Is the adipocyte beta-adrenoceptor a prototype for the recently cloned atypical 'beta 3-adrenoceptor'?

The role of l-cysteine/Hydrogen sulfide pathway on β3-Adrenoceptor- induced relaxation in mouse gastric fundus

In this study, we investigated the possible role of the l-cysteine/hydrogen sulfide pathway in β₃-adrenoceptors-mediated relaxation in isolated mouse gastric fundus tissue. l-cysteine (endogenous H₂S; 10^-6-10^-2 M), sodium hydrogen sulfide (NaHS; exogenous H₂S; 10^-6-10^-3 M), selective β₃-adrenoceptors agonist BRL 37344 (10^-9-10^-4 M) and non-selective β-adrenoceptor agonist isoprenaline (10^-9-10^-4 M) produced concentration-dependent relaxation in mouse gastric fundus. The non-selective β-adrenoceptors antagonist propranolol (10^-6 M) inhibited the relaxant response to isoprenaline but not to BRL 37344. On the other hand, the selective β₃-adrenoceptors antagonist SR 59230A (10^-5 M) inhibited the relaxant responses to BRL 37344. In addition, cystathionine-gamma-lyase (CSE) inhibitor D,L-propargylglycine (PAG, 10^-2 M), cystathionine-beta-synthase inhibitor (CBS) aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA, 10^-2 M), and the combination of these inhibitors significantly reduced the relaxant responses induced by l-cysteine and BRL 37344. Pre-incubation of gastric fundal strips with propranolol (10^-6 M) and SR 59230A (10^-5 M) did not affect relaxations to l-cysteine and NaHS. Also, the existence of CSE, CBS, 3-mercaptopurivate sulfur transferase (3-MST) enzymes and β₃-adrenoceptors were detected in gastric fundal tissue. Furthermore, basal H₂S release was detected in the measurements. H₂S level increased in the presence of l-cysteine, NaHS, and BRL 37344. The increase in H₂S level by l-cysteine and BRL 37344 decreased significantly with PAG and AOAA enzyme inhibitors. These results suggest that endogenous H₂S is synthesized from l-cysteine at least by CBS and CSE enzymes. Also, β₃-adrenoceptors are found in the mouse stomach fundus and mediate BRL 37344-induced relaxations, and l-cysteine/hydrogen sulfide pathway plays a partial role in β₃-adrenoceptors-mediated relaxation in mouse gastric fundus tissue.

Biochemical adaptations in white adipose tissue following aerobic exercise: from mitochondrial biogenesis to browning

Our understanding of white adipose tissue (WAT) biochemistry has evolved over the last few decades and it is now clear that WAT is not simply a site of energy storage, but rather a pliable endocrine organ demonstrating dynamic responsiveness to the effects of aerobic exercise. Similar to its established effects in skeletal muscle, aerobic exercise induces many biochemical adaptations in WAT including mitochondrial biogenesis and browning. While past research has focused on the regulation of these biochemical processes, there has been renewed interest as of late given the potential of harnessing WAT mitochondrial biogenesis and browning to treat obesity and type II diabetes. Unfortunately, despite increasing evidence that innumerable factors, both exercise induced and pharmacological, can elicit these biochemical adaptations in WAT, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly defined. Here, we begin with a historical account of our understanding of WAT exercise biochemistry before presenting detailed evidence in favour of an up-to-date model by which aerobic exercise induces mitochondrial biogenesis and browning in WAT. Specifically, we discuss how aerobic exercise induces increases in WAT lipolysis and re-esterification and how this could be a trigger that activates the cellular energy sensor 5' AMP-activated protein kinase to mediate the induction of mitochondrial biogenesis and browning via the transcriptional co-activator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma co-activator-1 alpha. While this review primarily focuses on mechanistic results from rodent studies special attention is given to the translation of these results, or lack thereof, to human physiology.

Antilipolytic effects of 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives β-adrenoceptor antagonists in rat white adipocytes

The rat fat cell β-adrenoceptors were investigated by studying the effects of new 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives synthesized starting from 7-amino-2-chloro-3-phenyl-1,8-naphthyridine on lipolysis induced by isoprenaline, and alprenolol. Lipolysis induced by isoprenaline agonist was competitively antagonized by the 1,8-naphthyridine analogue with a 7-hydroxy-2-(4'-methoxybenzylamine)-6-nitro-3-phenyl substituent designated as 3. In contrast, 10, 50, and 100 μm of 7-methoxy and 7-ethoxy derivatives did not modify the concentration-response curve of isoprenaline. A rightward shift of the curve was, however, observed with 50 μm of a 7-methoxy-2-(4'-methoxybenzylamine)-6-amino-3-phenyl substituent designated as 10. The selective β₁ -AR antagonist, 7-hydroxy-4-morpholinomethyl-2-piperazino-1,8-naphthyridine slightly reduced isoprenaline-induced lipolysis only at high doses. Alprenolol-mediated lipolytic effect was antagonized by derivative 3, 10 and the selective β₃ -AR antagonist SR 59,230A, but resistant to the selective β₁ -AR antagonist 7-hydroxy-4-morpholinomethyl-2-piperazino-1,8-naphthyridine. The results provide preliminary pharmacological evidence for the antilipolytic effect of the newly synthesized 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives on rat fat cells. The analogues designated as 3 and 10 were the most potent antagonists of this series.

An association between TRP64ARG polymorphism of the B3 adrenoreceptor gene and some metabolic disturbances

Backgrounds

B3 adrenoreceptors (ADRB3) are abundant in adipose tissue and play the role in its metabolism and lipolysis. Some variants of the ADRB3 gene may predispose subjects for the development obesity and metabolic abnormalities in the setting of modern sedentary lifestyle. ADRB3 gene polymorphism association with metabolic disturbances has never been studied before in the ethnic Kyrgyz population.

Aim

To study an association between Trp64Arg polymorphism of the ADRB3 and metabolic syndrome (MS) components in an ethnic Kyrgyz group.

Materials and methods

213 Ethnic Kyrgyz volunteers over the age of 30 were enrolled in the study. The assessment plan for each individual comprised of general physical and anthropometric exams as well as laboratory tests (glucose, lipid panel, insulin) and genotyping by Trp64Arg polymorphism of the ADRB3. MS diagnosis was consistent with modified ATP III criteria (2005). Logistic regression analysis was performed to test the potential independent association between Arg64 allele with obesity, abdominal obesity (AO) and arterial hypertension (AH).

Results

Trp64Arg polymorphism of the ADRB3 was assessed in 213 individuals (145 men, 68 women) aged 30-73 (mean age 50.7 ± 7.6). Arg64 allele frequency was 0.239; ADRB3 genotype distribution among participants was: Trp64 homozygotes 54.5%, Trp64Arg 43.2% and Arg64 homozygotes 2.3%. There was an association between Trp64Arg и Arg64Arg genotypes and higher BMI, WC and obesity frequency (p < 0.00009), AO (p < 0.01), type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) (p < 0.005) and lower high density cholesterol (HDL-C) level (p < 0.03). The logistic regression analysis showed the correlation of the Arg64 allele with obesity (OR 3.159; 95% CI 1.789-5.577) and AO (OR 1.973; 95% CI 1.118-3.481). The association between Arg64 allele and AH lost its significance after adjustment for obesity.

Conclusion

Arg64 allele of the ADRB3 gene in the studied group has an association with MS components such as obesity, AO and decreased HDL-C level.

β(3) Receptors: Role in Cardiometabolic Disorders

Pharmacological and molecular approaches have shown that an atypical β-adrenoceptor (AR), called β(3)-AR, that is distinct from β(1)-ARs and β(2)-ARs, exists in some tissues in heterogeneous populations such as β(3a)-ARs and β(3b)-ARs. β(3)-ARs belong to a superfamily of receptors linked to guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G proteins). The β(3)-AR gene contains two introns whereas the β(1)-AR and β(2)-AR genes are intronless, leading to splice variants. β(3)-ARs can couple to G(i) and G(s) and they are reported to be present in brown adipose tissue, vasculature, the heart, among other tissues. β(3)-ARs cause vasodilation of microvessels in the islets of Langerhans and may participate in the pathogenesis of cardiac failure, during which modification of β(1)-AR and β(2)-AR expression occurs. The development of β(3)-AR agonists has led to the elaboration of promising new drugs, including antiobesity and antidiabetic drugs. This article reviews the various pharmacological actions of β(3)-ARs and their clinical implications for diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

The β3-adrenergic agonist (BRL35135A) acutely increases oxygen consumption and plasma intermediate metabolites in sheep

There is evidence that an atypical adrenoreceptor subtype is involved in mediating some of the physiological effects of catecholamines, particularly in some adipose tissue sites. Therefore, three experiments were conducted to determine the metabolic and energetic responses to oral administration of the purported β3-agonist BRL35135A in ruminant lambs. The post-prandial increase in O2 consumption (0.109 versus 0.139 L/min) and CO2 production (0.102 versus 0.127 L/min) at 30 min after feeding was greater (P < 0.05) in the lambs receiving 5 mg of the BRL35135A. Treatment × time interactions over the period between –50 and 220 min indicate significant increases in plasma non-esterified fatty acids (P < 0.001), glucose (P < 0.001) and lactate (P = 0.024) in lambs consuming a single oral dose of 5 mg BRL35135A. In a subsequent experiment there were similar interactions over the period between –120 and 1440 min for non-esterified fatty acids (P < 0.001), glucose (P < 0.001) and lactate (P < 0.001) in lambs consuming a lower oral dose of 1 mg BRL35135A. The effects of BRL35135A on plasma non-esterified fatty acids (P = 0.95), glucose (P = 0.84) and lactate (P = 0.68) were not modified by the β1- and β2-adrenergic antagonist alprenolol suggesting that the effects were mediated via β3-adrenergic receptor subtypes. In conclusion, these experiments indicate that BRL35135A is acutely active in sheep when given with feed, as indicated by increases in respiratory gas exchange and plasma metabolite concentrations.

Morphological alterations in salivary glands of mice (Mus musculus) submitted to tannin enriched diets: comparison with sialotrophic effects of sympathetic agonists stimulation

In order to study the effects of tannins at histomorphological level, mice were either fed with three structurally different types of tannins (tannic acid, chestnut, and quebracho) or treated with isoproterenol, during 10 days. Acini of parotid and submandibular glands increased significantly, being the increase higher for parotid compared to submandibular glands, and higher in the quebracho compared with the other tannin groups. Sublingual acinar size also increased after tannin consumption, by opposition to isoproterenol-treated animals. The results present evidences that the effects produced by tannins are dependent on their structure.

Role of beta3-adrenoceptors for intrahepatic resistance and portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis

Increased intrahepatic resistance and splanchnic blood flow cause portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis. Nonselective beta-adrenoceptor (beta-AR) antagonists have beneficial effects on hyperdynamic circulation and are in clinical use. In this context, the role of the beta(3)-AR is undefined. Here we investigated their expression and role in portal hypertension in patients and rats with liver cirrhosis. We analyzed cirrhotic human and rat tissues (liver, splanchnic vessels) and primary rat cells. Protein expression of beta(3)-AR was determined by western blot and messenger RNA (mRNA) levels by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Activities of Rho-kinase and the nitric oxide (NO) effector protein kinase G (PKG) were assessed by way of substrate phosphorylation (moesin, vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein [VASP]). Cyclic 3',5' adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) accumulation was determined by an enzyme-immunoassay kit. The effects of selective beta(3)-AR agonists (CGP12177A, BRL37344) and antagonist (SR59230A) were investigated by collagen matrix contraction of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), in situ liver perfusions, and in vivo hemodynamic parameters in bile duct ligation and carbon tetrachloride intoxication in cirrhotic rats. In cirrhosis of humans and rats, beta(3)-AR expression is markedly increased in hepatic and in splanchnic tissues. Stimulation of beta(3)-AR leads to relaxation of HSCs by way of cAMP accumulation, and by inhibition of Rho-kinase activity; any role of NO and its effector PKG was not observed. beta(3)-AR agonists decrease intrahepatic resistance and portal pressure in cirrhotic rats.

CONCLUSION

There is a marked hepatic and mesenteric up-regulation of beta(3)-ARs in human cirrhosis and in two different animal models of cirrhosis. The beta(3)-AR-agonists should be further evaluated for therapy of portal hypertension.

The rush to adrenaline: drugs in sport acting on the beta-adrenergic system

Athletes attempt to improve performance with drugs that act on the beta-adrenergic system directly or indirectly. Of three beta-adrenoceptor (AR) subtypes, the beta(2)-AR is the main target in sport; they have bronchodilator and anabolic actions and enhance anti-inflammatory actions of corticosteroids. Although demonstrable in animal experiments and humans, there is little evidence that these properties can significantly improve performance in trained athletes. Their actions may also be compromised by receptor desensitization and by common, naturally occurring receptor mutations (polymorphisms) that can influence receptor signalling and desensitization properties in individuals. Indirectly acting agents affect release and reuptake of noradrenaline and adrenaline, thereby influencing all AR subtypes including the three beta-ARs. These agents can have potent psychostimulant effects that provide an illusion of better performance that does not usually translate into improvement in practice. Amphetamines and cocaine also have considerable potential for cardiac damage. beta-AR antagonists (beta-blockers) are used in sports that require steadiness and accuracy, such as archery and shooting, where their ability to reduce heart rate and muscle tremor may improve performance. They have a deleterious effect in endurance sports because they reduce physical performance and maximum exercise load. Recent studies have identified that many beta-AR antagonists not only block the actions of agonists but also activate other (mitogen-activated PK) signalling pathways influencing cell growth and fate. The concept that many compounds previously regarded as 'blockers' may express their own spectrum of pharmacological properties has potentially far-reaching consequences for the use of drugs both therapeutically and illicitly.

Metabolic syndrome and ADRB3 gene polymorphism in severely obese patients from South Italy

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence of beta(3)-adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) Trp64Arg polymorphism and its relationship with the metabolic syndrome in severe obesity.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional outpatients study.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In 265 (100 men) severely obese non-diabetic subjects and 78 (25 men) healthy volunteers, genomic DNA was isolated from peripheral leukocytes. In obese patients, plasma concentrations of leptin, lipids, glucose and insulin, the homeostasis model assessment index and blood pressure have been measured. The Trp64Arg mutation was identified with the real-time TaqMan method.

RESULTS

Neither genotype distribution nor allele frequency differed between the two groups. The metabolic syndrome prevalence was 59% in obese subjects, and was higher in men than in women (65 vs 55%: P=0.03). The body mass index (BMI) was related to age tertiles (beta=0.08; P<0.001; multiple linear regression) in Trp64Arg-positive obese subjects.

CONCLUSION

We confirm the high prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among severely obese subjects. ADRB3 polymorphism was significantly related to insulin resistance only in obese male subjects. Moreover, increased BMI was related to age in obese subjects with the ADRB3 polymorphism.

The human near-term myometrial beta 3-adrenoceptor but not the beta 2-adrenoceptor is resistant to desensitisation after sustained agonist stimulation

1. In order to compare the beta(2)- and beta(3)-adrenoceptor (beta-AR) desensitisation process in human near-term myometrium, we examined the influence of a pretreatment of myometrial strips with either a beta(2)- or a beta(3)-AR agonist (salbutamol or SR 59119A, respectively, both at 10 microm, for 5 and 15 h) on the relaxation and the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production induced by these agonists. 2. To assess some of the mechanisms potentially implicated in the beta-AR desensitisation process, we studied the influence of such treatment on the number of beta(2)- and beta(3)-AR binding sites, the beta(2)- and beta(3)-AR transcripts expression and the phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) activity. 3. Salbutamol, but not SR 59119A, concentration-response curve (CRC) was shifted by a 15 h salbutamol preincubation, with a significant difference in -log EC(20) values (6.31+/-0.13 vs 5.58+/-0.24, for control and 15 h salbutamol pretreatment, respectively, P<0.05). Neither salbutamol nor SR 59119A CRCs were modified after a 15 h preincubation with SR 59119A. 4. A 15 h exposure of myometrial strips to salbutamol significantly reduced the salbutamol-induced (0.60+/-0.26 vs 1.54+/-0.24 pmol mg(-1) protein, P<0.05), but not the SR 59119A-induced, cAMP production. No decrease in cAMP production was observed after a 15 h SR 59119A exposure. 5. A 15 h salbutamol exposure of myometrial strips significantly reduced the beta(2)- but not the beta(3)-AR binding site density, whereas no decrease in the number of beta(2)- and beta(3)-AR binding sites was observed after a 15 h SR 59119A treatment. 6. Neither PDE4 activity nor the beta(2)- and beta(3)-AR mRNA expression levels were affected by salbutamol or SR 59119A treatments. 7. Our results indicate that beta(3)-AR, but not beta(2)-AR, are resistant to the agonist-induced desensitisation. In our model, beta(2)-AR desensitisation is mediated by a decreased number of beta(2)-AR that was not explained by transcriptional regulation of the receptor.

Stereoselectivity for interactions of agonists and antagonists at mouse, rat and human β3-adrenoceptors

This study examines the stereoselectivity profile of recombinant mouse, rat and human beta(3)-adrenoceptors expressed in Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO-K1) cells using radioligand binding, in comparison with endogenously expressed beta(3)-adrenoceptors mediating relaxation responses in mouse ileum. The enantiomeric ratios for several beta-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists at the cloned mouse, rat and human beta(3)-adrenoceptor were less than those reported at the cloned beta(1)-/beta(2)-adrenoceptor but higher than those reported in previous studies. The degree of stereoselectivity was relatively low for the agonists isoprenaline and noradrenaline but higher for antagonists and, in particular, tertatolol and propranolol. In mouse ileum, stereoselectivity of propranolol and tertatolol was observed under beta(1)-/beta(2)-adrenoceptor blockade. The (-)-enantiomers of propranolol and tertatolol were more effective at antagonism of (-)-isoprenaline-mediated relaxation of mouse ileum than their (+)-enantiomers. The recombinant mouse, rat and human beta(3)-adrenoceptors display stereoselective interactions for agonists and antagonists similar to the stereoselective profile of beta(3)-adrenoceptors in mouse ileum. The degree of stereoselectivity varied between species and the human beta(3)-adrenoceptor displayed higher affinities and enantiomeric ratios than the mouse or rat beta(3)-adrenoceptors.

Difficulty in losing weight by behavioral intervention for women with Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene

OBJECTIVE

Trp64Arg mutation in the beta(3)-adrenergic receptor (beta(3)AR) gene is relatively common in Japanese people. However, it has not been clear whether persons with Trp64Arg mutation in the beta(3)AR gene tend to have obesity and difficulty in losing weight even with a restricted diet and exercise. We investigated the response of body weight and metabolic factors to behavioral intervention in Japanese women with Trp64Arg mutation in the beta(3)AR gene.

DESIGN

A 3-month behavioral intervention study using a combination of diet and exercise programs.

SUBJECTS

A total of 76 perimenopausal women with no clinical symptoms (age: 54.7+/-7.7 y, body mass index (BMI): 21.0-33.0 kg/m(2)).

MEASUREMENTS

Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, body fat, waist circumference, hip circumference, skin fold, resting energy expenditure and blood pressure) and metabolic measurements (serum levels of cholesterol, triglyceride, phospholipid, nonesterified fatty acid, glucose, insulin and leptin) and determination of the beta(3)AR genotype by polymerase chain reaction followed by BstNI digestion.

RESULTS

At the baseline of BMI, body weight, body fat, waist circumference, hip circumference, the arm skin fold, resting energy expenditure, or blood lipid and glucose profiles, there was no significant difference in participants with/without mutation of the beta(3)AR gene. The intervention yielded a body weight reduction in 69 and 48%, and induced a significant difference in weight loss (-0.74 and -0.01 kg) for women with wild-type and Trp64Arg mutation, respectively. Significant differences of anthropometric parameters were found in body weight, BMI, waist and hip circumferences and blood pressure of wild type by the intervention. However, women with Trp64Arg mutation did not show significant changes in these anthropometric parameters, except for hip circumference. A significant difference was found in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and in the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol/HDL-C ratio in both genotypes.

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study suggest that the Trp64Arg mutation of the beta(3)AR gene is associated with difficulty in losing weight through behavioral intervention, although it is not related to obesity-related phenotypes and resting energy expenditure before the intervention.

The preferential beta3-adrenoceptor agonist BRL 37344 increases force via beta1-/beta2-adrenoceptors and induces endothelial nitric oxide synthase via beta3-adrenoceptors in human atrial myocardium

1 The present study investigated the effects of the preferential beta(3)-AR agonist BRL 37344 (BRL) on force of contraction (FOC), Ca(2+)-transient and eNOS-activity in human right atrial myocardium. 2 BRL concentration-dependently caused an increase in FOC that was paralleled by an increase in Ca(2+)-transient and a shortening of time to half peak relaxation (T0.5T). These effects were abolished in the presence of propranolol (0.3 micro M). 3 BRL acted as a competitive antagonist towards isoprenaline and in binding experiments it was shown to have a distinct affinity towards beta(1/2)-AR. 4 In immunohistochemical experiments BRL (10 micro M) increased detection of activated eNOS. This effect remained constant in the presence of propranolol (0.3 micro M). 5 BRL increased directly detected NO in DAF-staining experiments. This increase was significantly smaller in the presence of the NO-inhibitor L-NAME. 6 The inotropic effects of BRL were not changed in the presence of L-NMA. 7 These results suggest that the inotropic effects of BRL in human atrium are mediated via beta(1/2)-AR, whereas the increase of atrial eNOS-activity is due to beta(3)- adrenergic stimulation. This increase in eNOS-activity did not influence atrial myocardial contractility. In conclusion, this study shows that beta(3)-adrenergic stimulation is present in human atrium, but may not be functionally as significant as in the left ventricle.

Effect of a 28-d treatment with L-796568, a novel beta(3)-adrenergic receptor agonist, on energy expenditure and body composition in obese men

BACKGROUND

Stimulation of energy expenditure (EE) with selective thermogenic beta-adrenergic agonists may be a promising approach for treating obesity.

OBJECTIVE

We analyzed the effects of the highly selective human beta(3)-adrenergic agonist L-796568 on 24-h EE, substrate oxidation, and body composition in obese, weight-stable men.

DESIGN

In this 2-center, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group study, we measured 24-h EE before and after 28 d of treatment with L-796568 (375 mg/d) or placebo during weight maintenance (ie, without dietary intervention) in nondiabetic, nonsmoking men aged 25-49 y with body mass index (in kg/m(2)) of 28-35 (n = 10 subjects per treatment group).

RESULTS

The mean change in 24-h EE from before to after treatment did not differ significantly between groups (92 +/- 586 and 86 +/- 512 kJ/24 h for the L-796568 and placebo groups, respectively). The change in 24-h nonprotein respiratory quotient from before to after treatment did not differ significantly between groups (0.009 +/- 0.021 and 0.009 +/- 0.029, respectively). No changes in glucose tolerance were observed, but triacylglycerol concentrations decreased significantly with L-796568 treatment compared with placebo (-0.76 +/- 0.76 and 0.42 +/- 0.31 mmol/L, respectively; P < 0.002). Overall, treatment-related changes in body composition were not observed, but higher plasma L-796568 concentrations in the L-796568 group were associated with greater decreases in fat mass (r = -0.69, P < 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with L-796568 for 28 d had no major lipolytic or thermogenic effect but it lowered triacylglycerol concentrations. This lack of chronic effect on energy balance is likely explained by insufficient recruitment of beta(3)-responsive tissues in humans, down-regulation of the beta(3)-adrenergic receptor-mediated effects with chronic dosing, or both.

Beta-adrenoceptors mediate inhibition of lipolysis in adipocytes of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus)

The regulation of triglyceride mobilization by catecholamines was investigated in the teleost fish Oreochromis mossambicus (tilapia) in vivo and in vitro. In vitro experiments were carried out with adipocytes that were isolated for the first time from fish adipose tissue. For the in vivo experiments, cannulated tilapia were exposed to stepwise decreasing oxygen levels (20, 10, and 5% air saturation; 3.9, 1.9, and 1.0 kPa PO(2), respectively), each level being maintained for 2 h. Blood samples were taken at timed intervals and analyzed for plasma lactate, glucose, free fatty acids, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol. Hypoxia exposure did not change plasma epinephrine levels. In contrast, the plasma norepinephrine concentration markedly increased at all hypoxia levels. Over the same period, plasma free fatty acid levels showed a significant continuous decrease, suggesting that norepinephrine is responsible for the reduced plasma free fatty acid concentration, presumably through inhibition of lipolysis in adipose tissue. To elucidate the mechanism, adipocytes were isolated from mesenteric adipose tissue of tilapia and incubated with 1) norepinephrine, 2) norepinephrine + phentolamine (alpha(1),alpha(2)-antagonist), 3) isoproterenol (nonselective beta-agonist), 4) isoproterenol + timolol (beta(1),beta(2)-antagonist), 5) norepinephrine + timolol, and 6) BRL-35135A (beta(3)-agonist). The results demonstrate for the first time that norepinephrine and isoproterenol suppress lipolysis in isolated adipocytes of tilapia. The effect of norepinephrine is not mediated through alpha(2)-adrenoceptors but, like isoproterenol, via beta-adrenoceptors. Furthermore, this study provides strong indications that beta(3)-adrenoceptors are involved.

Further characterization of β3-adrenoceptors in the guinea pig gastric fundus: stereoselectivity, β-adrenoceptor alkylation, and structure-activity relationship

The stereoselectivity of β3-adrenoceptors, the effect of a β-adrenoceptor alkylating agent, and the structure–activity relationship at β3-adrenoceptors were investigated on the guinea pig gastric fundus. Isomeric activity ratios ((+)/(–)) for isomers of isoprenaline and noradrenaline were 20.9-fold and 43.7-fold, respectively, and were less than those obtained for activation of β1- and β2-adrenoceptors in the guinea pig atria and trachea, respectively. The concentration–response curves to the catecholamines ((–)-isoprenaline, (–)-noradrenaline, and (–)-adrenaline), the selective β3-adrenoceptor agonist BRL37344 ((R*,R*)-(±)-4-[2-[(2-(3-chlorophenyl)-2-hydroxyethyl)amino]propyl]phenoxyacetic acid sodium), and the nonconventional partial β3-adrenoceptor agonist (±)-CGP12177A ((±)-[4-[3-[(1,1-dimethylethyl) amino]-2-hydroxypropoxy]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one] hydrochloride) were resistant to blockade by (±)-pindobind (10 µM), the β-adrenoceptor alkylating agent. Furthermore, (±)-nadolol, which belongs to the aryloxy propanolamine class and has β1- and β2-adrenoceptor antagonistic characteristics, displays agonistic activity at β3-adrenoceptors. These results indicate that pharmacological characteristics of the β3-adrenoceptors of guinea pig gastric fundus differ from those of β1- and β2-adrenoceptors. (–)-Noradrenaline and (–)-adrenaline were more potent than dopamine and (–)-phenylephrine, respectively. In addition, dobutamine was 22-fold more potent than dopamine. These results suggest that the 4-hydroxyl group at the catechol ring and the β-hydroxyl group and the large moiety on the alkylamine chain characterized efficacy at β3-adrenoceptors.Key words: β3-adrenoceptor, stereoselectivity, β-adrenoceptor alkylating, structure–activity relationship, guinea pig gastric fundus.

Genetics of abdominal visceral fat levels

The purpose of this review is to explore the evidence accumulated thus far that suggests a genetic component to the observed variation in abdominal visceral fat (AVF) levels. The precise determination of AVF levels in humans is limited to methods such as computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging; thus, few studies have examined the role of genetic factors on this phenotype. Evidence from the Québec Family Study (QFS) and the HERITAGE Family Study indicates that between 50-55% of the variance in AVF levels, adjusted for total fatness, is attributable to genetic factors. Additionally, a major gene hypothesis for AVF was supported in the both the QFS and HERITAGE Family Study. However, after adjustment for total fat mass the support for a major gene was reduced, suggesting that a major gene which affects fat mass may also affect AVF either directly (pleiotropy), or indirectly. The search for candidate genes that may impact AVF levels is in its infancy, and few candidate genes have been identified. However, the glucocorticoid receptor (GRL), ss3 adrenergic receptor (ADRB3), and fatty acid binding protein 2 (FABP2) genes have been significantly associated with AVF or intra-abdominal fat levels in humans. In addition, three quantitative trait loci obtained from crosses of mice, the Do2, Mob4, and Qbw1 loci have been linked with mesenteric or abdominal fat and are thus considered positional candidate genes for AVF levels. The search for candidate genes or random genetic markers associated with AVF levels is a challenging prospect. However, given the significant heritability of this phenotype, the quest remains promising. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 11:225-235, 1999. Copyright 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Lipid solubility of vasodilatory vanilloid-type beta-blockers on the functional and binding activities of beta-adrenoceptor subtypes

Various vanilloid-type beta-adrenoceptor blockers were studied on guinea pig right atrium and trachea and rat colon. In addition, we also investigated their beta(1)-, beta(2)-, and beta(3)-adrenoceptor binding affinities. All these beta-adrenergic antagonists inhibited (-)isoproterenol-induced positive chronotropic effects of the right atrium and tracheal relaxation responses in a concentration-dependent manner. Some of these agents prevented the inhibition of rat colon spontaneous motility by (-)isoproterenol. Of the agents tested, we found that ferulidilol, eugenodilol, eugenolol, isoeugenolol, and ferulinolol, as well as propranolol and metoprolol, possessed beta(3)-adrenoceptor blocking activities, others were nearly without effectiveness. Furthermore, the binding characteristics of vanilloid-type beta-adrenergic antagonists were evaluated in [3H]CGP-12177, a beta(1)/beta(2)-adrenoceptor blocker and a beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonist, binding to beta(1)-, beta(2)-, and beta(3)-adrenoceptor sites in rat ventricle, lung, and interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) membranes, respectively. Eugenodilol, eugenolol, metoprolol, isoeugenolol, and ferulinolol were less potent than both propranolol and ferulidilol in competing for the beta(3)-adrenoceptor binding sites. From the results of in vitro functional and binding studies, we suggested that propranolol, ferulidilol, eugenodilol, eugenolol, metoprolol, isoeugenolol, and ferulinolol all possessed beta(3)-adrenoceptor blocking activities. On the other hand, we also found that eugenodilol, eugenolol, metoprolol, isoeugenolol, and ferulinolol had a low lipid solubility in comparison with propranolol and ferulidilol. In conclusion, we proposed that beta(3)-adrenoceptor antagonistic actions of these vanilloid-type beta-blockers were positively correlated with their lipid solubility.

Functional properties of atypical beta-adrenoceptors on the guinea pig duodenum

In this study, we attempted to further characterize atypical beta-adrenoceptors on the guinea pig duodenum. (-)-Enantiomers of isoprenaline and noradrenaline were more potent than its (+)-enantiomers. The isomeric activity ratios ((+)/(-)) were less than those obtained in the guinea pig atria and trachea. The concentration-response curves to catecholamines ((-)-isoprenaline, (-)-noradrenaline and (-)-adrenaline), to the selective beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonist, BRL37344 ((R*, R*)-(+/-)-4-[2-[(2-(3-chlorophenyl)-2-hydroxyethyl)amino]propyl]phenoxyacetic acid sodium), and to the non-conventional partial beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonist, (+/-)-CGP12177A ((+/-)-[4-[3-[(1,1-dimethylethyl)amino]-2-hydroxypropoxy]-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one] hydrochloride), were resistant to blockade by (+/-)-pindobind, the beta-adrenoceptor alkylating agent. (-)-Noradrenaline and (-)-adrenaline were more potent than dopamine and (-)-phenylephrine, respectively. Selective beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonists possess agonistic activities at atypical beta-adrenoceptors. (+/-)-Propranolol and (+/-)-bupranolol had no agonistic effect, whereas (+/-)-alprenolol, (+/-)-pindolol, (+/-)-nadolol, (+/-)-CGP12177A and (+/-)-carteolol exhibited agonistic activities at atypical beta-adrenoceptors. These results suggest that pharmacological properties of atypical beta-adrenoceptors differ from those of conventional beta(1)- and beta(2)-adrenoceptors on the guinea pig.

Effects of the two beta3-agonists, ZD7114 and ZD2079 on 24 hour energy expenditure and respiratory quotient in obese subjects

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the effect of two different beta3-adrenoceptor agonists, ZD7114 and ZD2079 on 24h energy expenditure (EE) and substrate oxidations in obese weight-stable subjects.

DESIGN

Measurements of 24 h EE in a respiration chamber, before and after 14 days of treatment with one of the two beta3-agonists or placebo during weight maintenance.

SUBJECTS

ZD7114 study: 7 male and 15 female subjects, body mass index (BMI) 28-39 kg/m2, age 27-64 y; ZD2079 study: 10 male and 7 female subjects, BMI 27-39 kg/m2, age 31-60 y.

MEASUREMENTS

EE was measured by indirect calorimetry, spontaneous physical activity (SPA) assessed by microwave radar, and 24 h heart rate was registered by telemetry. Serum potassium was measured to test for possible beta2-adrenoceptor activity.

RESULTS

No effects of ZD7114 were found on tested parameters whereas there was a trend for a stimulatory effect of ZD2079 on 24h EE (day 14-pretreatment; ZD2079 vs placebo: 0.4 +/- 1.1 vs -2.0 +/- 0.4%, P = 0.06) and on SPA (day 14-pretreatment; ZD2079 vs placebo: 3.4 +/- 4.5 vs -7.7 +/- 2.7%, P = 0.05). However, average 24 h heart rate decreased from 77.5 +/- 3.2 to 73.8 +/- 2.6 min(-1) from pre-treatment to day 14 with placebo but remained the same with ZD2079 (P = 0.03). The latter suggests some beta1-adrenoceptor activity of the compound.

CONCLUSION

The lack of thermogenic response with ZD7114 and the very small and questionable response with ZD2079 probably demonstrate a lack of consistency between species in the responsiveness to beta3-stimulation or a diversity in structure of the beta3 receptor since both compounds have proven markedly selective thermogenic beta3-properties in rodents.

Cell-enlargement-related polypeptides are induced via beta(1)-adrenoceptors in mouse parotids

Induction of cell and gland enlargement (growth-in-size) and induction of a group of secretory polypeptides (polypeptides C-G) seem to occur in close relationship in mouse parotid glands stimulated chronically by the nonselective beta-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol. To determine whether beta(1), beta(2), or both subtypes of beta-adrenergic receptors are involved in those responses, dose-dependency studies were carried out during a 7-day period of daily stimulations to assess the relative abilities of the selective beta-adrenergic agonists dobutamine (beta(1)) and salbutamol (beta(2)) to induce polypeptides C-G and growth-in-size. The relative abilities of the selective beta-adrenoceptor antagonists atenolol (beta(1)) and I.C.I. 118.551 (beta(2)) to interfere with the induction of both responses by chronic treatment with the various beta-adrenergic agonists were also studied. Parotid growth-in-size was assessed by evaluating wet weight, whole protein content, and light microscopy histology. The presence of polypeptides C-G was evaluated after SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Coomassie blue staining. Under these experimental conditions, dobutamine was found to be at least one order of magnitude more potent than salbutamol at inducing growth-in-size. Dobutamine was also found to be clearly stronger than salbutamol as an inducer of polypeptides C-G. On the other hand, atenolol was more effective than I.C.I. 118.551 at preventing the induction of polypeptides C-G and growth-in-size by isoproterenol, dobutamine, or salbutamol. Taken together, these results suggest that in mouse parotid glands, polypeptides C-G and growth-in-size are induced preferentially via adrenergic receptors of the beta(1)-subtype.

Functional, biochemical and molecular biological evidence for a possible beta(3)-adrenoceptor in human near-term myometrium

The possible existence of a beta(3)-adrenoceptor (beta(3)-AR) in human near-term myometrium was investigated by in vitro functional and biochemical studies and analysis of mRNA expression. SR 59119A and SR 59104A and CGP 12177 (two selective agonists and a partial agonist, respectively, of the beta(3)-AR), salbutamol and terbutaline (beta(2)-AR agonists) each produced a concentration-dependent relaxation of the myometrial spontaneous contractions. There were no differences in pD(2) values for the relaxing potencies of terbutaline, salbutamol, CGP 12177 and SR 59119A. The rank order for their relaxing efficacies was SR 59119A>SR 59104A>terbutaline approximately salbutamol approximately CGP 12177 (E(max)=52+/-7%, 42+/-12% and approximately 30% respectively). Propranolol, a beta(1)- and beta(2)-AR antagonist, and ICI 118551, a beta(2)-AR antagonist (both at 0.1 microM), did not affect the SR 59119A-induced relaxation whereas SR 59230A, a selective beta(3)-AR antagonist (1 microM), significantly reduced the maximal relaxing effect of SR 59119A. SR 59119A and salbutamol induced a significant increase in cyclic AMP levels that was antagonized by SR 59230A but not by propranolol for SR 59119A, and by propranolol but not by SR 59230A for salbutamol. The beta(3)-AR mRNA was positively expressed in myometrium preparations in a reverse transcription polymerase chain assay. The results presented provide the first evidence for the existence of the beta(3)-AR subtype in human near-term myometrium and suggest that the effects of SR 59119A might be mediated through an increase in cyclic AMP level.

Synthesis and human beta-adrenoceptor activity of 1-(3,5-diiodo-4- methoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-ol derivatives in vitro

Trimetoquinol (1, TMQ) is a potent nonselective beta-adrenergic receptor (AR) agonist and a thromboxane A(2)/prostaglandin endoperoxide (TP) receptor antagonist, while 3',5'-diiodo-TMQ (2) exhibits beta(3)-AR selectivity. In search of selective beta(3)-AR agonists as potential drugs for the treatment of human obesity and type II diabetes mellitus, a series of 1-(3, 5-diiodo-4-methoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinolin-6-ols has been prepared and evaluated for their biological activities at human beta(1)-, beta(2)-, and beta(3)-ARs expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. The compounds have been synthesized by the Bischler-Napieralski cyclization of corresponding amides followed by NaBH(4) reduction, and the halogens in the aromatic ring A were introduced by direct halogenation of protected compound 11. Whereas halogen substitution in ring A reduced either potency or intrinsic activity on beta(3)-AR, the non-halogen-substituted compounds 8 and 10 were potent, selective, nearly full agonists for beta(3)-AR.

Pharmacological analysis of atypical beta-adrenoceptors in the guinea pig gastric fundus using the beta(3)-adrenoceptor antagonist bupranolol

Atypical beta-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxations to catecholamines (isoprenaline, noradrenaline and adrenaline) and beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonists, BRL37344 [(R*, R*)-(+/-)-4-[2-[(2-(3-chlorophenyl)-2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-propyl]phen oxyacetic acid sodium salt] and CGP12177A [(-)-4-(3-t-butylamino-2-hydroxy- propoxy)benzimidazol-2-one] in guinea pig gastric fundus were investigated. The five agonists induced concentration-dependent relaxation of the gastric fundus. In the presence of both atenolol and butoxamine only small rightward shifts of the concentration-response curves to these agonists were observed. Under this condition, however, bupranolol caused a concentration-dependent rightward shift of the concentration-response curve to catecholamines and beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonists. Schild plot analyses of bupranolol against these agonists gave pA(2) values of 6.08 (isoprenaline), 6. 04 (noradrenaline), 5.90 (adrenaline), 6.50 (BRL37344) and 5.80 (CGP12177A), respectively. These results clearly suggest that the existence of functional atypical beta-adrenoceptors in the guinea pig gastric fundus and the relaxation of these agonists in this tissue are mediated via atypical beta-adrenoceptors.

Effect of bupranolol for BRL37344 and noradrenaline-induced relaxations mediating atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptor in rat oesophageal muscularis mucosae

We previously suggested that the existence of atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptor with pA2-values for bupranolol, a non-selective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, against BRL37344 and noradrenaline were 5.79 and 5.53 in guinea pig taenia caecum, respectively. We furthermore determined the affinity of bupranolol to subclassify atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptor in rat oesophageal muscularis mucosae, because it is rich in atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptor. BRL37344 and noradrenaline produced a concentration-dependent relaxation of rat oesophageal muscularis mucosae. The responses to BRL37344 and noradrenaline were resistant to 3x10(-6) M propranolol, 10(-4) M atenolol, and 10(-4) M butoxamine. However, bupranolol antagonized the responses to BRL37344 and noradrenaline in a concentration-dependent manner. Schild plot analyses of bupranolol against BRL37344 and noradrenaline gave pA2-values of 7.06 and 6.96, respectively. These results suggest that bupranolol can distinguish the difference in affinity between atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptors in rat oesophageal muscularis mucosae and guinea pig taenia caecum. The difference in behavior of bupranolol confirms the existence of some atypical beta/beta3-adrenoceptors subtypes.

A Trp 64 Arg mutation in the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene is not associated with moderate overweight in Japanese workers

The aim of the present study was to investigate the trend for obesity and the relationship between Trp64Arg mutation in the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene and obesity-related phenotypes in Japanese workers. A total of 658 workers, 483 women and 175 men, responded to this survey. Genomic DNA was prepared from leukocytes, and DNA amplification by polymerase chain reaction was performed using 100 ng genomic DNA. Amplified fragments were digested with BstNI and analyzed by 3% agarose gel electrophoresis. The body mass index (BMI) increased from 21.1 +/- 2.6 to 22.0 +/- 3.0 kg/m2 for women and from 20.9 +/- 2.1 to 22.1 +/- 2.6 kg/m2 for men from 1982 to 1997. Body weight increased 63.3% for women and 67.4% for men over 15 years. The frequency of the Trp64Arg allele was 19.9%, and the frequency of heterozygote and homozygote carriers of the mutation was 32.9% and 3.4%, respectively. Changes in the BMI and body weight over 15 years from 1982 to 1997 did not differ significantly between subjects with or without the mutant allele in either women or men. The BMI was not significantly higher in subjects who were homozygous or heterozygous for the Trp64Arg mutation versus subjects who were homozygous for the normal allele. This mutation of the beta3-adrenergic receptor gene is not likely a major determinant of moderate obesity in the Japanese population.

Beta3-adrenergic relaxation of bovine iris sphincter

Bovine iris sphincter in vitro responded to beta-adrenergic stimulation with pronounced relaxation (EC50 of isoproterenol = 0.3 nM), which was potentiated by the cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor, isobutylmethylxanthine, and mimicked by the adenylyl cyclase activator, forskolin. The beta1/beta2 antagonist, propranolol, exhibited low potency with calculated Ki of 200 nM. The beta3-selective antagonist, bupranolol, exhibited a biphasic inhibition profile, with calculated Kis of approximately 20-50 and 200-300 nM. The beta3-selective agonist, BRL 37344, elicited 70% of maximal relaxation (EC50 = 30 nM). When relaxation was induced by BRL 37344, bupranolol exhibited much higher potency (calculated Ki = 1 nM). Our data suggest that the beta-adrenergic relaxation response in bovine iris sphincter is mediated by a mixed population of beta-adrenergic receptors, with a predominant contribution of atypical, most likely beta3 subtype, receptors.

Species differences in the distribution of beta-adrenoceptor subtypes in bladder smooth muscle

1. The beta-adrenoceptor (beta-AR) subtypes mediating relaxation of the rabbit, rat and canine detrusors were subjected to functional investigation using selective beta-AR agonists and antagonists. 2. In all three species, isoprenaline, noradrenaline and adrenaline each produced a concentration-dependent relaxation of the detrusor. The rank order for their relaxing potency was isoprenaline>adrenaline>noradrenaline in rabbits and rats, but isoprenaline>noradrenaline>adrenaline in dogs. 3. Dobutamine did not produce relaxation of the detrusors at concentrations that are selective for beta1-AR. The selective beta2-AR agonist, procaterol, had a more potent relaxing effect on rabbit and rat detrusors than on the canine detrusor. CGP-12177A, a selective beta3-AR agonist, was more effective in the rabbit than in the other two species. On the other hand, the relaxing effect of another beta3-AR agonist, CL316243, was more pronounced in dogs and rats than in rabbits. 4. CGP-20712A (10(-9) to 10(-7) M), a selective beta1-AR antagonist, caused a slight rightward shift of the concentration-relaxation response curve for isoprenaline in the canine detrusor (pA2 9.41), but not in the rabbit and rat detrusors. ICI-118,551, a selective beta2-AR antagonist, antagonized the isoprenaline-induced relaxation in rabbits (pA2 9.45) and rats (pA2 9.05), but not in dogs. Bupranolol, a non-selective beta-AR antagonist, caused a rightward shift of the concentration-relaxation curve for isoprenaline in the rabbit (pA2 9.32) and rat (pA2 8.98). However, higher concentrations (3 x 10(-8) to 10(-5) M) were needed to induce a rightward shift of the curve for isoprenaline in the dog (pA2 8.19) than in the other two species. 5. We have confirmed that the distribution of beta-AR subtypes in the detrusor muscle varies significantly from species to species and we provide here the first evidence of the presence of beta3-AR in the detrusor. It is suggested that the relaxation induced by adrenoceptor agonists in urinary bladder smooth muscle may be mediated mainly via beta2-AR in rabbits, via both beta2- and beta3-AR in rats, but mainly via beta3-AR in dogs.

Comparison of atypical beta3-adrenoceptor agonists with their respective metabolic activities in rat white adipocytes

The metabolic activities of four types of beta3-adrenoceptor (AR) agonists, BRL35135A, BRL28410, ICI215001 and CL316243, were compared with those of other beta1- and beta2-AR agonists in rat white adipocytes. All the beta3-AR agonists caused cAMP formation, free fatty acid release and 2-deoxyglucose uptake; the maximum activity levels were similar except for ICI215001, which was lower. However, the magnitude of potency and selectivity of these agonists differed. The most potent and selective beta3-agonist was CL316243. Metabolic activities and Northern blotting showed that there were three beta-AR subtypes that were coupled to adenylyl cyclase and contributed to the induction of lipolysis and glucose uptake. The rank order of the amounts of beta-AR subtypes was beta3 >>beta1> beta2. However, the physiological functions of beta-AR subtypes were essentially similar in rat white adipocytes. On the other hand, cAMP accumulation and Northern blotting showed that human adipocytes predominantly contained beta2-AR, with far lower levels of beta1- and beta3-ARs. These findings suggested that the beta3-AR plays an important role in energy metabolism and thermogenesis in which cross talk exists between beta1- and beta3-ARs in rat adipocytes, while beta2-AR is the most important for the lipolysis regulation in human subcutaneous adipocytes.

Beta3-adrenoceptors mediate relaxation of guinea pig taenia caecum by BRL37344A and BRL35135A

Beta-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxation of guinea pig taenia caecum was investigated by studying the effects of the beta3-adrenoceptor agonists, BRL37344A [(R*,R*)-(+/-)-4-[2'-[2-hydroxy-2-(3-chlorophenyl) ethylamino] propyl] phenoxyacetic acid sodium salt sesquihydrate] and BRL35135A [(R*,R*)-(+/-)-methyl-4-[2-[2-hydroxy-2-(3-chlorophenyl) ethylamine] propyl] phenoxyacetate hydrobromide]. BRL37344A and BRL35135A caused dose-dependent relaxation of the guinea pig taenia caecum. The concentration-response curves for BRL37344A and BRL35135A were unaffected by propranolol, ICI118551 [erythro-1-(7-methylindan-4-yloxy)-3-(isopropylamine)-but an-2-ol], atenolol, butoxamine, prazosin, yohimbine and phentolamine. Bupranolol produced shifts of the concentration-response curves for BRL37344A and BRL35135A. Schild regression analyses carried out for bupranolol against BRL37344A and BRL35135A gave pA2 values of 5.79 and 5.84, respectively. These results suggest that the relaxant response to BRL37344A and BRL35135A of the guinea pig taenia caecum is mediated by beta3-adrenoceptors.

Human immortalized brown adipocytes express functional beta3-adrenoceptor coupled to lipolysis

Human brown pre-adipocytes were immortalized by microinjection of the genes encoding simian virus 40 T and t antigens under the control of the human vimentin promotor. The transfected pre-adipocytes were cultured for several months with no loss of their morphological characteristics. These cells accumulate lipids and differentiate into adipocytes when treated with insulin, triiodothyronine and dexamethazone. The mRNA of various adipocyte markers was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis, including hormone-sensitive lipase, lipoprotein lipase, adipsin, glucose transporters 1 and 4, the uncoupling protein (specific of brown adipocytes), and leptin, the product of the ob gene. Pharmacological analyses indicated that the beta3-adrenoceptor is the predominant beta-adrenoceptor subtype in PAZ6 cells and that this receptor subtype is functionally coupled to adenylate cyclase and lipolysis. The immortalization of human adipocytes will permit pharmacological analysis of the human beta3-adrenoceptor function in adipose cells and will allow detailed studies of human adipocyte differentiation.

Regulation of protein kinase B and glycogen synthase kinase-3 by insulin and beta-adrenergic agonists in rat epididymal fat cells. Activation of protein kinase B by wortmannin-sensitive and -insensitive mechanisms

Previous studies using L6 myotubes have suggested that glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) is phosphorylated and inactivated in response to insulin by protein kinase B (PKB, also known as Akt or RAC) (Cross, D. A. E., Alessi, D. R., Cohen, P., Andjelkovic, M., and Hemmings, B. A. (1995) Nature 378, 785-789). In the present study, marked increases in the activity of PKB have been shown to occur in insulin-treated rat epididymal fat cells with a time course compatible with the observed decrease in GSK-3 activity. Isoproterenol, acting primarily through beta3-adrenoreceptors, was found to decrease GSK-3 activity to a similar extent (approximately 50%) to insulin. However, unlike the effect of insulin, the inhibition of GSK by isoproterenol was not found to be sensitive to inhibition by the phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase inhibitors, wortmannin or LY 294002. The change in GSK-3 activity brought about by isoproterenol could not be mimicked by the addition of permeant cyclic AMP analogues or forskolin to the cells, although at the concentrations used, these agents were able to stimulate lipolysis. Isoproterenol, but again not the cyclic AMP analogues, was found to increase the activity of PKB, although to a lesser extent than insulin. While wortmannin abolished the stimulation of PKB activity by insulin, it was without effect on the activation seen in response to isoproterenol. The activation of PKB by isoproterenol was not accompanied by any detectable change in the electrophoretic mobility of the protein on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. It would therefore appear that distinct mechanisms exist for the stimulation of PKB by insulin and isoproterenol in rat fat cells.

The Trp64Arg mutation of the beta3 adrenergic receptor gene has no effect on obesity phenotypes in the Québec Family Study and Swedish Obese Subjects cohorts

The beta adrenergic system plays a key role in regulating energy balance through the stimulation of both thermogenesis and lipid mobilization in brown and white adipose tissues in human and various animal models. Recent studies have suggested that a missense Trp64Arg mutation in the beta3 adrenergic receptor (ADRB3) gene was involved in obesity and insulin resistance. We have investigated the effect of this mutation on obesity-related phenotypes in two cohorts: the Québec Family Study (QFS) and the Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS). In QFS, no association was found between this mutation and body mass index (BMI), body fat including abdominal visceral fat, resting metabolic rate, various diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors, and changes in body weight and body fat over a 12-yr period. With the exception of RMR (P = 0.04), no evidence of linkage was detected between the mutation and phenotypes of QFS based on sib-pair data. In SOS, the frequency of the Trp64Arg allele was not significantly different between nonobese and obese female subjects and no association was found between the mutation and body weight gain over time. These findings do not support the view that there is an association between the Trp64Arg mutation in the ADRB3 gene and obesity.

Functional beta3-adrenoceptor in the human heart

Beta3-adrenoceptors are involved in metabolism, gut relaxation, and vascular vasodilation. However, their existence and role in the human heart have not been documented. We investigated the effects of several beta-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists on the mechanical properties of ventricular endomyocardial biopsies. In the presence of nadolol, a beta1- and beta2-adrenoceptor antagonist, isoprenaline produced consistent negative inotropic effects. Similar negative inotropic effects also resulted from the action of beta3-adrenoceptor agonists with an order of potency: BRL 37344 > SR 58611 approximately CL 316243 > CGP 12177. The dose-response curve to BRL 37344-decreasing myocardial contractility was not modified by pretreatment with nadolol, but was shifted to the right by bupranolol, a nonselective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist. Beta3-adrenoceptor agonists also induced a reduction in the amplitude and an acceleration in the repolarization phase of the human action potential. Beta3-adrenoceptor transcripts were detected in human ventricle by a polymerase chain reaction assay. These results indicate that: (a) beta3-adrenoceptors are present and functional in the human heart; and (b) these receptors are responsible for the unexpected negative inotropic effects of catecholamines and may be involved in pathophysiological mechanisms leading to heart failure.

Pharmacological study of atypical beta-adrenoceptors in rat esophageal smooth muscle

The chemical specificity for the beta-adrenoceptor mediated relaxation of rat esophageal smooth muscle was evaluated using selective and non-selective beta-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists. Pindolol, ICI 89,406, ICI 118551 [erythro-1-(7-methylindan-4-yloxy)-3-(isopropylamine)-but an-2-ol] and the beta-adrenoceptor alkylating agent, pindobind, produced only small rightward shifts in the concentration-response curves of (-)-isoprenaline and (-)-trimetoquinol in this preparation. Rank order potency (pD2 values) of agonists was: (+/-)-trimetoquinol [1-(3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzyl)-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3, 4-tetrahydroisoquinoline] (8.34) = (-)-trimetoquinol (8.26) = BRL 37344 [(R* R*)-(+/-)-4-[2'-2-hydroxy 2-(3-chlorophenyl)ethylamino]propyl] phenoxyacetic acid] (8.16) = ICID7114 [(S)-4-(2-hydroxy- 3-phenoxy-propylamino-ethoxy)-N-(2-methoxyethyl) phenoxyacetamide] (8.03) > or = (-)-isoprenaline (7.82) > 3',5'-diiodotrimetoquinol [1-(3',5'-diiodo-4'-methoxybenzyl)-6, 7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline] (7.28) > 3'-iodotrimetoquinol [1-(3'-iodo-4',5'-dimethoxybenzyl)-6, 7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline] (7.04) > ractopamine (6.84) = 5,8-difluorotrimetoquinol [5,8-difluoro-6,7-dihydroxy-1- (3',4',5'-trimethoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline] (6.82) > 8-fluorotrimetoquinol [6,7-dihydroxy-8-fluoro-1-(3',4',5'- trimethoxybenzyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline] (6.56) > or = (-)-noradrenaline (6.46) > or = (-)-adrenaline (6.36) > (+/-)-noradrenaline (6.24) > (+/-)-adrenaline (6.00) > clenbuterol (5.83) > (-)-1-benzyl-6, 7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline (5.75). Isomeric activity ratios of trimetoquinol isomers [(-)-(S)- > > (+)-(R)-] in esophageal smooth muscle in the presence and absence of 1 microM pindolol were 1995- and 2951-fold, respectively; and were much greater than those in rat atria (282-fold) and rat trachea (107-fold). The atypical beta/beta 3-adrenoceptor partial agonist, ICI D7114, produced concentration-dependent rightward shifts of the concentration-response curves of (-)-isoprenaline, (-)-trimetoquinol and the reference atypical beta/beta 3-adrenoceptor agonist, BRL 37344. Schild plot analysis of ICI D7114 against trimetoquinol gave slope and pA2 values of 0.91 and of 7.9, respectively. These results clearly demonstrate that the relaxant effects of these agonists in rat esophageal smooth muscle are primarily mediated through the activation of atypical beta/beta 3-adrenoceptors. (-)-Trimetoquinol was as potent as (-)- isoprenaline and BRL 37344, and was the most stereoselective agonist evaluated in this tissue system.

Agonist and antagonist properties of beta 3-adrenoceptors in human omental and mouse 3T3-L1 adipocytes

The pharmacological properties of the native human beta 3-adrenoceptor are poorly defined. In the present study, the agonist and antagonist properties of beta 3-adrenoceptors in human omental and mouse 3T3-L1 adipocytes were compared by measuring lipolysis in the absence or presence of adrenoceptor blockers. Methodological experiments revealed that all three beta-adrenoceptors were functionally expressed in both types of adipocytes. This makes the human and the mouse cells directly comparable in pharmacological studies. CGP 12177 was a selective partial beta 3-adrenoceptor agonist in both cell types with a pD(2) of about 7.5. The order of potency of classical non-selective adrenoceptor agonists, when determined during blockade of beta 1-, beta 2- and alpha 2-adrenoceptors, was isoprenaline>noradrenaline>adrenaline in both human and 3T3-L1 adipocytes. This is different from the order of potency of the same agonists at the beta 1- or beta 2-adrenoceptors. The sensitivity of the beta 3-adrenoceptor to these catecholamines, expressed as pD(2) values, were virtually identical in both adipocyte types. Isoprenaline, noradrenaline, and adrenaline were almost full agonists in both cell types (intrinsic activity from 74% or 95%) during combined beta 1, beta 2- and alpha 2-adrenoceptor blockade. Antagonist potencies (expressed as pA(2) and using CGP 12177 as agonist) at the alpha 3-adrenoceptor were similar in both adipocyte types: bupranolol>propranolol>metoprolol. The corresponding pA(2) values for bupranolol, propanolol and metoprolol were about 7, 6 and 5, respectively in both species. In conclusion, the pharmacological properties of classical catecholamines, beta-adrenoceptor blockers and CGP 12177 are almost identical at the beta 3-adrenoceptors of human omental adipocytes and 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

In situ assessment of the role of the beta 1-, beta 2- and beta 3-adrenoceptors in the control of lipolysis and nutritive blood flow in human subcutaneous adipose tissue

1. The involvement of beta 1-, beta 2- and beta 3-adrenoceptors in the control of lipolysis and nutritive blood flow was investigated in abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue of healthy young adults by use of an in situ microdialysis technique. 2. Dialysis probes were infused either with isoprenaline (non-selective beta-adrenoceptor agonist), CGP 12,177 (selective beta 3-adrenoceptor agonist having beta 1-/beta 2-antagonist properties), dobutamine (selective beta 1-adrenoceptor agonist) or terbutaline (selective beta 2-adrenoceptor agonist). The recovery of each probe used for perfusion was calculated by an in vivo calibration method. The local blood flow was estimated through the measurement of the escape of ethanol infused simultaneously with the drugs included in the probe. 3. Isoprenaline infusion at 0.01 microM had a weak effect while higher concentrations of isoprenaline (0.1 and 1 microM) caused a rapid, sustained and concentration-dependent increase of glycerol outflow; the maximum increase was 306 +/- 34% with 1 microM. Isoprenaline also increased the nutritive blood flow in adipose tissue; a significant effect appeared at 0.1 microM isoprenaline and was greater at 1 microM. 4. CGP 12,177 (10 and 100 microM) increased the glycerol concentration in the dialysate (128 +/- 8 and 149 +/- 12%, respectively) and nutritive blood flow. Terbutaline and dobutamine (100 microM) both provoked rapid and similar increases in glycerol outflow (252 +/- 18 and 249 +/- 18%, respectively). Both, terbutaline and dobutamine increased nutritive blood flow. 5. It is concluded that beta 1- and beta 2-adrenoceptor subtypes are both mainly involved in the mobilization of lipids and in the control of nutritive blood flow. beta 3-Adrenoceptors play a weaker role in the control of lipolysis and nutritive blood flow in human subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue.

Functional identification of rat atypical beta-adrenoceptors by the first beta 3-selective antagonists, aryloxypropanolaminotetralins

1. We have assessed the relative abilities of compounds belonging to the new aryloxypropanolaminotetralin (APAT) class and of the reference beta-adrenoceptor-blocking agent, alprenolol, to antagonize functional responses in vitro and in vivo involving atypical (beta 3) or conventional (beta 1 and beta 2) beta-adrenoceptors. 2. The range of pA2 values for three representative APATs against inhibition of spontaneous motility in the rat isolated colon by the selective beta 3-adrenoceptor agonist, SR 58611A (8.1-8.8), was well above similarly calculated values for non-competitive antagonism of guinea-pig trachea relaxation by salbutamol (beta 2, 6.5-6.9) and the atrial chronotropic response by isoprenaline (beta 1, 6.7-7.3). Alprenolol, however, was substantially more potent in antagonizing atrial (pA2, 8.2) and tracheal (pA2, 8.9) responses than SR 58611A mediated inhibition of colonic motility (pA2, 6.8). 3. Several APAT isomers with different configurations at the chiral carbons, when tested on isolated organs, presented stringent stereochemical requirements for beta 3-selectivity, including high antagonist potency-ratios between active and inactive enantiomers. 4. In vivo, the inhibition of colonic motility and the thermogenic response of brown adipose tissue elicited in rats by the selective beta 3-adrenoceptor agonists SR 58611A and BRL 37344 respectively were substantially diminished by the representative APAT, SR 59230A, at oral doses (< or = 5 mg kg-1) well below those half maximally effective (ID50) for preventing beta 1-(isoprenaline tachycardia > or = 80 mg kg-1) or beta 2-(salbutamol bronchodilatation, 44 mg kg-1) mediated responses. Alprenolol, as expected, was a less potent and nonselective antagonist of the putative beta 3-responses. 5. These findings support APATs as the first potent, orally effective selective antagonists at beta 3-adrenoceptors, and provide final unambiguous evidence that beta 3-adrenoceptors underlie inhibition of colonic motility and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis in rats.

Effects of isoproterenol infusion on the myocardial uptake of fatty acids and other substrates in lambs with an aortopulmonary shunt

Isoproterenol, used in the management of infants with left-to-right shunts and circulatory congestion, increases myocardial work load and oxygen consumption. In addition, it may selectively enhance myocardial fatty acid utilization. The less efficient oxidation of FFA could induce an oxygen wasting effect and thus further increase myocardial oxygen consumption. The combination of such an oxygen wasting effect and the chrono- and inotropic effects of isoproterenol could induce an imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand in hearts of which resting oxygen consumption is already elevated. We studied myocardial substrate uptake (FFA, triglycerides, glucose, lactate, pyruvate, beta-OH-butyrate, and acetoacetate) in 10 7-wk-old lambs with an aortopulmonary left-to-right shunt (57 +/- 4% of left ventricular output, mean +/- SEM) and 9 control lambs during isoproterenol infusion (0.1 mumol.min-1.kg-1). Myocardial blood flow and oxygen consumption increased in both groups but less in shunt than in control lambs because of the smaller rise in heart rate in the shunt lambs. The arterial FFA concentration increased 3-fold in both groups and was not different between the two groups. The FFA arteriocoronary sinus difference, however, was not affected by the isoproterenol infusion. The myocardial FFA uptake thus followed the changes in myocardial blood flow and did not increase more in shunt than in control lambs. Isoproterenol infusion does, in spite of a 3-fold increase in arterial FFA concentration, not induce a shift toward a greater percentage uptake of fatty acids compared with other substrates in lambs with aortopulmonary left-to-right shunt, so that the possibility of an oxygen wasting effect can be ruled out as an unwanted side effect.

Targeted disruption of the beta 3-adrenergic receptor gene

beta 3-Adrenergic receptors (beta 3-ARs) are expressed predominantly in white and brown adipose tissue, and beta 3-selective agonists are potential anti-obesity drugs. However, the role of beta 3-ARs in normal physiology is unknown. To address this issue, homologous recombination was used to generate mice that lack beta 3-ARs. This was accomplished by direct injection of a DNA-targeting construct into mouse zygotes. Twenty-three transgenic mice were generated, of which two had targeted disruption of the beta 3-AR gene. Mice that were homozygous for the disrupted allele had undetectable levels of intact beta 3-AR mRNA, as assessed by RNase protection assay and Northern blotting, and lacked functional beta 3-ARs, as demonstrated by complete loss of beta 3-agonist (CL 316,243)-induced stimulation of adenylate cyclase activity and lipolysis. beta 3-AR-deficient mice had modestly increased fat stores (females more than males), indicating that beta 3-ARs play a role in regulating energy balance. Importantly, beta 1 but not beta 2-AR mRNA levels up-regulated in white and brown adipose tissue of beta 3-AR-deficient mice (brown more than white), strongly implying that beta 3-ARs mediate physiologically relevant signaling under normal conditions and that "cross-talk" exists between beta 3-ARs and beta 1-AR gene expression. Finally, acute treatment of normal mice with CL 316,243 increased serum levels of free fatty acids (FFAs) (3.2-fold) and insulin (140-fold), increased energy expenditure (2-fold), and reduced food intake (by 45%). These effects were completely absent in beta 3-AR-deficient mice, proving that the actions of CL are mediated exclusively by beta 3-ARs. beta 3-AR-deficient mice should be useful as a means to a better understanding of the physiology and pharmacology of beta 3-ARs.

Carazolol: a potent, selective beta 3-adrenoceptor agonist

Carazolol is a beta1/beta2 adrenoceptor antagonist of high potency used in the treatment of hypertension. Its affinity for the beta 3-adrenoceptor was determined in Chinese hamster ovary cells transfected with the gene of the human or the murine beta 3-adrenoceptor. Carazolol is recognized with a nanomolar affinity, which positions it among the best ligands for beta 3-adrenoceptors. The adenylyl cyclase stimulation was measured in transfected cells where carazolol acted as a full agonist on both murine and human receptor subtypes. Furthermore, in murine adipocyte-like 3T3-F442A cells, which express beta 3-adrenoceptor naturally, carazolol induced lipolysis. This compound also appeared to be a useful tool for molecular characterization of the beta 3-adrenoceptor, unlike the classical beta 3-adrenoceptor agonists, carazolol conferred an appreciable protection of receptor binding sites against inactivation by the reducing agent dithiothreitol. The major iodinated analog of carazolol retained its binding characteristics for the beta 3-adrenoceptor and remained an efficient adenylyl cyclase stimulator in cells expressing human beta 3-adrenoceptor.

Adrenergic receptors and fat cells: differential recruitment by physiological amines and homologous regulation

The control of fat cell lipolysis by the catecholamines involves at least four different adrenoceptor subtypes; three beta (beta 1-, beta 2-, and beta 3-ARs) and one alpha 2-adrenoceptor (alpha 2-AR). The physiological importance of the beta- and alpha 2A-ARs varies according to the species, the sex, the age, the anatomical location of fat deposits and the degree of obesity in humans and animals. The physiological amines operate through differential recruitment of these sites on the basis of their relative affinities. This point has been assessed by in vitro studies and has partly been confirmed in in vivo experiments using selected alpha/beta-AR antagonists and in situ microdialysis. The affinity of the beta 3-AR for catecholamines is less than that of the classical beta 1- and beta 2-ARs in the various species investigated. Conversely, it is the alpha 2-AR which exhibit the highest affinity for the physiological amines in all fat cells. The relative order of affinity of the various fat cell ARs for the physiological amines defined in binding studies and in vitro assays is alpha 2 > beta 1 > or = beta 2 > beta 3 for norepinephrine and alpha 2 > beta 2 > beta 1 > beta 3 for epinephrine. When considering differential beta-AR recruitment by catecholamines, it is the beta 1-AR which is always activated at the lowest norepinephrine levels, whatever the species, while the activation of the beta 3-AR requires higher norepinephrine levels. In addition to the differential recruitment, differential regulation by hormones could also occur for each fat cell AR subtype. The alpha 2-and beta 3-ARs are less prone to desensitization and down-regulation by comparison with the beta 1- and beta 2-AR.

A novel adrenaline derivative, AZ002, and its hypoglycemic action in yellow KK mice

AZ002 (L-threo-(3,4-dihydroxy phenyl)-N-methyl serine methyl ester) is a newly synthesized adrenaline derivative. AZ002 caused relaxation of rat jejunum (beta 3-receptors) (ED50 = 18 microM), but did not affect the atrial rate (beta 1) or tracheal relaxation (beta 2) at a concentration of 0.3 mM. The pA2 values for propranolol in inhibiting the isoproterenol- and AZ002-stimulated relaxation of rat jejunum were 6.27 and 6.33, respectively. Thus, AZ002 is a selective agonist for beta 3-adrenoceptor. AZ002 stimulated lipolysis (ED50 = 10 microM) and glucose uptake (ED50 = 1 microM) in rat adipocytes. In both cases, stimulation was antagonized by high concentrations of the beta-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol, but not by the alpha-adrenoceptor antagonist phentolamine. The effect of AZ002 on glucose uptake was synergistic with that of insulin. AZ002 was also assessed in vivo by using genetically obese mice (KK/Ay strain) with hyperglycemia. Administration of AZ002 in the diet for a week decreased blood glucose and non-esterified fatty acids.