Effect of an extract from Phyllanthus amarus on hepatitis B surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells

The antiviral potential of Phyllanthus species: a systematic review

Viral infections and diseases caused by viruses are worldwide problems. According to a WHO report, three to five million people are chronically infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) each year globally. Since some viruses mutate very quickly, developing antiviral drugs can be a daunting task. Moreover, currently used synthetic drugs are toxic and associated with side effects. Therefore, there is a need to search for alternative natural remedies that have low toxicity, a new mechanism of action, and no major side effects. Phyllanthus plants have traditionally been used to treat viral hepatitis and liver damage in many tropical and subtropical countries worldwide. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic potential of Phyllanthus spp. against HBV, HCV, HIV, herpes simplex virus, and SARS-CoV-2. The inferences from in vitro and in vivo studies and clinical trials validate the use of Phyllanthus in antiviral remedies.

The underlying mechanisms of anti-hepatitis B effects of formula Le-Cao-Shi and its single herbs by network pharmacology and gut microbiota analysis

Formula Le-Cao-Shi (LCS), a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has been used as folk remedy for treating hepatitis B for a long time. In our previous study, the anti-hepatitis B effects of LCS have been verified. In the present study, the anti-hepatitis B activities of LCS and its three single herbs were investigated in vitro by HepG2.2.15 cellular model, and the mechanisms against hepatitis B were deciphered via network pharmacology and gut microbiota analysis. By network pharmacology method, twelve key compounds that played a vital role in LCS were filtered from 213 ingredients. The targets RORA, CDK2, RELA, AKT1, IKBKG, PRKCβ and CASP3 were directly related to hepatitis B pathway, which indicated that LCS could exert anti-hepatitis B effect by co-regulating cell cycle and inflammatory pathways. The interactions between candidate compounds and target proteins that were directly involved in hepatitis B pathway were validated by molecular docking simulation and RT-PCR. By gut microbiota analysis, it was revealed that LCS could alter the disordered microbial composition in the infected ducks towards normal, especially the restoration of three key strains, namely Streptococcus alactolyticus, Enterococcus cecorum and Bacteroides fragilis. The above findings could provide a scientific basis for further development and utilization of LCS against hepatitis B.

Antiviral Potential of Selected Medicinal Herbs and Their Isolated Natural Products

Viruses are responsible for a variety of human pathogenesis. Owing to the enhancement of the world population, global travel, and rapid urbanization, and infectious outbreaks, a critical threat has been generated to public health, as preventive vaccines and antiviral therapy are not available. Herbal medicines and refined natural products have resources for the development of novel antiviral drugs. These natural agents have shed light on preventive vaccine development and antiviral therapies. This review intends to discuss the antiviral activities of plant extracts and some isolated plant natural products based on mainly preclinical (in vitro and in vivo) studies. Twenty medicinal herbs were selected for the discussion, and those are commonly recognized antiviral medicinal plants in Ayurveda (Zingiber officinale, Caesalpinia bonducella, Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Ferula assafoetida, Gymnema sylvestre, Gossypium herbaceum, Phyllanthus niruri, Trachyspermum ammi, Withania somnifera, Andrographis paniculata, Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, Woodfordia fruticose, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia arjuna, Azadirachta indica, and Ficus religiosa). However, many viruses remain without successful immunization and only a few antiviral drugs have been approved for clinical use. Hence, the development of novel antiviral drugs is much significant and natural products are excellent sources for such drug developments. In this review, we summarize the antiviral actions of selected plant extracts and some isolated natural products of the medicinal herbs.

Anti-hepatitis B activities of Myanmar medicinal plants: a narrative review of current evidence

Hepatitis B is one of the major burdens for health services and is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality from cirrhosis of liver and hepatocellular carcinoma. Current treatment strategies using nucleos(t)ide analogue reverse-transcriptase inhibitors or interferons are targeted for the long-term suppression of hepatitis B DNA. However, functional cure of hepatitis B infection (HBsAg clearance) was difficult to attain with such treatments. Therefore, new treatment strategies or innovative treatments are urgently needed. The new treatments should focus on the potential therapeutic targets such as covalently closed circular DNA which may be important for the HBsAg clearance. Plant based medicines have been used in different traditional medicine practices and these natural products/compounds serve as a good source of information or clues for use in drug discovery and design. Many natural products were found to be effective against hepatitis B virus and some even have better therapeutic activities than currently used compounds. This review summarizes the current evidence of Myanmar medicinal plants in basic and clinical research which shows promising potential for the development of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of hepatitis B.

Indian Medicinal Plants and Formulations and Their Potential Against COVID-19-Preclinical and Clinical Research

The cases of COVID-19 are still increasing day-by-day worldwide, even after a year of its first occurrence in Wuhan city of China. The spreading of SARS-CoV-2 infection is very fast and different from other SARS-CoV infections possibly due to structural differences in S proteins. The patients with severe diseases may die due to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by systemic inflammatory reactions due to the excessive release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by the immune effector cells. In India too, it is spreading very rapidly, although the case fatality rate is below 1.50% (https://www.statista.com), which is markedly less than in other countries, despite the dense population and minimal health infrastructure in rural areas. This may be due to the routine use of many immunomodulator medicinal plants and traditional AYUSH formulations by the Indian people. This communication reviews the AYUSH recommended formulations and their ingredients, routinely used medicinal plants and formulations by Indian population as well as other promising Indian medicinal plants, which can be tested against COVID-19. Special emphasis is placed on Indian medicinal plants reported for antiviral, immunomodulatory and anti-allergic/anti-inflammatory activities and they are categorized for prioritization in research on the basis of earlier reports. The traditional AYUSH medicines currently under clinical trials against COVID-19 are also discussed as well as furtherance of pre-clinical and clinical testing of the potential traditional medicines against COVID-19 and SARS-CoV-2. The results of the clinical studies on AYUSH drugs will guide the policymakers from the AYUSH systems of medicines to maneuver their policies for public health, provide information to the global scientific community and could form a platform for collaborative studies at national and global levels. It is thereby suggested that promising AYUSH formulations and Indian medicinal plants must be investigated on a priority basis to solve the current crisis.

Effects of traditional Chinese medicine formula Le-Cao-Shi on hepatitis B: In vivo and in vitro studies

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Formula Le-Cao-Shi (LCS) is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which has long been used as a folk remedy against hepatitis B in China. The present study was conducted to evaluate the anti-hepatitis B effects of aqueous extract of LCS in vivo and in vitro.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

we investigated the anti-HBV effects of LCS in vivo and in vitro with duck hepatitis B model and HepG2.2.15 cell line model, respectively. The serologic and cellular biomarkers and the histopathological changes were examined.

RESULTS

By a duck hepatitis B model, the extract of LCS was found to restrain the expressions of duck hepatitis B surface antigen (DHBsAg), hepatitis B e antigen (DHBeAg), and HBV-DNA (DHBV-DNA). Moreover, LCS could decrease the levels of aspartate and alanine aminotransferases (AST and ALT) and ameliorate duck liver histological lesions. Correspondingly, in a HepG2.2.15 cellular model, LCS could also significantly inhibit the secretions of HBsAg and HBeAg.

CONCLUSION

LCS exerted potent anti-hepatitis effects against the infection of HBV. The above results demonstrated the first-hand experimental evidences for the anti-hepatitis B efficiency of LCS. Our study provides a basis for further exploration and development of this promising compound prescription to treat hepatitis B disease.

Ethnopharmacological Approaches for Therapy of Jaundice: Part II. Highly Used Plant Species from Acanthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, Combretaceae, and Fabaceae Families

In many developing countries, jaundice is the common symptom of hepatic diseases which are a major cause of mortality. The use of natural product-based therapies is very popular for such hepatic disorders. A great number of medicinal plants have been utilized for this purpose and some facilitated the discovery of active compounds which helped the development of new synthetic drugs against jaundice. However, more epidemiological studies and clinical trials are required for the practical implementation of the plant pharmacotherapy of jaundice. The focus of this second part of our review is on several of the most prominent plants used against jaundice identified in the analysis performed in the first part of the review viz. Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn., Terminalia chebula Retz., Glycyrrhiza glabra L. and some species of genus Phyllanthus. Furthermore, we discuss their physiological effects, biologically active ingredients, and the potential mechanisms of action. Some of the most important active ingredients were silybin (also recommended by German commission), phyllanthin and andrographolide, whose action leads to bilirubin reduction and normalization of the levels of relevant serum enzymes indicative for the pathophysiological status of the liver.

Tackling the growing threat of dengue: Phyllanthus niruri-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their mosquitocidal properties against the dengue vector Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Mosquitoes are vectors of devastating pathogens and parasites, causing millions of deaths every year. Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Recently, transmission has strongly increased in urban and semiurban areas, becoming a major international public health concern. Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) is the primary vector of dengue. The use of synthetic insecticides to control Aedes mosquitoes lead to high operational costs and adverse nontarget effects. In this scenario, eco-friendly control tools are a priority. We proposed a novel method to synthesize silver nanoparticles using the aqueous leaf extract of Phyllanthus niruri, a cheap and nontoxic material. The UV-vis spectrum of the aqueous medium containing silver nanostructures showed a peak at 420 nm corresponding to the surface plasmon resonance band of nanoparticles. SEM analyses of the synthesized nanoparticles showed a mean size of 30-60 nm. EDX spectrum showed the chemical composition of the synthesized nanoparticles. XRD highlighted that the nanoparticles are crystalline in nature with face-centered cubic geometry. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) of nanoparticles exhibited prominent peaks 3,327.63, 2,125.87, 1,637.89, 644.35, 597.41, and 554.63 cm(-1). In laboratory assays, the aqueous extract of P. niruri was toxic against larval instars (I-IV) and pupae of A. aegypti. LC50 was 158.24 ppm (I), 183.20 ppm (II), 210.53 ppm (III), 210.53 ppm (IV), and 358.08 ppm (pupae). P. niruri-synthesized nanoparticles were highly effective against A. aegypti, with LC50 of 3.90 ppm (I), 5.01 ppm (II), 6.2 ppm (III), 8.9 ppm (IV), and 13.04 ppm (pupae). In the field, the application of silver nanoparticles (10 × LC50) lead to A. aegypti larval reduction of 47.6%, 76.7% and 100%, after 24, 48, and 72 h, while the P. niruri extract lead to 39.9%, 69.2 % and 100 % of reduction, respectively. In adulticidal experiments, P. niruri extract and nanoparticles showed LC50 and LC90 of 174.14 and 6.68 ppm and 422.29 and 23.58 ppm, respectively. Overall, this study highlights that the possibility to employ P. niruri leaf extract and green-synthesized silver nanoparticles in mosquito control programs is concrete, since both are effective at lower doses if compared to synthetic products currently marketed, thus they could be an advantageous alternative to build newer and safer tools against dengue vectors.

Antioxidative Flavonol Glucuronides and Anti-HBsAg Flavonol from Rotala rotundifolia

Two new flavonol glucuronides, quercetin 3-O-β-D-2″-acetylglucuronide (1) and quercetin 3-O-β-D-2″-acetylglucuronide methyl ester (2), along with four known flavonoids (3-6) were isolated from the whole parts of Rotala rotundifolia. The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated by application of various spectroscopic methods, including 1D and 2D NMR techniques. Biological evaluation showed that all of isolated flavonoid compounds have potent anti-oxidative activities by DPPH and superoxide anion methods, and kaempferol (3) and quercetin (4) exhibited significant anti-HBV activity assayed by anti-HBsAg production. The HPLC fingerprint with photodiode array detection (HPLC-DAD) for quality control of R. rotundifolia partitioned EtOAc layer was also established.

Anti-HBV agents derived from botanical origin

There are 350,000 hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers all over the world. Chronic HBV infection is at a high risk of developing liver cirrhosis and hepatocelluar carcinoma (HCC), and heavily threatened people's health. Two kinds of drugs approved by FDA for anti-HBV therapy are immunomodulators (interferon α, pegylated-interferon α) and nucleos(t)ide analogues (lamivudine, adefovir dipivoxil, entecavir, telbivudine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate). These drugs have been proved to be far from being satisfactory due to their low specificity, side effects, and high rate of drug resistance. There is an urgent need to discover and develop novel effective anti-HBV drugs. With vast resources, various structures, diverse biological activities and action mechanisms, as well as abundant clinical experiences, botanical agents become a promising source of finding new anti-HBV drugs. This review summarizes the recent research and development of anti-HBV agents derived from botanical origin on their sources and active components, inhibitory effects and possible toxicities, as well as action targets and mechanisms, and also addresses the advantages and the existing shortcomings in the development of botanical inhibitors. This information may not only broaden the knowledge of anti-HBV therapy, and offer possible alternative or substitutive drugs for CHB patients, but also provides considerable information for developing new safe and effective anti-HBV drugs.

Phyllanthus amarus: ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology: a review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae is a small herb well known for its medicinal properties and widely used worldwide. P. amarus is an important plant of Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine which is used in the problems of stomach, genitourinary system, liver, kidney and spleen. It is bitter, astringent, stomachic, diuretic, febrifuge and antiseptic. The whole plant is used in gonorrhea, menorrhagia and other genital affections. It is useful in gastropathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, intermittent fevers, ophthalmopathy, scabies, ulcers and wounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present review covers a literature across from 1980 to 2011. Some information collected from traditional Ayurvedic texts and published literature on ethanomedicinal uses of Phyllanthus amarus in different countries worldwide.

RESULTS

Phytochemical studies have shown the presence of many valuable compounds such as lignans, flavonoids, hydrolysable tannins (ellagitannins), polyphenols, triterpenes, sterols and alkaloids. The extracts and the compounds isolated from P. amarus show a wide spectrum of pharmacological activities including antiviral, antibacterial, antiplasmodial, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective nephroprotective and diurectic properties.

CONCLUSION

The present review summarizes information concerning the morphology, ecology, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activities, clinical applications and toxicological reports of P. amarus. This review aims at gathering the research work undertaken till date on this plant in order to provide sufficient baseline information for future works and commercial exploitation.

Assessing species admixtures in raw drug trade of Phyllanthus, a hepato-protective plant using molecular tools

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) species are well known for their hepato-protective activity and are used in several ethno-medicines in indigenous health care systems in India.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To assess species admixtures in raw drug trade of Phyllanthus using morphological and DNA barcoding tools.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples of Phyllanthus used in raw drug trade were obtained from 25 shops in southern India. Species admixtures in the samples were assessed by identifying species using morpho-taxonomic keys. These identities were further validated by developing species specific DNA barcode signatures using the chloroplast DNA region, psbA-trnH. DNA from the market samples were extracted and amplified using the forward (psbAF - GTTATGCATGAACGTAATGCTC) and reverse primer (trnHR - CGCGCATGGTGGATTCACAAATC). The amplified products were sequenced at Chromous Biotech India, Bangalore. The sequences were manually edited using Chromas Lite. Species identities were established by constructing a neighbor-joining tree using MEGA V 4.0.

RESULTS

Morphological analysis of market samples revealed six different species of Phyllanthus in the trade samples. Seventy-six percent of the market samples contained Phyllanthus amarus as the predominant species (>95%) and thus were devoid of admixtures. The remaining 24% of the shops had five different species of Phyllanthus namely Phyllanthus debilis, Phyllanthus fraternus, Phyllanthus urinaria, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, and Phyllanthus kozhikodianus. All identities, except those for Phyllanthus fraternus, were further confirmed by the species specific DNA barcode using chloroplast region psbA-trnH.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that market samples of Phyllanthus sold in southern India contain at least six different species, though among them, Phyllanthus amarus is predominant. DNA barcode, psbA-trnH region of the chloroplast can effectively discriminate Phyllanthus species and hence can be used to resolve species admixtures in the raw drug trade of Phyllanthus.

Radioprotective properties of polyphenols from Phyllanthus amarus Linn

Radioprotective activity of pure compounds isolated from the plant Phyllanthus amarus was studied using rat liver mitochondria and pBR322 plasmid DNA as an in vitro model system. These compounds were ellagitannins namely amariin, 1-galloyl-2,3-dehydrohexahydroxydiphenyl (DHHDP)-glucose, repandusinic acid, geraniin, corilagin, phyllanthusiin D, and flavonoids namely rutin, and quercetin 3-O-glucoside. The activity was then correlated with their hydroxyl and superoxide radical scavenging activity. Both ellagitannins and flavonoids effectively prevented lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in mitochondria. The compounds also prevented radiation induced single strand breaks in pBR322 plasmid DNA. The radioprotective activity of ellagitannins and flavonoids could be due to their ability to scavenge different radicals more or less efficiently, relieving the oxidative stress. Protection conferred by flavonoids, rutin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside to rat liver mitochondria and plasmid pBR322 DNA from radiation induced damage was due to their strong hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. The inhibitory effect of ellagitannins on lipid peroxidation in liver mitochondria was due to their efficient superoxide radical scavenging ability. This is the first report about the radioprotective activity of pure ellagitannins from Phyllanthus amarus.

Chromium-induced changes in ultramorphology and secondary metabolites of Phyllanthus amarus Schum & Thonn. - an hepatoprotective plant

Chromium (Cr) concentration in the environment is increasing day by day due to its excessive use in leather processing, refractory steel, and chemical manufacturing industries. Excess Cr in the environment causes hazardous effects on all living beings including plants. In this context attempts have been made to see the effect of Cr on a very important medicinal plant Phyllanthus amarus Schum and Thonn. It has focused as a hepatoprotective plant curing hepatitis 'B' in modern research. The P. amarus seedlings of approximately same height and weight were grown in similar conditions in experimental garden. After 30 days plants were harvested and chlorophyll, protein, sugar, starch and secondary metabolites concentration were estimated in these plants as per standard methods. Besides ultramorphological variations in leaves and Cr accumulation in roots and aerial parts were also checked with the help of scanning electron microscope and atomic absorption spectrophotometer respectively. The study revealed that Cr causes significant decrease in fresh and dry weight, length of root and shoot, protein, sugar, chlorophyll and carotenoids in P. amarus. On the other hand it is interesting to note that the concentration of therapeutically active secondary metabolites - phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin increased up to certain level of Cr. It may be due to stress caused by the accumulation of Cr. Besides, ultramorphological changes viz. wide stomatal opening and less wax deposition on both the surfaces of leaves were also observed.

Larvicidal activity of some Euphorbiaceae plant extracts against Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae)

Larvicidal activity of ethyl acetate, butanol, and petroleum ether extracts of five species of Euphorbiaceae plants, Jatropha curcas, Pedilanthus tithymaloides, Phyllanthus amarus, Euphorbia hirta, and Euphorbia tirucalli, were tested against the early fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti L. and Culex quinquefasciatus (Say). The larval mortality was observed after 24 h of exposure. All extracts showed low larvicidal effects; however, the highest larval mortality was found in petroleum ether extract. The LC50 value of petroleum ether extracts of J. curcas, P. tithymaloides, P. amarus, E. hirta, and E. tirucalli were 8.79, 55.26, 90.92, 272.36, and 4.25 ppm, respectively, against A. aegypti and 11.34, 76.61, 113.40, 424.94, and 5.52 ppm, respectively, against C quinquefasciatus. Of the various ratios tested, the petroleum ether extracts of J. curcas and E. tirucalli were observed to be more efficient than the other plant extracts. It is, therefore, suggested that E. tirucalli can be applied as an ideal potential larvicide against A. aegypti and C. quinquefasciatus. This is an ideal ecofriendly approach for the control of the dengue vector, A. aegypti, and the lymphatic filariasis vector, C. quinquefasciatus.

Complementary and alternative Medicine (CAM) for the Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis B and C: A Review

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has been used for centuries in China and Japan to treat various illnesses, including viral hepatitis. Several therapeutic approaches constitute CAM, the most relevant for this review being the use of herbals. However, profound disagreements exist between conventional and alternative medicine practitioners regarding their value. Western medical advocates cite deep concerns about the purity of most herbals because of lack of standardized production, the paucity of pharmacokinetic data, the fact that few well-designed randomized, controlled trials of these products have been performed and the evidence that some herbals have been responsible for severe adverse effects. Nevertheless, many in the public, even in western countries, turn to the use of herbals, believing that they must be safe and effective because they are ‘natural’ and have been used for centuries, and because of dissatisfaction with conventional medicine. Accordingly, their use in western countries and the costs incurred have increased each year. While there is evidence that some herbals have physiological effects, there still is insufficient evidence to recommend their use. This paper reviews the classification, epidemiology and philosophy of CAM, and the reasons advanced for herbal use to treat viral hepatitis. The criteria necessary to develop a potential pharmacological agent are presented, as well as the requirements for conducting a scientifically valid treatment trial of herbals. Five herbals used in the past to treat viral hepatitis are reviewed and evaluated for the quality of their studies and mention is made of herbals known to have adverse effects.

Complementary and alternative medicine in hepatology: review of the evidence of efficacy

There is an increase in the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), especially herbal therapy, among patients with liver disease. The most commonly used herbal agent is silymarin. In animal models, many of the commonly used agents have shown anti-inflammatory and antifibrotic effects. Although many human studies have shown improvements in subjective symptoms (well being) and liver biochemistry, there are no convincing data to suggest a definite histologic and/or virologic improvement with most of these agents. Poorly designed studies, heterogeneous patient populations, lack of standardized preparations, and poorly defined nonobjective end points may partly explain the conflicting reports in the literature. Hepatotoxicity and drug interactions are common with many herbal medications, and therefore physicians need to be cognizant of known or occult use of CAM by their patients. Only well-designed, randomized, controlled trials will be able to ascertain whether CAM has any role in the management of patients with acute or chronic liver diseases. Until such time, the use of CAM cannot be recommended as a therapy for patients with liver disease.

Antiviral effect of Phyllanthus nanus ethanolic extract against hepatitis B virus (HBV) by expression microarray analysis

Ethanolic extract of Phyllanthus nanus (P. nanus) treatment exhibited potent antiviral activity against Hepatitis B virus (HBV). The effects of these extracts on HBV in the HBV genome integrated cell lines--Alexander cells and HepG2 2.2.15 cells were examined. Experimental results showed that the ethanolic extract of P. nanus produced suppressive effect on HBsAg secretion and HBsAg mRNA expression. The extract also inhibited HBV replication as measured by HBV DNA level in vitro. In addition, using a duck HBV (DHBV) primary culture model, the P. nanus ethanolic extract suppressed viral replication of DHBV in DHBV infected primary duck hepatocytes. The gene expression pattern in Alexander cells that had been treated with the ethanolic extract of P. nanus was also revealed by microarray techniques. The microarray results indicated that there was up-regulation of expression of several genes, including annexin A7 (Axn7). The subcellular localization of Axn7 and anti-HBV effect of Axn7 over-expression in Alexander cells were also investigated. Results showed that expression of Axn7-GFP fusion protein are localized around the secretory vesicles and could cause a decrease in HBsAg secretion in Alexander cells. Axn7 protein might play an important role in the medicinal effect of the active principle(s) of P. nanus.

Comparative pharmacognostic studies of three Phyllanthus species

Different species of Phyllanthus are considered to be very effective hepatoprotective agents in the Indian indigenous systems of medicine and are considered bitter, astringent, stomachic, diuretic, febrifuge, deobstruant and antiseptic. Still ayurvedic practitioners prescribed fresh juice of 'Bhuiamlki' for jaundice. Various species of Phyllanthus are being sold in India under the trade name 'Bhuiamlki'. During market surveillance of herbal drug, it was observed that almost all the commercial samples, either comprise of Phyllanthus amarus Schum & Thonn. or Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. or mixture of Phyllanthus amarus, Phyllanthus fraternus Webster. and Phyllanthus maderaspatensis. Therefore, in this context the detailed pharmacognostical evaluation of all the three species has been carried out with the aim to establish the identification markers of this important hepatoprotective agent (effective in hepatitis B too). The study conclude that all the three species can be differentiated on the basis of macro and microscopic characters, physico-chemical values, HPTLC fingerprint profile, and detection of phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin as marker components. Besides, an interesting conclusion can also be drawn that phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin said to protect hepatocytes against carbon tetrachloride and galactosamine induced toxicity, may not be exclusively responsible for hepatoprotective activity as these are present only in Phyllanthus amarus while Phyllanthus fraternus and Phyllanthus maderaspatensis also possess significant hepatoprotective activity.

Effect of cadmium on growth, ultramorphology of leaf and secondary metabolites of Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn

The pollution is increasing in the environment by different kinds of human activities, which results in the accumulation of heavy metals including cadmium in the soil and water and it causes different types of problems to living beings. As the plants are utilized by human being as food and medicine, therefore, it is mandatory to see the effect of metals on plants. In this context, efforts have been made to observe the effect of different concentration of Cadmium (Cd) on Phyllanthus amarus Schum. and Thonn., because Cd is the widespread metal and the plants response to low and high level of exposure is a complex phenomenon. P. amarus is mostly grown as weed in agricultural and waste lands. It is a reputed plant used in Indian indigenous systems of medicine with hepatoprotective, diuretic, stomachic properties and is recently being used for the treatment of hepatitis B. The study revealed that Cd causes significant decrease in fresh and dry weight, length of root and shoot, protein, chlorophyll, carotenoids and sugar and increase in starch content. It is interesting to note that the therapeutically active compounds-phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin, enhanced at certain levels of Cd due to abiotic stress. Besides, the ultramorpholical changes were also observed in stomatal opening and wax deposition on both the surfaces of leaves.

Kadsuphilactones A and B, Two New Triterpene Dilactones fromKadsuraphilippinensis

[structure: see text]. Two novel triterpene dilactones, kadsuphilactones A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the Taiwanese medicinal plant Kadsura philippinensis. The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic methods, including two-dimensional NMR techniques, and confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis. Kadsuphilactone B (2) exhibited in vitro anti-HBV activity with IC(50) values of 6 microg/mL by HBsAg enzyme immunoassay.

Phyllanthus amarus has anti-inflammatory potential by inhibition of iNOS, COX-2, and cytokines via the NF-kappaB pathway

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Phyllanthus amarus is a herbal medicine traditionally applied in the treatment of viral hepatitis. Aim of this study was to investigate potential anti-inflammatory properties of standardized P. amarus extracts concerning a potential influence of P. amarus on endotoxin-induced nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX-2), and cytokine production in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

Investigations were performed in rat Kupffer cells (KC), in RAW264.7 macrophages, in human whole blood, and in mice. Cells were stimulated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) in the presence or absence of P. amarus extracts (hexane, EtOH/H(2)O), mice were treated with galactosamine/LPS as a model for acute toxic hepatitis. Nitrite was measured by Griess assay, prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) by radioimmunoassay, and cytokines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. iNOS and COX-2 were determined by Western blot, activation of NF-kappaB and AP-1 by EMSA.

RESULTS

P. amarus EtOH/H(2)O and hexane extracts showed an inhibition of LPS-induced production of NO and PGE(2) in KC and in RAW264.7. The extracts also attenuated the LPS-induced secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) in RAW264.7 as well as in human whole blood. Both extracts reduced expression of iNOS and COX-2 and inhibited activation of NF-kappaB, but not of AP-1. P. amarus inhibited induction of interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-10, and interferon-gamma in human whole blood and reduced TNF-alpha production in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

This work shows that standardized extracts of P. amarus inhibit the induction of iNOS, COX-2, and TNF-alpha. Therefore, we report for the first time an anti-inflammatory potential of this traditionally employed herbal medicine both in vitro and in vivo.

Antitumour and anticarcinogenic activity of Phyllanthus amarus extract

Aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus (P. amarus) treatment exhibited potent anticarcinogenic activity against 20-methylcholanthrene (20-MC) induced sarcoma development and increased the survival of tumour harboring mice. The extract administration (p.o) was also found to prolong the life span of Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) and Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) bearing mice and reduced the volume of transplanted solid tumours. The extract inhibited aniline hydroxylase, a P-450 enzyme. The concentration required for 50% inhibition (IC(50)) was found to be 540 microg/ml. The extract was found to inhibit DNA topoisomerase II of Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant cell cultures and inhibited cell cycle regulatory enzyme cdc25 tyrosine phosphatase (IC(50-25) microg/ml). Antitumour and anticancer activity of P. amarus may be related with the inhibition of metabolic activation of carcinogen as well as the inhibition of cell cycle regulators and DNA repair.

The effect of Phyllanthus amarus aqueous extract on blood glucose in non-insulin dependent diabetic patients

The glycaemic response to 124.5 +/- 9.3 (mean +/- SD) g of pancakes was monitored in 21 non-insulin dependent diabetic (NIDDM) patients while on oral hypoglycaemics, after a 1-week washout period and after a 1-week twice daily treatment with 100 mL of an aqueous extract from 12.5 g of powdered aerial parts of Phyllanthus amarus. After the 1-week washout period, the fasting blood glucose (FBG) and postprandial blood glucose increased significantly compared with treatment on oral hypoglycaemics ( p < 0.05). After a 1-week herbal treatment no hypoglycaemic activity was observed. Both FBG and postprandial blood glucose remained very similar to that recorded after the washout period ( p > 0.05). Both liver and renal functions based on alanine transaminase (ALAT) and serum creatinine, respectively, were not significantly affected by the use of the extract. Although the lymphocyte and monocyte levels were significantly decreased ( p < 0.05) and the granulocyte level was significantly increased after treatment ( p < 0.05) the overall total white blood cell (WBC) count and haemoglobin (Hb) were not significantly affected by the 1 week herbal treatment. We conclude that 1 week treatment with the aqueous extract of Phyllanthus amarus was incapable of lowering both FBG and postprandial blood glucose in untreated NIDDM patients.

Evaluation of the antiviral activity of an aqueous extract from Phyllanthus orbicularis

The antiviral and cytotoxic activity of Phyllanthus orbicularis, a member of the Euphorbiaceae, was evaluated in tissue culture. An aqueous extract made from leaves and stems of this plant exhibited selective antiviral indexes of 12.3 and 26 against bovine herpesvirus type 1 and herpes simplex virus type 2, respectively, showing no selective antiviral activity against adenovirus type 5 and mengovirus. Incubation with this plant extract during cell culture infection, impaired the productive replication of both herpes viruses in an extract concentration-dependent manner, also depending on the multiplicity of infection (MOI) used. The results obtained suggested that the P. orbicularis antiviral activity might be partially due to a direct interaction with virus particles or their entry into the cell, instead of interfering with intracellular virus-specific macromolecular synthesis.

A review of the plants of the genus Phyllanthus: their chemistry, pharmacology, and therapeutic potential

The plants of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) are widely distributed in most tropical and subtropical countries, and have long been used in folk medicine to treat kidney and urinary bladder disturbances, intestinal infections, diabetes, and hepatitis B. In recent years, the interest in the plants has increased considerably. Substantial progress on their chemistal and pharmacological properties, as well as a few clinical studies of some Phyllanthus species have been made. This review discusses the current knowledge of their chemistry, the in vitro and in vivo pharmacological, biochemical, and clinical studies carried out on the extracts, and the main active constituents isolated from different species of plants of the genus Phyllanthus. These studies carried out with the extracts and purified compounds from these plants support most of their reported uses in folk medicine as an antiviral, in the treatment of genitourinary disorders, and as antinociceptive agents. However, well-controlled, double-binding clinical trials are lacking. Several compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, phenols, and terpenes were isolated from these plants and some of them interact with most key enzymes. Together this data strongly supports the view that the plants belonging to the genus Phyllanthus have potential beneficial therapeutic actions in the management of hepatitis B, nefrolitiase, and in painful disorders.

Identification of a protein kinase C (PKC) activator, daphnoretin, that suppresses hepatitis B virus gene expression in human hepatoma cells

We examined the antiviral activity of a crude extract prepared from a Chinese medicinal herb Wikstroemia indica C.A. Mey. One active component, daphnoretin (7-hydroxyl-6-methoxy-3,7'-dicoumarylether), was identified, which showed strong suppressive effects on the expression of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in human hepatoma Hep3B cells. To examine the signaling pathway of daphnoretin on the Hep3B cells, we pretreated Hep3B cells with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-O-acetate (200 nM) for 24 hr to down-regulate intracellular protein kinase C (PKC) levels and found that the PKC-down-regulated Hep3B cells did not respond at all to daphnoretin. Furthermore, daphnoretin induced translocation of PKC from the cytosol to the membrane and down-regulated intracellular PKC levels in the Hep3B cells, indicating that it may directly activate PKC. This hypothesis was supported by the observation that daphnoretin directly competed with [3H]phorbol dibutyrate for the binding of PKC in the whole cell and activated purified PKC activity in vitro. Our results demonstrated that daphnoretin, with a structure distinct from phorbol ester, is a PKC activator and has suppressive effects on HBsAg gene expression in human hepatoma cells.

Active compounds from Saussurea lappa Clarks that suppress hepatitis B virus surface antigen gene expression in human hepatoma cells

We have examined the antiviral activity of the crude extract prepared from the root of Saussurea lappa Clarks, a Chinese medicinal herb which is widely used for many illnesses including cancer. Two active components, costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone, were identified which show strong suppressive effect on the expression of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in human hepatoma Hep3B cells, but have little effect on the viability of the cells. Both costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone suppress the HBsAg production by Hep3B cells in a dose-dependent manner with IC50s of 1.0 and 2.0 microM, respectively. Northern blotting analysis shows that the suppression of HBsAg gene expression by both costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone were mainly at the mRNA level. Furthermore, the suppressive effect of costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone on HBsAg and hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), a marker for hepatitis B viral genome replication in human liver cells, was also observed in another human hepatoma cell line HepA2 which was derived from HepG2 cells by transfecting a tandemly repeat hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA. Similarly, the mRNA of HBsAg in HepA2 cells was also suppressed by these two compounds. Our findings suggest that costunolide and dehydrocostus lactone may have potential to develop as specific anti-HBV drugs in the future.

Usage and bioassays in Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae). IV. Clustering of antiviral uses and other effects

A number of species of the genus Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae) have been tested for their efficacy as antivirals, partly on the basis of references to traditional usage for the treatment of diseases possibly having a viral origin. There are also many references to indigenous uses and to laboratory assays for other biological activities in this large genus (550+ species). These citations have been arranged by subgenus, section, subsection and species and have been published in three previous papers. This paper summarizes selected clustering of usage and effect by subgeneric taxa. Consideration of the data from ethnobotany, in vitro assays and clinical trials supported the presence of some type of biological activity(s) particularly within the subgenus Phyllanthus. Although the herbaceous species of subgenus Phyllanthus have been extensively used to treat jaundice, and have generally inhibited hepadnavirus DNAp, effects on chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) or related viruses have generally been negative. Alternative explanations for the wide usage have been little explored. Other medical categories suggested possible leads for research, or possibly, herbal or galenic remedies with bona fide effects. In most cases, the data remain suggestive but not conclusive.