anti-cancer drug methotrexate in vitro.

Comparison of Osteogenesis between Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Their Sheets on Poly-ε-Caprolactone/β-Tricalcium Phosphate Composite Scaffolds in Canine Bone Defects

Multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and MSC sheets have effective potentials of bone regeneration. Composite polymer/ceramic scaffolds such as poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL)/β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) are widely used to repair large bone defects. The present study investigated the in vitro osteogenic potential of canine adipose-derived MSCs (Ad-MSCs) and Ad-MSC sheets. Composite PCL/β-TCP scaffolds seeded with Ad-MSCs or wrapped with osteogenic Ad-MSC sheets (OCS) were also fabricated and their osteogenic potential was assessed following transplantation into critical-sized bone defects in dogs. The alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity of osteogenic Ad-MSCs (O-MSCs) and OCS was significantly higher than that of undifferentiated Ad-MSCs (U-MSCs). The ALP, runt-related transcription factor 2, osteopontin, and bone morphogenetic protein 7 mRNA levels were upregulated in O-MSCs and OCS as compared to U-MSCs. In a segmental bone defect, the amount of newly formed bone was greater in PCL/β-TCP/OCS and PCL/β-TCP/O-MSCs/OCS than in the other groups. The OCS exhibit strong osteogenic capacity, and OCS combined with a PCL/β-TCP composite scaffold stimulated new bone formation in a critical-sized bone defect. These results suggest that the PCL/β-TCP/OCS composite has potential clinical applications in bone regeneration and can be used as an alternative treatment modality in bone tissue engineering.

Tolerance and long-term MRI imaging of gadolinium-modified meshes used in soft organ repair

Background

Synthetic meshes are frequently used to reinforce soft tissues. The aim of this translational study is to evaluate tolerance and long-term MRI visibility of two recently developed Gadolinium-modified meshes in a rat animal model.

Materials and Methods

Gadolinium-poly-ε-caprolactone (Gd-PCL) and Gadolinium-polymethylacrylate (Gd-PMA) modified meshes were implanted in Wistar rats and their tolerance was assessed daily. Inflammation and biocompatibility of the implants were assessed by histology and immunohistochemistry after 30 days post implantation. Implants were visualised by 7T and 3T MRI at day 30 and at day 90. Diffusion of Gadolinium in the tissues of the implanted animals was assessed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry.

Results

Overall Gd-PMA coated implants were better tolerated as compared to those coated with Gd-PCL. In fact, Gd-PMA implants were characterised by a high ratio collagen I/III and good vascularisation of the integration tissues. High resolution images of the coated mesh were obtained in vivo with experimental 7T as well as 3T clinical MRI. Mass spectrometry analyses showed that levels of Gadolinium in animals implanted with coated mesh were similar to those of the control group.

Conclusions

Meshes coated with Gd-PMA are better tolerated as compared to those coated with Gd-PCL as no signs of erosion or significant inflammation were detected at 30 days post implantation. Also, Gd-PMA coated meshes were clearly visualised with both 7T and 3T MRI devices. This new technique of mesh optimisation may represent a valuable tool in soft tissue repair and management.

Rapid evaluation of the durability of cortical neural implants using accelerated aging with reactive oxygen species

OBJECTIVE

A challenge for implementing high bandwidth cortical brain-machine interface devices in patients is the limited functional lifespan of implanted recording electrodes. Development of implant technology currently requires extensive non-clinical testing to demonstrate device performance. However, testing the durability of the implants in vivo is time-consuming and expensive. Validated in vitro methodologies may reduce the need for extensive testing in animal models.

APPROACH

Here we describe an in vitro platform for rapid evaluation of implant stability. We designed a reactive accelerated aging (RAA) protocol that employs elevated temperature and reactive oxygen species (ROS) to create a harsh aging environment. Commercially available microelectrode arrays (MEAs) were placed in a solution of hydrogen peroxide at 87 °C for a period of 7 days. We monitored changes to the implants with scanning electron microscopy and broad spectrum electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (1 Hz-1 MHz) and correlated the physical changes with impedance data to identify markers associated with implant failure.

MAIN RESULTS

RAA produced a diverse range of effects on the structural integrity and electrochemical properties of electrodes. Temperature and ROS appeared to have different effects on structural elements, with increased temperature causing insulation loss from the electrode microwires, and ROS concentration correlating with tungsten metal dissolution. All array types experienced impedance declines, consistent with published literature showing chronic (>30 days) declines in array impedance in vivo. Impedance change was greatest at frequencies <10 Hz, and smallest at frequencies 1 kHz and above. Though electrode performance is traditionally characterized by impedance at 1 kHz, our results indicate that an impedance change at 1 kHz is not a reliable predictive marker of implant degradation or failure.

SIGNIFICANCE

ROS, which are known to be present in vivo, can create structural damage and change electrical properties of MEAs. Broad-spectrum electrical impedance spectroscopy demonstrates increased sensitivity to electrode damage compared with single-frequency measurements. RAA can be a useful tool to simulate worst-case in vivo damage resulting from chronic electrode implantation, simplifying the device development lifecycle.

Formation of fluorescent polydopamine dots from hydroxyl radical-induced degradation of polydopamine nanoparticles

Fluorescent polydopamine dots were prepared through hydroxyl radical-mediated degradation of polydopamine nanoparticles.

Polymer-ceramic spiral structured scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: effect of hydroxyapatite composition on human fetal osteoblasts

For successful bone tissue engineering, a scaffold needs to be osteoconductive, porous, and biodegradable, thus able to support attachment and proliferation of bone cells and guide bone formation. Recently, hydroxyapatites (HA), a major inorganic component of natural bone, and biodegrade polymers have drawn much attention as bone scaffolds. The present study was designed to investigate whether the bone regenerative properties of nano-HA/polycaprolactone (PCL) spiral scaffolds are augmented in an HA dose dependent manner, thereby establishing a suitable composition as a bone formation material. Nano-HA/PCL spiral scaffolds were prepared with different weight ratios of HA and PCL, while porosity was introduced by a modified salt leaching technique. Human fetal osteoblasts (hFOBs) were cultured on the nano-HA/PCL spiral scaffolds up to 14 days. Cellular responses in terms of cell adhesion, viability, proliferation, differentiation, and the expression of bone-related genes were investigated. These scaffolds supported hFOBs adhesion, viability and proliferation. Cell proliferation trend was quite similar on polymer-ceramic and neat polymer spiral scaffolds on days 1, 7, and 14. However, the significantly increased amount of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and mineralized matrix synthesis was evident on the nano-HA/PCL spiral scaffolds. The HA composition in the scaffolds showed a significant effect on ALP and mineralization. Bone phenotypic markers such as bone sialoprotein (BSP), osteonectin (ON), osteocalcin (OC), and type I collagen (Col-1) were semi-quantitatively estimated by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis. All of these results suggested the osteoconductive characteristics of HA/PCL nanocomposite and cell maturation were HA dose dependent. For instance, HA∶PCL = 1∶4 group showed significantly higher ALP mineralization and elevated levels of BSP, ON, OC and Col-I expression as compared other lower or higher ceramic ratios. Amongst the different nano-HA/PCL spiral scaffolds, the 1∶4 weight ratio of HA and PCL is shown to be the most optimal composition for bone tissue regeneration.

Surface-modified functionalized polycaprolactone scaffolds for bone repair: in vitro and in vivo experiments

A porcine calvaria defect study was carried out to investigate the bone repair potential of three-dimensional (3D)-printed poly-ε-caprolactone (PCL) scaffolds embedded with nanoporous PCL. A microscopic grid network was created by rapid prototyping making a 3D-fused deposition model (FDM-PCL). Afterward, the FDM-PCL scaffolds were infused with a mixture of PCL, water, and 1,4-dioxane and underwent a thermal-induced phase separation (TIPS) followed by lyophilization. The TIPS process lead to a nanoporous structure shielded by the printed microstructure (NSP-PCL). Sixteen Landrace pigs were divided into two groups with 8 and 12 weeks follow-up, respectively. A total of six nonpenetrating holes were drilled in the calvaria of each animal. The size of the cylindrical defects was h 10 mm and Ø 10 mm. The defects were distributed randomly using following groups: (a) NSP-PCL scaffold, (b) FDM-PCL scaffold, (c) autograft, (d) empty defect, (a1) NSP-PCL scaffold + autologous mononuclear cells, and (a2) NSP-PCL scaffold + bone morphogenetic protein 2. Bone volume to total volume was analyzed using microcomputed tomography (µCT) and histomorphometry. The µCT and histological data showed significantly less bone formation in the NSP-PCL scaffolds in all three variations after both 8 and 12 weeks compared to all other groups. The positive autograft control had significantly higher new bone formation compared to all other groups except the FDM-PCL when analyzed using histomorphometry. The NSP-PCL scaffolds were heavily infiltrated with foreign body giant cells suggesting an inflammatory response and perhaps active resorption of the scaffold material. The unmodified FDM-PCL scaffold showed good osteoconductivity and osseointegration after both 8 and 12 weeks.

Cenderitide-eluting film for potential cardiac patch applications

Cenderitide, also known as CD-NP, is a designer peptide developed by combining native mammalian c-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) and the C-terminus isolated from the dendroapis natriuretic peptide (DNP) of the venom from the green mamba. In early studies, intravenous and subcutaneous infusion of cenderitide was reported to reduce left ventricular (LV) mass and ameliorate cardiac remodelling. In this work, biodegradable polymeric films encapsulating CD-NP were developed and were investigated for their in vitro release and degradation characteristics. Subsequently, the bioactivity of released peptide and its effects on human cardiac fibroblast (HCF) were explored. We achieved sustained release from three films with low, intermediate and high release profiles for 30 days. Moreover, the bioactivity of released peptide was verified from the elevated production of cyclic guanosine monophospate (cGMP). The CD-NP released from films was able to inhibit the proliferation of hypertrophic HCF as well as suppress DNA synthesis in HCF. Furthermore, the sustained delivery from films showed comparable or superior suppressive actions on hypertrophic HCF compared to daily infusion of CD-NP. The results suggest that these films could be used to inhibit fibrosis and reduce cardiac remodelling via local delivery as cardiac patches.